基于当代（后现代）黑人女性主义视角再论黑人母亲身份
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摘要
母性存在于全人类，而母亲则是生命、善良、无条件之爱和宽容等的象征。在黑人文化中，母亲身份备受尊敬和推崇，代表着爱和成熟。自奴隶制时代以来，大多数黑人母亲在白人的奴役和欺压下被归入“不负责任的母亲”（“bad mother”）和“不称职的家长”(“unfit parent”)之列。长期以来，她们的形象遭到白人的丑化，被贴上了“阿姨”（“mammy”）、“女家长”（“matriarch”）,“黑霉淑女”（“black lady”）、“福利妈妈”（“welfare mother”）和“婊子娘”（“hoochie mama”）的标签。从本质上讲，黑人母亲身份中天生具有朴素的黑人女性主义的成分。在黑人女性主义理论思想的影响和指导下，随着时光的推移，黑人母亲身份不断地得到解构和重建。
论文首先厘清了两组相近的术语----“母亲身份”（“Motherhood”）和“母亲养育”（“Mothering”）,“黑人女性主义”（“Black Feminism”）和“妇女主义”（“Womanism”）。在此基础上，论文以历史学角度为切入点，以当代黑人女性主义的发展现状为研究重点，着重考察和探讨了黑人母亲身份从西非时期到现代的演变进程。论文随之以三部黑人小说为文本，从文学角度探讨和分析了具有代表性的黑人母亲养育方式，如单亲母亲养育(single mothering)、代位母亲养育（othermothering）、女同性恋母亲养育(lesbian mothering)。论文进而从社会生态学角度分析了黑人社区分化状态下各阶层在子女社会化方式(child socialization)上的异同，以及为黑人子女社会化提供帮助的社区服务体制，如教堂里的女教友服务、社区中的女社员服务、大学或其他工作单位里的女导师联系制和女子联谊会机制等。最后，论文从视觉文化角度探析了带有嘻哈女性主义（hip-hop feminist）意识的电影和音乐单曲中涉及的黑人母亲身份，介绍并探究了黑人女性主义的最新发展形式--嘻哈女性主义--的特点和不足。
论文得出两点结论：第一，在当代黑人女性主义视角下重建的黑人母亲身份提倡嘻哈女性主义式母亲(hip-hop feminist mothering)，主张把母亲身份和社会工作（motherwork）结合为一体，不断延伸自我身份，加强社会行动；第二，黑人母亲身份和黑人女性主义之间存在着互动协调的关系，它们互相促进，相互融合，最终发展成为嘻哈女性主义养育方式。当下，在美国黑人女性主义者看来，做嘻哈女性主义式母亲最能代表和体现真正的黑人女性身份。
本论文以当代黑人女性主义视角为主要切入点，综合运用了多视角的研究方法，如：历史学、社会学、社会生态学、文学、视觉文化学，涉及多领域的学科知识，如：女性主义研究、非裔美国人研究和美国学研究，较全面展现了黑人母性身份的动态发展情况。论文不仅解构了传统父权制定义的黑人母亲身份，而且重建了带有当代黑人女性主义色彩的黑人母亲身份。在论述过程中，论文还论及了与母亲身份相关但一直以来被忽略的女同性恋养育方式，挖掘了母性中蕴含的加强社会行动力度的新力量，即母性中的情欲力量。此外，为了更生动和全面地揭示黑人母性，论文还就一部黑人儿童文学作品中体现的母性主题思想作了详细的探讨。
正如黑人女同性恋女性主义者奥德瑞·洛德（Audre Lorde）所说，“黑人母亲的教训人人受用”，因此，探索和阐述黑人母亲身份的意义不仅在于解构和重建她们的身份，而且与人类本身的自由、平等和博爱息息相关。深入研究这一课题，一方面可以帮助我们更深刻地解读当代美国社会和文化的变化和人文精神的升华，另一方面对国内妇女和少数民族的研究具有一定的借鉴意义。
Motherhood is a universal experience, symbolizing life, kindness, unconditional love,tolerance, etc. In black culture, motherhood, enjoying high respect and much glorification,represents love and maturity. Though often discredited as “bad mother” and “unfit parent”，and labeled as “mammy”,“matriarch”,“black lady”,“welfare mother” and “hoochiemama” since the slavery time, black motherhood was naturally born with the elements ofblack feminism, and is being constantly deconstructed and reconstructed by blackfeminism.
On the basis of the differentiation of such confusing terms as “Motherhood” and“Mothering”,“Black Feminism” and “Womanism”, the dissertation, first, examines blackmotherhood in different historical phases from ancient times in West Africa till moderntimes in America from a historical perspective, with a focus on the period when modernblack feminism came into existence. Following that, it goes on to explore the distinctivemothering models such as single mothering, othermothering, and lesbian mothering in theblack families from a literary perspective. Beyond that, it moves on to analyze differentchild socialization among stratified classes, and a few community-based voluntarysupports for child socialization such as church mothering, community mothering, mentormothering, and sorority mothering, from a socio-ecological perspective. Last but not least,the dissertation introduces and analyzes the latest form of black feminism-hip-hopfeminism, and tracks black motherhood in the hip-hop feminism by engaging therepresentative hip-hop music and movie with hip-hop feminist consciousness from a visualculture perspective.
The dissertation concludes that, first, the reconstructed black motherhood, in moderntimes is hip-hop feminist mothering, referring to the extended selfhood and the empoweredactivism with motherwork as its essence; second, black motherhood and black feminismhave interactive and synergic relationships: they foster and nourish each other, andintegrate into each other to fashion the hip-hop feminist mothering–a true blackmotherhood at present.
This project, though mainly from a modern black feminist perspective, employs multi-perspectives in its approach, such as historical, sociological, socio-ecological,literary, visual culture perspectives, and engages the fields of Feminist studies,Afro-American studies, American studies, in order to display a clear and complex pictureof the dynamic development of black motherhood, provide real insights into how itconfronts the patriarchy motherhood and has been redefined into a true modern blackmotherhood. The research gives voices to the oppressed regarding black motherhood, e.g.lesbian mothering, and tries to explore novel ways for empowerment, e.g. the erotic power.Besides, the rich but neglected resource of children’s literary works has been engaged inthe interrogation, which offers a fresh angle into the exploration and discussion of blackmotherhood.
Just as Audre Lorde, the black lesbian feminist, argues that “the lessons of the blackmothers [are] in each of us”, the significance of revisiting the black motherhood not simplylies in the reconstruction, but in the inspiration to the pursuit of freedom, equality andhumanity as well.
论文首先厘清了两组相近的术语----“母亲身份”（“Motherhood”）和“母亲养育”（“Mothering”）,“黑人女性主义”（“Black Feminism”）和“妇女主义”（“Womanism”）。在此基础上，论文以历史学角度为切入点，以当代黑人女性主义的发展现状为研究重点，着重考察和探讨了黑人母亲身份从西非时期到现代的演变进程。论文随之以三部黑人小说为文本，从文学角度探讨和分析了具有代表性的黑人母亲养育方式，如单亲母亲养育(single mothering)、代位母亲养育（othermothering）、女同性恋母亲养育(lesbian mothering)。论文进而从社会生态学角度分析了黑人社区分化状态下各阶层在子女社会化方式(child socialization)上的异同，以及为黑人子女社会化提供帮助的社区服务体制，如教堂里的女教友服务、社区中的女社员服务、大学或其他工作单位里的女导师联系制和女子联谊会机制等。最后，论文从视觉文化角度探析了带有嘻哈女性主义（hip-hop feminist）意识的电影和音乐单曲中涉及的黑人母亲身份，介绍并探究了黑人女性主义的最新发展形式--嘻哈女性主义--的特点和不足。
论文得出两点结论：第一，在当代黑人女性主义视角下重建的黑人母亲身份提倡嘻哈女性主义式母亲(hip-hop feminist mothering)，主张把母亲身份和社会工作（motherwork）结合为一体，不断延伸自我身份，加强社会行动；第二，黑人母亲身份和黑人女性主义之间存在着互动协调的关系，它们互相促进，相互融合，最终发展成为嘻哈女性主义养育方式。当下，在美国黑人女性主义者看来，做嘻哈女性主义式母亲最能代表和体现真正的黑人女性身份。
本论文以当代黑人女性主义视角为主要切入点，综合运用了多视角的研究方法，如：历史学、社会学、社会生态学、文学、视觉文化学，涉及多领域的学科知识，如：女性主义研究、非裔美国人研究和美国学研究，较全面展现了黑人母性身份的动态发展情况。论文不仅解构了传统父权制定义的黑人母亲身份，而且重建了带有当代黑人女性主义色彩的黑人母亲身份。在论述过程中，论文还论及了与母亲身份相关但一直以来被忽略的女同性恋养育方式，挖掘了母性中蕴含的加强社会行动力度的新力量，即母性中的情欲力量。此外，为了更生动和全面地揭示黑人母性，论文还就一部黑人儿童文学作品中体现的母性主题思想作了详细的探讨。
正如黑人女同性恋女性主义者奥德瑞·洛德（Audre Lorde）所说，“黑人母亲的教训人人受用”，因此，探索和阐述黑人母亲身份的意义不仅在于解构和重建她们的身份，而且与人类本身的自由、平等和博爱息息相关。深入研究这一课题，一方面可以帮助我们更深刻地解读当代美国社会和文化的变化和人文精神的升华，另一方面对国内妇女和少数民族的研究具有一定的借鉴意义。
Motherhood is a universal experience, symbolizing life, kindness, unconditional love,tolerance, etc. In black culture, motherhood, enjoying high respect and much glorification,represents love and maturity. Though often discredited as “bad mother” and “unfit parent”，and labeled as “mammy”,“matriarch”,“black lady”,“welfare mother” and “hoochiemama” since the slavery time, black motherhood was naturally born with the elements ofblack feminism, and is being constantly deconstructed and reconstructed by blackfeminism.
On the basis of the differentiation of such confusing terms as “Motherhood” and“Mothering”,“Black Feminism” and “Womanism”, the dissertation, first, examines blackmotherhood in different historical phases from ancient times in West Africa till moderntimes in America from a historical perspective, with a focus on the period when modernblack feminism came into existence. Following that, it goes on to explore the distinctivemothering models such as single mothering, othermothering, and lesbian mothering in theblack families from a literary perspective. Beyond that, it moves on to analyze differentchild socialization among stratified classes, and a few community-based voluntarysupports for child socialization such as church mothering, community mothering, mentormothering, and sorority mothering, from a socio-ecological perspective. Last but not least,the dissertation introduces and analyzes the latest form of black feminism-hip-hopfeminism, and tracks black motherhood in the hip-hop feminism by engaging therepresentative hip-hop music and movie with hip-hop feminist consciousness from a visualculture perspective.
The dissertation concludes that, first, the reconstructed black motherhood, in moderntimes is hip-hop feminist mothering, referring to the extended selfhood and the empoweredactivism with motherwork as its essence; second, black motherhood and black feminismhave interactive and synergic relationships: they foster and nourish each other, andintegrate into each other to fashion the hip-hop feminist mothering–a true blackmotherhood at present.
This project, though mainly from a modern black feminist perspective, employs multi-perspectives in its approach, such as historical, sociological, socio-ecological,literary, visual culture perspectives, and engages the fields of Feminist studies,Afro-American studies, American studies, in order to display a clear and complex pictureof the dynamic development of black motherhood, provide real insights into how itconfronts the patriarchy motherhood and has been redefined into a true modern blackmotherhood. The research gives voices to the oppressed regarding black motherhood, e.g.lesbian mothering, and tries to explore novel ways for empowerment, e.g. the erotic power.Besides, the rich but neglected resource of children’s literary works has been engaged inthe interrogation, which offers a fresh angle into the exploration and discussion of blackmotherhood.
Just as Audre Lorde, the black lesbian feminist, argues that “the lessons of the blackmothers [are] in each of us”, the significance of revisiting the black motherhood not simplylies in the reconstruction, but in the inspiration to the pursuit of freedom, equality andhumanity as well.
引文
1Audre Lorde, From a Land Where Other People Live (Detroit: Broadside Press,1973),16.
2Patricia H. Collins,“Shifting the Center: Race, Class, and Feminist Theorizing aboutMotherhood,” in Mothering: Ideology, Experience and Agency, ed. Evelyn Nakano Glenn, GraceChang, and Linda Forcey (New York: Routledge,1994),47.
3Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),54.
4D.Merilee Clunis, and G. Dorsey Green, The Lesbian Parenting Book: A Guide to CreatingFamilies and Raising Children (Settle: Seal Press,1995),13.
7Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: BantamBooks,1976), xv.
8Ibid.
9Patricia H. Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),167.
10Ibid.,176.
11Patricia H. Collins,“What’s in a Name? Womanism, Black Feminism, and Beyond,” in BlackScholar, Vol.26, No.1(Winter/Spring1996):9-17.
12Akoto Ofori Atta,“Is Hip-Hop Feminism Still Alive?”
15Linda K. Kerber,“The Republican Mother: Women and the Enlightenment-An AmericanPerspective,” in Toward an Intellectual History of Women: Essays by Linda K. Kerber (Gender&American Culture)(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press,1997),43.
16Rima D. Apple,“Constructing Mothers: Scientific Motherhood in the Nineteenth and TwentiethCenturies,” Social History of Medicine, Vol.8, No.2(1995):161-178.
17Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),7-9.
18Ibid.,7.
19Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),7-9.
20W.P.Mankiller, G.Mink, B.Smith, M.Navarro, and G.Steinem, eds. Reader’s Companion to U.S.Women’s History (New York: Houghton-Mifflin,1998),639; L.Tuttle, Encyclopedia of Feminism (NewYork: Facts on File,1986),107,352.
21J.K.Boles, and D.L.Hoeveler, Historical Dictionary of Feminism (Lanham, MD: ScarecrowPress,1996),2.
22Barbara Omolade, The Rising Song of African American Women (New York: Routledge,1994),xx.
23Alice Walker, In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens: Womanist Prose (San Diego, Calif.:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1983), xi.
24Pearl Cleage, Deals with the Devil and Other Reasons to Riot (New York: Ballantine Books,1993),28.
25Patricia H. Collins,“What’s in a Name? Womanism, Black Feminism, and Beyond,” in BlackScholar, Vol.26, No.1(Winter/Spring1996):9-17.
26Alice Walker, In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens: Womanist Prose (San Diego, Calif.:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1983), xi.
29Patricia H. Collins. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),190.
30Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),10.
31Whitney A. Peoples,“‘Under Construction’ Identifying Foundations of Hip-Hop Feminism andExploring Bridges between Black Second-Wave and Hip-Hop Feminisms,” in Meridians: Feminism,Race, Transnationalism, Vol.8, No.1(2007):19-52.
32According to Gikes(1982), working-class African American women who were involved in thecommunity service after a personal crisis spurred them to action were crowned as mobile mother.
33Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: BantamBooks,1976), xv.
34Patricia H. Collins,“Shifting the Center: Race, Class, and Feminist Theorizing aboutMotherhood,” in Mothering: Ideology, Experience and Agency, eds. Evelyn Nakano Glenn, GraceChang, and Linda Forcey (New York: Routledge,1994),47.
35Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),10.
36Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),123.
37Joyce A. Ladner, Tomorrow's Tomorrow: the Black Woman (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday,1972),270.
42Imani Perry, Prophets of the Hood: Politics and Poetics in Hip Hop (Durham: Duke UniversityPress,2004),180.
43Norma J. Burgess, and Eurnestine Brown, eds. African American Women: An EcologicalPerspective (New York: Falmer Press,2000),56.
45Cheryl Townsend Gilkes,“If it Wasn't for the Women”: Black Women's Experience andWomanist Culture in Church and Community (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books,2001),61.
46Norma J. Burgess, and Eurnestine Brown, eds., African American Women: An EcologicalPerspective (New York: Falmer Press,2000),2.
47Barbara Christian,“An Angle of Seeing: Motherhood in Buchi Emecheta’s Joys of Motherhoodand Alice Walker’s Meridian,” in Mothering: Ideology, Experience, and Agency, eds. Evelyn NakanoGlenn, Grace Chang, and Linda Rennie Forcey (New York: Routledge,1994):96.
48La Frances Rodgers-Rose, The Black Woman (Newbury Park: SAGE Publications, Inc.,1980),16.
52La Frances Rodgers-Rose, The Black Woman (Newbury Park: SAGE Publications, Inc.,1980),16.
53Marie Perinbaum, lecture delivered at Spelman College, Spring1969.
54La Frances Rodgers-Rose, The Black Woman (Newbury Park: SAGE Publications, Inc.,1980),16-17; Cheryl Townsend Gilkes,“If it Wasn't for the Women”: Black Women's Experience andWomanist Culture in Church and Community (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books,2001),99.
55Kamene Okonjo,“The Dual Sex Political System in Operation: Igbo Women and communityPolitics in Midwestern Nigeria,” in Women in Africa: Studies in Social and Economic Change, eds.Nancy J. Hafkin and Edna G. Bay (Stanford: Stanford University Press,1976),45.
57Marie Perinbaum, lecture delivered at Spelman College, Spring1969.
58August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, From Plantation to Ghetto (New York: Hill and Wang,1966),14.
59Cheryl Townsend Gilkes,“If it Wasn't for the Women”: Black Women's Experience andWomanist Culture in Church and Community (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books,2001),64.
61Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't I a Woman?: Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York:Norton,1985),159.
62La Frances Rodgers-Rose, The Black Woman (Newbury Park: SAGE Publications, Inc.,1980),18-19; Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),124.
63Norma J. Burgess, and Eurnestine Brown, eds., African American Women: An EcologicalPerspective (New York: Falmer Press,2000),10.
64La Frances Rodgers-Rose, The Black Woman (Newbury Park: SAGE Publications, Inc.,1980),21.
67Benjamin Quarles, ed., Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Writtenby Himself (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,1960),35-36.
68Sojourner Truth’s Ain’t I a Woman Speech delivered at the Women’s Convention in Akron, Ohioin1851.
69Lou Smith, and B.A.Botkin, eds., Lay My Burden Down, A Folk History of Slavery (Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1945),40.
70Patricia H. Collins. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),57-58.
71Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't I a Woman?: Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York:Norton,1985),22.
72Angela Y. Davis, Women, Race and Class (New York: Random House,1981),23.
74Anna Julia Cooper, A Voice from the South (New York: Oxford University Press,1988),128.
75Zola Neale Hurston, Their Eyes Were Watching God (Greenwich, CT: Fawcett,1969),16.
76La Frances Rodgers-Rose, The Black Woman (Newbury Park: SAGE Publications, Inc.,1980),22; Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),112.
78Patricia H. Collins. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment.(New York: Routledge,2009),59-61.
79Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black women, Work, and the Family fromSlavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books,2010),110.
80Patricia H. Collins. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),62-65.
81Rima D. Apple,“Constructing Mothers: Scientific Motherhood in the Nineteenth and TwentiethCenturies,” Social History of Medicine8, No.2(1995),161.
82Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),10.
83Patricia H. Collins. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),61.
84Bart Landry, Black Working Wives: Pioneers of the American Family Revolution (Berkeley:University of California Press,2000),42.
85Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),10.
86Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),122.
87Paula Giddings, When and Where I Enter: Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America(New York: Bantam Books,1984),197.
88M.Weinberg, ed., W.E.B. Du Bois: A Reader (New York: Harper and Row,1970),101.
89Cheryl Townsend Gilkes,“If it Wasn't for the Women”: Black Women's Experience andWomanist Culture in Church and Community (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books,2001),101.
90Bart Landry, Black Working Wives: Pioneers of the American Family Revolution (Berkeley:University of California Press,2000),72.
91Deborah Gray White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves,1894-1994(New York: W.W. Norton,1999),21-22.
92Alfreda M. Duster, ed., Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells (Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1970),251.
93Patricia H. Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),65-67.
94Trudier Harris, From Mammies to Militants: Domestics in Black American Literature(Philadelphia: Temple University Press,1982),4.
95Barbara Omolade, The Rising Song of African American Women (New York: Routledge,1994),55.
96Patricia H. Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),72-73.
101June Jordan, On Call (Boston: South End Press,1985),105.
102Patricia H. Collins,“What’s in a Name? Womanism, Black Feminism, and Beyond,” in BlackScholar, Vol.26, No.1(Winter/Spring1996):9-17.
103Joan Morgan, When Chicken-heads Come Home to Roost: A Hip-hop Feminist Breaks it Down(New York: Touchstone,1999),62.
104Nancy A. Hewitt, ed., No Permanent Waves: Recasting Histories of U.S. Feminism (NewBrunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press,2010),424.
105Lonnae O'Neal Parker, I'm Every Woman: Remixed Stories of Marriage, Motherhood, and Work(New York: Amistad,2005),94.
106Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),54.
107Obioma Nnaemeka, ed. Sisterhood, Feminisms and Power in Africa: From Africa to theDiaspora (Trenton: Africa World Press,1998),6.
108Leith Mullings, On Our Own Terms: Race, Class, and Gender in the Lives of African AmericanWomen (New York: Routledge,1997),89.
109Joy Bennett Kinnan,“The Shocking State of Black Marriages: Experts Say that Many WillNever Marry,” Ebony,(Nov.2003).
110Harriette Pipes McAdoo, ed. Black Families (Beverly Hill, Calif: Sage,1988):176.
111Mark Mather,“U.S.Children in Single-Mother Families,”http://www.prb.org/Publications/PolicyBriefs/singlemotherfamilies.aspx (accessed by March26,2012)
112Barbara Omolade, The Rising Song of African American Women (New York: Routledge,1994),28.
113Patricia H. Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),69-71.
114Barbara Omolade, The Rising Song of African American Women (New York: Routledge,1994),69.
116Nancy Vasilakis,“Review of Like Sisters on the Homefront,” Horn Book, Vol.71, No.6(November-December,1995):748-749.
117Rita Williams-Garcia, Like Sisters on the Homefront (New York: Lodestar,1995),125.
124Patricia H. Collins. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of
Empowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),209-210.
125Gwendolyn D. Pough, Elaine Richardson, Aisha Durham, and Rachel Raimist, eds. Home GirlsMake Some Noise: Hip-hop Feminism Anthology (Corona, CA: Parker Publishing, LLC,2007),374.
126Beverly Greene,“African American Families,” National Forum,75, No.3(1995):29.
127Arlene E. Edwards,“Community Othermothering: The Relationship between Mothering andthe Community Work of Black Women,” Journal of the Association for Research on Mothering, No.2(2000):2.
128La Frances Rodgers-Rose, ed., The Black Woman (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications,1980),72.
129Maria Lauret, Liberating Literature: Feminist Fiction in America (London; New York:Routledge,1994),98.
130Maya Angelou, Letter to my Daughter (New York: Random House,2008), Xii.
133Winfrey Oprah,“Oprah Talks to Maya Angelou,”http://www.oprah.com/omagazine/Oprah-Interviews-Maya-Angelou (accessed Dec.16,2011)
134Andrea O’Reilly, Rocking the Cradle: Thoughts on Feminism, Motherhood, and the Possibilityof Empowered Mothering (Toronto, Ontario: Demeter Press,1996),131.
135R. Bass-Hass,“The Lesbian Dyad: Basic Issues and Value Systems,” in Journal of SexResearch, No.4(1968):126.
136A. Bell, and M. Weinberg, Homosexualities: A Study of Human Diversity among Men andWomen (New York: Simon&Schuster,1968).
137G. Croom, The Effects of a Consolidated versus Non-consolidated Identity on Expectations ofAfrican American Lesbians Selecting Mates: A Pilot Study, unpublished doctoral dissertation (IllinoisSchool of Professional Psychology, Chicago, IL,1993).
138Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),79-81.
139Robert N. Bellah, Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life(Berkeley: University of California Press,1985),82.
140D.Merilee Clunis, and G. Dorsey Green, The Lesbian Parenting Book: A Guide to CreatingFamilies and Raising Children (Settle: Seal Press,1995),13.
141Kristin G. Esterberg,“The Construction of Motherhood in Lesbian Mother Advice Books,” inFeminist Mothering, ed. O'Reilly, Andre (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008):75-88.
142Darry L. Wellington,“Audre Lorde: Black, Feminist, Lesbian, Mother, Poet,” in The Crisis(March/April2004):51.
150Audre Lorde, Sister Outsider (Trumansburg N. Y.: Crossing Press,1984),73.
151Audre Lorde,“School Note,” in The Black Unicorn (New York: W.W.Norton and Company,1978),55.
152Audre Lorde, Sister Outsider (Trumansburg N. Y.: Crossing Press,1984),75.
159Charles Vert Willie, and Richard J. Reddick, A New Look at Black Families (Lanham,Maryland: Rowman&little field publishers, Inc.,2010),10-11.
160Urie Bronfenbrenner, The Ecology of Human Development (Cambridge, MA: HarvardUniversity Press,1979); A. H. Hawley, Human Ecology: A Theory of Community Structure (New York:Ronald Press,1950).
162Norma J. Burgess, and Eurnestine Brown, eds. African American Women: An EcologicalPerspective (New York: Falmer Press,2000),56.
163Patricia H. Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),65-66.
164Charles Vert Willie, and Richard J. Reddick, A New Look at Black Families (Lanham,Maryland: Rowman&little field publishers, Inc.,2010),24.
165Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),7.
166Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),156-158.
167D.Merilee Clunis, and G. Dorsey Green, The Lesbian Parenting Book: A Guide to CreatingFamilies and Raising Children (Settle: Seal Press,1995),13.
168Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),157.
169Ibid.,158.
170Charles Vert Willie, and Richard J. Reddick, A New Look at Black Families (Lanham,Maryland: Rowman&little field publishers, Inc.,2010),25.
171Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),164.
172Ibid.,148-149,152-153.
173Veronica Chambers, Mama's Girl (New York: Riverhead Books,1996),44,72.
174Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),164.
175Ibid.,151.
176Ibid.,162.
177Charles Vert Willie, and Richard J. Reddick, A New Look at Black Families (Lanham,Maryland: Rowman&little field publishers, Inc.,2010),35.
179Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),159.
180Charles Vert Willie, and Richard J. Reddick, A New Look at Black Families (Lanham,Maryland: Rowman&little field publishers, Inc.,2010),29-30.
181Charles Vert Willie, and Richard J. Reddick, A New Look at Black Families (Lanham,Maryland: Rowman&little field publishers, Inc.,2010),29; Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: AGender Perspective on Families and Relationships (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),159-160.
182Ibid.,161.
183Charles Vert Willie, and Richard J. Reddick, A New Look at Black Families (Lanham,Maryland: Rowman&little field publishers, Inc.,2010),27-28; Patricia H. Collins, Black FeministThought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),196.
184Charles Vert Willie, and Richard J. Reddick, A New Look at Black Families (Lanham,Maryland: Rowman&little field publishers, Inc.,2010),31.
185Cheryl Townsend Gilkes,“If it Wasn't for the Women”: Black Women's Experience andWomanist Culture in Church and Community (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books,2001),167.
186Charles Vert Willie, and Richard J. Reddick. A New Look at Black Families (Lanham,Maryland: Rowman&little field publishers, Inc.,2010),25,35.
187R.J. Taylor&L.M. Chatters,“Religious life,” in Life in Black America, ed. J.Jackson (NewburyPark: Sage Publications,1991),105-123.
188Arlene E. Edwards,“Community Mothering: The Relationship between Mothering and theCommunity Work of Black Women,” in Journal of the Association for Research on Mothering, Vol.2,No.2(Fall/Winter2000):90.
189R.J. Taylor, M.C. Thornton, and L.M. Chatters,“Black Americans’ Perceptions of theSociohistorical Role of the Church,” Journal of Black Studies,18(1987):123-138.
190Norma J. Burgess, and Eurnestine Brown, eds. African American Women: An EcologicalPerspective (New York: Falmer Press,2000),125.
191J.S. Levin,“The Role of the Black Church in Community Medicine,” Journal of the NationalMedical Association,76(1984):477-483.
192According to Gikes(1982), working-class African American women who were involved in thecommunity service after a personal crisis spurred them to action were crowned as mobile mother.
193Delores S. Williams, Sisters in the Wilderness (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books,1995),67.
194Arlene E. Edwards,“Community Mothering: The Relationship between Mothering and theCommunity Work of Black Women,” in Journal of the Association for Research on Mothering, Vol.2,No.2(Fall/Winter2000):93,95-96.
195Patricia H. Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),197-198.
196D. Clark-Hine,“Lifting the Veil, Shattering the Silence: Black women’s History in Slavery andFreedom,” in The State of Afro-American History: Past, Present, and Future, ed. D. Clark-Hine (BatonRouge: Louisiana State University Press,1986),238.
197Arlene E. Edwards,“Community Mothering: The Relationship between Mothering and TheCommunity Work of Black Women,” in Journal of the Association for Research on Mothering, Vol.2,No.2(Fall/Winter2000):92.
199Greta Hendricks Johnson,“African American Sororities,”http://learningtogive.org/papers/paper172.html (accessed March12,2012)
200Paula Giddings, In search of Sisterhood: Delta Sigma Theta and the Challenge of the BlackSorority Movement (New York: William Morrow,1988),304-305.
201Greta Hendricks Johnson,“African American Sororities,”http://learningtogive.org/papers/paper172.html (accessed March12,2012)
202S.D Greenbaum and P.E. Greenbaum,“The Ecology of Social Networks in Four UrbanNeighborhoods,” in Social Networks,7(1985):47-76.
203M.S. Hill and J.C. Ragland, Women as Educational Leaders: Opening Windows, PushingCeilings (Thousand Oaks, Calif: Corwin Press,1995),72.
204Lori D. Patton, Shaun R. Harper,“Mentoring Relationships among African American Womenin Graduate and Professional Schools,” in New Directions for Student Service, No.104(Winter2003):68.
205R.J. Burke and C.A. McKeen,“Mentoring in Organizations: Implications for Women,” inJournal of Business Ethics (1990):318.
206Lori D. Patton, Shaun R. Harper,“Mentoring Relationships among African American Womenin Graduate and Professional Schools,” in New Directions for Student Service, No.104(Winter2003):71.
215Nancy A. Hewitt, ed., No Permanent Waves: Recasting Histories of U.S. Feminism (NewBrunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press,2010),424.
216Gwendolyn D. Pough, Check it While I Wreck it: Black Womanhood, Hip Hop Culture, and thePublic Sphere (Boston: Northeastern University Press,2004),17.
217Ibid.
218Bakari Kitwana, The Hip Hop Generation: Young Blacks and the Crisis in African-AmericanCulture (New York: Basic Books,2002), xiii.
219Joan Morgan, When Chickenheads Come Home to Roost: A Hip-hop Feminist Breaks it Down(New York: Simon&Schuster,1999),62.
220Whitney A. Peoples,“‘Under Construction’ Identifying Foundations of Hip-Hop Feminism andExploring Bridges between Black Second-Wave and Hip-Hop Feminisms,” in Meridians: Feminism,Race, Transnationalism, Vol.8, No.1(2007):33-43.
221Whitney A. Peoples,“‘Under Construction’ Identifying Foundations of Hip-Hop Feminism andExploring Bridges between Black Second-Wave and Hip-Hop Feminisms,” in Meridians: Feminism,Race, Transnationalism, Vol.8, No.1(2007):49.
222Audre Lorde, Sister Outsider (Trumansburg, N. Y.: Crossing Press,1984),53.
223Jake Brown, Tupac Shakur,2Pac in the Studio: the Studio Years (1989-1996)(Phoenix, AZ:Amber Books,2005),31.
224Joseph K. Adjaye and Adrianne R. Andrews, eds., Language, Rhythm&Sound: Black PopularCultures into the Twenty-first Century (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press,1997),137.
226Gwendolyn D. Pough, Check it While I Wreck it: Black Womanhood, Hip Hop Culture, and thePublic Sphere (Boston: Northeastern University Press,2004),134.
227Kimberly Springer,“Third Wave Black Feminism?” Signs, Vol.27, No.4(Summer2002):
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232Elina Furman and Leah Furman, Heart of Soul: The Lauryn Hill Story (Ballantine Books,1999),129.
235Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York:Bantam Books,1976), xv.
236Andrea O'Reilly, Rocking the Cradle: Thoughts on Feminism, Motherhood, and the Possibilityof Empowered Mothering (Toronto, Ontario: Demeter Press,1996),13.
237Janice Hale,“The Black Woman and Child Rearing,” in The Black Woman, ed., La FrancesRodgers-Rose (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications,1980),79-88.
238Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),6-9.
239Gwendolyn D. Pough, Check it While I Wreck it: Black Womanhood, Hip Hop Culture, and thePublic Sphere (Boston: Northeastern University Press,2004),196.
240A. Orleck,“Radical Mothers in International Perspective,” in The Politics of Motherhood:Activist Voices from Left to Right, eds. A.Jetter, A.Orleck, and D. Taylor (Hanover: University Press ofNew England,1997),3.
241Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),11.
242Arlene E. Edwards,“Community Mothering: The Relationship between Mothering and theCommunity Work of Black Women,” in Journal of the Association for Research on Mothering, Vol.2,No.2(Fall/Winter2000):88-91.
243Andrea O'Reilly, Rocking the Cradle: Thoughts on Feminism, Motherhood, and the Possibilityof Empowered Mothering (Toronto, Ontario: Demeter Press,1996),184-185.
245Gwendolyn D. Pough, Check it While I Wreck it: Black Womanhood, Hip Hop Culture, and thePublic Sphere (Boston: Northeastern University Press,2004),201.
246Audre Lorde, Sister Outsider (Trumansburg, N. Y.: Crossing Press,1984),53-59.
248Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),7.
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2Patricia H. Collins,“Shifting the Center: Race, Class, and Feminist Theorizing aboutMotherhood,” in Mothering: Ideology, Experience and Agency, ed. Evelyn Nakano Glenn, GraceChang, and Linda Forcey (New York: Routledge,1994),47.
3Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),54.
4D.Merilee Clunis, and G. Dorsey Green, The Lesbian Parenting Book: A Guide to CreatingFamilies and Raising Children (Settle: Seal Press,1995),13.
7Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: BantamBooks,1976), xv.
8Ibid.
9Patricia H. Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),167.
10Ibid.,176.
11Patricia H. Collins,“What’s in a Name? Womanism, Black Feminism, and Beyond,” in BlackScholar, Vol.26, No.1(Winter/Spring1996):9-17.
12Akoto Ofori Atta,“Is Hip-Hop Feminism Still Alive?”
15Linda K. Kerber,“The Republican Mother: Women and the Enlightenment-An AmericanPerspective,” in Toward an Intellectual History of Women: Essays by Linda K. Kerber (Gender&American Culture)(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press,1997),43.
16Rima D. Apple,“Constructing Mothers: Scientific Motherhood in the Nineteenth and TwentiethCenturies,” Social History of Medicine, Vol.8, No.2(1995):161-178.
17Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),7-9.
18Ibid.,7.
19Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),7-9.
20W.P.Mankiller, G.Mink, B.Smith, M.Navarro, and G.Steinem, eds. Reader’s Companion to U.S.Women’s History (New York: Houghton-Mifflin,1998),639; L.Tuttle, Encyclopedia of Feminism (NewYork: Facts on File,1986),107,352.
21J.K.Boles, and D.L.Hoeveler, Historical Dictionary of Feminism (Lanham, MD: ScarecrowPress,1996),2.
22Barbara Omolade, The Rising Song of African American Women (New York: Routledge,1994),xx.
23Alice Walker, In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens: Womanist Prose (San Diego, Calif.:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1983), xi.
24Pearl Cleage, Deals with the Devil and Other Reasons to Riot (New York: Ballantine Books,1993),28.
25Patricia H. Collins,“What’s in a Name? Womanism, Black Feminism, and Beyond,” in BlackScholar, Vol.26, No.1(Winter/Spring1996):9-17.
26Alice Walker, In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens: Womanist Prose (San Diego, Calif.:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1983), xi.
29Patricia H. Collins. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),190.
30Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),10.
31Whitney A. Peoples,“‘Under Construction’ Identifying Foundations of Hip-Hop Feminism andExploring Bridges between Black Second-Wave and Hip-Hop Feminisms,” in Meridians: Feminism,Race, Transnationalism, Vol.8, No.1(2007):19-52.
32According to Gikes(1982), working-class African American women who were involved in thecommunity service after a personal crisis spurred them to action were crowned as mobile mother.
33Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: BantamBooks,1976), xv.
34Patricia H. Collins,“Shifting the Center: Race, Class, and Feminist Theorizing aboutMotherhood,” in Mothering: Ideology, Experience and Agency, eds. Evelyn Nakano Glenn, GraceChang, and Linda Forcey (New York: Routledge,1994),47.
35Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),10.
36Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),123.
37Joyce A. Ladner, Tomorrow's Tomorrow: the Black Woman (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday,1972),270.
42Imani Perry, Prophets of the Hood: Politics and Poetics in Hip Hop (Durham: Duke UniversityPress,2004),180.
43Norma J. Burgess, and Eurnestine Brown, eds. African American Women: An EcologicalPerspective (New York: Falmer Press,2000),56.
45Cheryl Townsend Gilkes,“If it Wasn't for the Women”: Black Women's Experience andWomanist Culture in Church and Community (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books,2001),61.
46Norma J. Burgess, and Eurnestine Brown, eds., African American Women: An EcologicalPerspective (New York: Falmer Press,2000),2.
47Barbara Christian,“An Angle of Seeing: Motherhood in Buchi Emecheta’s Joys of Motherhoodand Alice Walker’s Meridian,” in Mothering: Ideology, Experience, and Agency, eds. Evelyn NakanoGlenn, Grace Chang, and Linda Rennie Forcey (New York: Routledge,1994):96.
48La Frances Rodgers-Rose, The Black Woman (Newbury Park: SAGE Publications, Inc.,1980),16.
52La Frances Rodgers-Rose, The Black Woman (Newbury Park: SAGE Publications, Inc.,1980),16.
53Marie Perinbaum, lecture delivered at Spelman College, Spring1969.
54La Frances Rodgers-Rose, The Black Woman (Newbury Park: SAGE Publications, Inc.,1980),16-17; Cheryl Townsend Gilkes,“If it Wasn't for the Women”: Black Women's Experience andWomanist Culture in Church and Community (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books,2001),99.
55Kamene Okonjo,“The Dual Sex Political System in Operation: Igbo Women and communityPolitics in Midwestern Nigeria,” in Women in Africa: Studies in Social and Economic Change, eds.Nancy J. Hafkin and Edna G. Bay (Stanford: Stanford University Press,1976),45.
57Marie Perinbaum, lecture delivered at Spelman College, Spring1969.
58August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, From Plantation to Ghetto (New York: Hill and Wang,1966),14.
59Cheryl Townsend Gilkes,“If it Wasn't for the Women”: Black Women's Experience andWomanist Culture in Church and Community (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books,2001),64.
61Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't I a Woman?: Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York:Norton,1985),159.
62La Frances Rodgers-Rose, The Black Woman (Newbury Park: SAGE Publications, Inc.,1980),18-19; Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),124.
63Norma J. Burgess, and Eurnestine Brown, eds., African American Women: An EcologicalPerspective (New York: Falmer Press,2000),10.
64La Frances Rodgers-Rose, The Black Woman (Newbury Park: SAGE Publications, Inc.,1980),21.
67Benjamin Quarles, ed., Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Writtenby Himself (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,1960),35-36.
68Sojourner Truth’s Ain’t I a Woman Speech delivered at the Women’s Convention in Akron, Ohioin1851.
69Lou Smith, and B.A.Botkin, eds., Lay My Burden Down, A Folk History of Slavery (Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1945),40.
70Patricia H. Collins. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),57-58.
71Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't I a Woman?: Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York:Norton,1985),22.
72Angela Y. Davis, Women, Race and Class (New York: Random House,1981),23.
74Anna Julia Cooper, A Voice from the South (New York: Oxford University Press,1988),128.
75Zola Neale Hurston, Their Eyes Were Watching God (Greenwich, CT: Fawcett,1969),16.
76La Frances Rodgers-Rose, The Black Woman (Newbury Park: SAGE Publications, Inc.,1980),22; Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),112.
78Patricia H. Collins. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment.(New York: Routledge,2009),59-61.
79Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black women, Work, and the Family fromSlavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books,2010),110.
80Patricia H. Collins. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),62-65.
81Rima D. Apple,“Constructing Mothers: Scientific Motherhood in the Nineteenth and TwentiethCenturies,” Social History of Medicine8, No.2(1995),161.
82Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),10.
83Patricia H. Collins. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),61.
84Bart Landry, Black Working Wives: Pioneers of the American Family Revolution (Berkeley:University of California Press,2000),42.
85Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),10.
86Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),122.
87Paula Giddings, When and Where I Enter: Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America(New York: Bantam Books,1984),197.
88M.Weinberg, ed., W.E.B. Du Bois: A Reader (New York: Harper and Row,1970),101.
89Cheryl Townsend Gilkes,“If it Wasn't for the Women”: Black Women's Experience andWomanist Culture in Church and Community (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books,2001),101.
90Bart Landry, Black Working Wives: Pioneers of the American Family Revolution (Berkeley:University of California Press,2000),72.
91Deborah Gray White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves,1894-1994(New York: W.W. Norton,1999),21-22.
92Alfreda M. Duster, ed., Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells (Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1970),251.
93Patricia H. Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),65-67.
94Trudier Harris, From Mammies to Militants: Domestics in Black American Literature(Philadelphia: Temple University Press,1982),4.
95Barbara Omolade, The Rising Song of African American Women (New York: Routledge,1994),55.
96Patricia H. Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),72-73.
101June Jordan, On Call (Boston: South End Press,1985),105.
102Patricia H. Collins,“What’s in a Name? Womanism, Black Feminism, and Beyond,” in BlackScholar, Vol.26, No.1(Winter/Spring1996):9-17.
103Joan Morgan, When Chicken-heads Come Home to Roost: A Hip-hop Feminist Breaks it Down(New York: Touchstone,1999),62.
104Nancy A. Hewitt, ed., No Permanent Waves: Recasting Histories of U.S. Feminism (NewBrunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press,2010),424.
105Lonnae O'Neal Parker, I'm Every Woman: Remixed Stories of Marriage, Motherhood, and Work(New York: Amistad,2005),94.
106Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),54.
107Obioma Nnaemeka, ed. Sisterhood, Feminisms and Power in Africa: From Africa to theDiaspora (Trenton: Africa World Press,1998),6.
108Leith Mullings, On Our Own Terms: Race, Class, and Gender in the Lives of African AmericanWomen (New York: Routledge,1997),89.
109Joy Bennett Kinnan,“The Shocking State of Black Marriages: Experts Say that Many WillNever Marry,” Ebony,(Nov.2003).
110Harriette Pipes McAdoo, ed. Black Families (Beverly Hill, Calif: Sage,1988):176.
111Mark Mather,“U.S.Children in Single-Mother Families,”http://www.prb.org/Publications/PolicyBriefs/singlemotherfamilies.aspx (accessed by March26,2012)
112Barbara Omolade, The Rising Song of African American Women (New York: Routledge,1994),28.
113Patricia H. Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),69-71.
114Barbara Omolade, The Rising Song of African American Women (New York: Routledge,1994),69.
116Nancy Vasilakis,“Review of Like Sisters on the Homefront,” Horn Book, Vol.71, No.6(November-December,1995):748-749.
117Rita Williams-Garcia, Like Sisters on the Homefront (New York: Lodestar,1995),125.
124Patricia H. Collins. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of
Empowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),209-210.
125Gwendolyn D. Pough, Elaine Richardson, Aisha Durham, and Rachel Raimist, eds. Home GirlsMake Some Noise: Hip-hop Feminism Anthology (Corona, CA: Parker Publishing, LLC,2007),374.
126Beverly Greene,“African American Families,” National Forum,75, No.3(1995):29.
127Arlene E. Edwards,“Community Othermothering: The Relationship between Mothering andthe Community Work of Black Women,” Journal of the Association for Research on Mothering, No.2(2000):2.
128La Frances Rodgers-Rose, ed., The Black Woman (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications,1980),72.
129Maria Lauret, Liberating Literature: Feminist Fiction in America (London; New York:Routledge,1994),98.
130Maya Angelou, Letter to my Daughter (New York: Random House,2008), Xii.
133Winfrey Oprah,“Oprah Talks to Maya Angelou,”http://www.oprah.com/omagazine/Oprah-Interviews-Maya-Angelou (accessed Dec.16,2011)
134Andrea O’Reilly, Rocking the Cradle: Thoughts on Feminism, Motherhood, and the Possibilityof Empowered Mothering (Toronto, Ontario: Demeter Press,1996),131.
135R. Bass-Hass,“The Lesbian Dyad: Basic Issues and Value Systems,” in Journal of SexResearch, No.4(1968):126.
136A. Bell, and M. Weinberg, Homosexualities: A Study of Human Diversity among Men andWomen (New York: Simon&Schuster,1968).
137G. Croom, The Effects of a Consolidated versus Non-consolidated Identity on Expectations ofAfrican American Lesbians Selecting Mates: A Pilot Study, unpublished doctoral dissertation (IllinoisSchool of Professional Psychology, Chicago, IL,1993).
138Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),79-81.
139Robert N. Bellah, Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life(Berkeley: University of California Press,1985),82.
140D.Merilee Clunis, and G. Dorsey Green, The Lesbian Parenting Book: A Guide to CreatingFamilies and Raising Children (Settle: Seal Press,1995),13.
141Kristin G. Esterberg,“The Construction of Motherhood in Lesbian Mother Advice Books,” inFeminist Mothering, ed. O'Reilly, Andre (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008):75-88.
142Darry L. Wellington,“Audre Lorde: Black, Feminist, Lesbian, Mother, Poet,” in The Crisis(March/April2004):51.
150Audre Lorde, Sister Outsider (Trumansburg N. Y.: Crossing Press,1984),73.
151Audre Lorde,“School Note,” in The Black Unicorn (New York: W.W.Norton and Company,1978),55.
152Audre Lorde, Sister Outsider (Trumansburg N. Y.: Crossing Press,1984),75.
159Charles Vert Willie, and Richard J. Reddick, A New Look at Black Families (Lanham,Maryland: Rowman&little field publishers, Inc.,2010),10-11.
160Urie Bronfenbrenner, The Ecology of Human Development (Cambridge, MA: HarvardUniversity Press,1979); A. H. Hawley, Human Ecology: A Theory of Community Structure (New York:Ronald Press,1950).
162Norma J. Burgess, and Eurnestine Brown, eds. African American Women: An EcologicalPerspective (New York: Falmer Press,2000),56.
163Patricia H. Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),65-66.
164Charles Vert Willie, and Richard J. Reddick, A New Look at Black Families (Lanham,Maryland: Rowman&little field publishers, Inc.,2010),24.
165Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),7.
166Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),156-158.
167D.Merilee Clunis, and G. Dorsey Green, The Lesbian Parenting Book: A Guide to CreatingFamilies and Raising Children (Settle: Seal Press,1995),13.
168Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),157.
169Ibid.,158.
170Charles Vert Willie, and Richard J. Reddick, A New Look at Black Families (Lanham,Maryland: Rowman&little field publishers, Inc.,2010),25.
171Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),164.
172Ibid.,148-149,152-153.
173Veronica Chambers, Mama's Girl (New York: Riverhead Books,1996),44,72.
174Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),164.
175Ibid.,151.
176Ibid.,162.
177Charles Vert Willie, and Richard J. Reddick, A New Look at Black Families (Lanham,Maryland: Rowman&little field publishers, Inc.,2010),35.
179Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: A Gender Perspective on Families and Relationships (WalnutCreek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),159.
180Charles Vert Willie, and Richard J. Reddick, A New Look at Black Families (Lanham,Maryland: Rowman&little field publishers, Inc.,2010),29-30.
181Charles Vert Willie, and Richard J. Reddick, A New Look at Black Families (Lanham,Maryland: Rowman&little field publishers, Inc.,2010),29; Shirley A. Hill, Black Intimacies: AGender Perspective on Families and Relationships (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press,2005),159-160.
182Ibid.,161.
183Charles Vert Willie, and Richard J. Reddick, A New Look at Black Families (Lanham,Maryland: Rowman&little field publishers, Inc.,2010),27-28; Patricia H. Collins, Black FeministThought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),196.
184Charles Vert Willie, and Richard J. Reddick, A New Look at Black Families (Lanham,Maryland: Rowman&little field publishers, Inc.,2010),31.
185Cheryl Townsend Gilkes,“If it Wasn't for the Women”: Black Women's Experience andWomanist Culture in Church and Community (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books,2001),167.
186Charles Vert Willie, and Richard J. Reddick. A New Look at Black Families (Lanham,Maryland: Rowman&little field publishers, Inc.,2010),25,35.
187R.J. Taylor&L.M. Chatters,“Religious life,” in Life in Black America, ed. J.Jackson (NewburyPark: Sage Publications,1991),105-123.
188Arlene E. Edwards,“Community Mothering: The Relationship between Mothering and theCommunity Work of Black Women,” in Journal of the Association for Research on Mothering, Vol.2,No.2(Fall/Winter2000):90.
189R.J. Taylor, M.C. Thornton, and L.M. Chatters,“Black Americans’ Perceptions of theSociohistorical Role of the Church,” Journal of Black Studies,18(1987):123-138.
190Norma J. Burgess, and Eurnestine Brown, eds. African American Women: An EcologicalPerspective (New York: Falmer Press,2000),125.
191J.S. Levin,“The Role of the Black Church in Community Medicine,” Journal of the NationalMedical Association,76(1984):477-483.
192According to Gikes(1982), working-class African American women who were involved in thecommunity service after a personal crisis spurred them to action were crowned as mobile mother.
193Delores S. Williams, Sisters in the Wilderness (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books,1995),67.
194Arlene E. Edwards,“Community Mothering: The Relationship between Mothering and theCommunity Work of Black Women,” in Journal of the Association for Research on Mothering, Vol.2,No.2(Fall/Winter2000):93,95-96.
195Patricia H. Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics ofEmpowerment (New York: Routledge,2009),197-198.
196D. Clark-Hine,“Lifting the Veil, Shattering the Silence: Black women’s History in Slavery andFreedom,” in The State of Afro-American History: Past, Present, and Future, ed. D. Clark-Hine (BatonRouge: Louisiana State University Press,1986),238.
197Arlene E. Edwards,“Community Mothering: The Relationship between Mothering and TheCommunity Work of Black Women,” in Journal of the Association for Research on Mothering, Vol.2,No.2(Fall/Winter2000):92.
199Greta Hendricks Johnson,“African American Sororities,”http://learningtogive.org/papers/paper172.html (accessed March12,2012)
200Paula Giddings, In search of Sisterhood: Delta Sigma Theta and the Challenge of the BlackSorority Movement (New York: William Morrow,1988),304-305.
201Greta Hendricks Johnson,“African American Sororities,”http://learningtogive.org/papers/paper172.html (accessed March12,2012)
202S.D Greenbaum and P.E. Greenbaum,“The Ecology of Social Networks in Four UrbanNeighborhoods,” in Social Networks,7(1985):47-76.
203M.S. Hill and J.C. Ragland, Women as Educational Leaders: Opening Windows, PushingCeilings (Thousand Oaks, Calif: Corwin Press,1995),72.
204Lori D. Patton, Shaun R. Harper,“Mentoring Relationships among African American Womenin Graduate and Professional Schools,” in New Directions for Student Service, No.104(Winter2003):68.
205R.J. Burke and C.A. McKeen,“Mentoring in Organizations: Implications for Women,” inJournal of Business Ethics (1990):318.
206Lori D. Patton, Shaun R. Harper,“Mentoring Relationships among African American Womenin Graduate and Professional Schools,” in New Directions for Student Service, No.104(Winter2003):71.
215Nancy A. Hewitt, ed., No Permanent Waves: Recasting Histories of U.S. Feminism (NewBrunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press,2010),424.
216Gwendolyn D. Pough, Check it While I Wreck it: Black Womanhood, Hip Hop Culture, and thePublic Sphere (Boston: Northeastern University Press,2004),17.
217Ibid.
218Bakari Kitwana, The Hip Hop Generation: Young Blacks and the Crisis in African-AmericanCulture (New York: Basic Books,2002), xiii.
219Joan Morgan, When Chickenheads Come Home to Roost: A Hip-hop Feminist Breaks it Down(New York: Simon&Schuster,1999),62.
220Whitney A. Peoples,“‘Under Construction’ Identifying Foundations of Hip-Hop Feminism andExploring Bridges between Black Second-Wave and Hip-Hop Feminisms,” in Meridians: Feminism,Race, Transnationalism, Vol.8, No.1(2007):33-43.
221Whitney A. Peoples,“‘Under Construction’ Identifying Foundations of Hip-Hop Feminism andExploring Bridges between Black Second-Wave and Hip-Hop Feminisms,” in Meridians: Feminism,Race, Transnationalism, Vol.8, No.1(2007):49.
222Audre Lorde, Sister Outsider (Trumansburg, N. Y.: Crossing Press,1984),53.
223Jake Brown, Tupac Shakur,2Pac in the Studio: the Studio Years (1989-1996)(Phoenix, AZ:Amber Books,2005),31.
224Joseph K. Adjaye and Adrianne R. Andrews, eds., Language, Rhythm&Sound: Black PopularCultures into the Twenty-first Century (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press,1997),137.
226Gwendolyn D. Pough, Check it While I Wreck it: Black Womanhood, Hip Hop Culture, and thePublic Sphere (Boston: Northeastern University Press,2004),134.
227Kimberly Springer,“Third Wave Black Feminism?” Signs, Vol.27, No.4(Summer2002):
231Nathan Brackett, and Christian Hoard, eds., Rolling Stone Album Guide (New York: Simon&Schuster,2004),379.
232Elina Furman and Leah Furman, Heart of Soul: The Lauryn Hill Story (Ballantine Books,1999),129.
235Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York:Bantam Books,1976), xv.
236Andrea O'Reilly, Rocking the Cradle: Thoughts on Feminism, Motherhood, and the Possibilityof Empowered Mothering (Toronto, Ontario: Demeter Press,1996),13.
237Janice Hale,“The Black Woman and Child Rearing,” in The Black Woman, ed., La FrancesRodgers-Rose (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications,1980),79-88.
238Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),6-9.
239Gwendolyn D. Pough, Check it While I Wreck it: Black Womanhood, Hip Hop Culture, and thePublic Sphere (Boston: Northeastern University Press,2004),196.
240A. Orleck,“Radical Mothers in International Perspective,” in The Politics of Motherhood:Activist Voices from Left to Right, eds. A.Jetter, A.Orleck, and D. Taylor (Hanover: University Press ofNew England,1997),3.
241Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),11.
242Arlene E. Edwards,“Community Mothering: The Relationship between Mothering and theCommunity Work of Black Women,” in Journal of the Association for Research on Mothering, Vol.2,No.2(Fall/Winter2000):88-91.
243Andrea O'Reilly, Rocking the Cradle: Thoughts on Feminism, Motherhood, and the Possibilityof Empowered Mothering (Toronto, Ontario: Demeter Press,1996),184-185.
245Gwendolyn D. Pough, Check it While I Wreck it: Black Womanhood, Hip Hop Culture, and thePublic Sphere (Boston: Northeastern University Press,2004),201.
246Audre Lorde, Sister Outsider (Trumansburg, N. Y.: Crossing Press,1984),53-59.
248Andrea O'Reilly, ed., Feminist Mothering (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,2008),7.
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