美国刑事政策研究
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摘要
刑事政策是一国政党和政府根据犯罪的原因和规律,针对犯罪的状况和发展态势所做出的预防、惩罚和矫治犯罪的各种措施、方法的总称。美国刑事政策是美国政府和政党根据犯罪与反犯罪的需求做出的防治犯罪的对策与方略。由于美国的现代化发展较早、较成熟,犯罪和治理犯罪的经验教训较丰富、较先进,所以研究美国的刑事政策及走向,是联合国及世界各国都很感兴趣的课题。我国在市场经济和现代化发展过程中伴随着犯罪增长的历程,为了更好地预防、打击和矫正犯罪,我们有必要研究与探讨美国的刑事政策问题,扬人之长,抑人之弊,为我所用。
《美国刑事政策研究》一文,分为六章,各章基本内容是:
第一章,美国刑事政策概述,主要述说美国的犯罪状况,美国的刑事司法制度,美国的刑事政策含义,美国的公共政策要求与内涵,层层推进,并在此基础上了厘清美国的刑事政策与公共政策的关系。
第二章,美国刑事政策的宪法与理论基础,首先研究了美国刑事政策的宪法基础,这是最具美国刑事政策特点和特色的部分,充分体现了宪政国家的法治与人权要求。其次,研究了美国刑事政策的理论基础,这是阐述美国刑事政策的逻辑起点。“实用”是美国刑事政策的前提与要求,“实证”是美国刑事政策的方法与标准。民主与法治、效率与公正是刑事政策的价值取向。社会防卫与人权保障是刑事政策两极目的与双向任务。
第三章,美国的基本刑事政策——“重重轻轻”两极化的刑事政策,本章是全文的核心与重点。基于美国犯罪复杂化、两极化,为了更好地打击犯罪、预防犯罪和控制犯罪,使反犯罪的人、财、物资源予以有效地分配,达到最佳效果。美国从上世纪80年代中期以来,实行了“重重轻轻”的两极化的刑事政策。“重重”形势政策,针对恐怖主义犯罪,严重暴力犯罪,重大经济与财产犯罪,以及累犯等恢复死刑,实行终身监禁刑和不得假释的无期徒刑;“轻轻”的刑事政策,针对初犯、偶犯、过失犯、未成年人犯,普通刑事犯,采取刑事和解、恢复性司法、转处、缓刑、假释、社区矫正。本文对“重重轻轻”的政策进行了全方位考证与内容分析。
第四章,美国的具体刑事政策,主要介绍和分析了美国的“强硬”政策、“三振出局”政策、破窗理论与零容忍政策、死刑政策、监狱矫正政策、社区矫正政策和对被害人赔偿与保障政策等。这是最具操作层面的政策内容,也是受世人瞩目的地方。
第五章,美国刑事政策的评估与前瞻,着重对美国刑事政策的利与弊、好与坏、功与过等予以了评估,对美国刑事政策面临的问题与改革期待等,予以了分析。在此基础上,对21世纪美国犯罪问题的刑事政策、公共政策进行了探讨,认为从“911”恐怖事件开始,美国的刑事政策开始了转折,体现在以国家为本,采取单边主义和双重标准的反恐政策,假借反恐之名,行霸权主义和世界警察之实,在打击犯罪的同时,践踏着法治与人权。最后,对美国未来的刑事政策进行了若干大胆的预测与和展望。,
第六章,他山之石——美国刑事政策对我国的启示与借鉴,这是本文写作的动机与目的,研究美国的刑事政策,是为了学习与借鉴。通过对美国刑事政策的比较与分析,我们认为,单纯运用古典学派或新古典学派的报应理论,强调报应与惩罚,即“严打”及其威慑,或单纯依赖实证学派的目的刑的理论,强调教育与矫正,即“教化”及其复归,都是不能解决犯罪与罪犯问题的。只有将古典与实证学派的理论观点结合起来,与时俱进揉入新的理论和观点,针对现实的犯罪问题和特点,采取报应和预防相结合,惩罚与矫正相结合,犯罪行为与犯罪人、被害人及其成因和保护的综合考虑,并在此基础上的具有针对性的对策措施,才是行之有效的。预防与惩罚犯罪,必须科际整合、综合治理。美国的两极化刑事政策值得我们学习与借鉴,当严则严,当宽则宽,宽中有严,严中有宽,以严济宽,以宽济严,宽严适当,宽严合法,这就是我们必须坚持与正确运用的中国刑事政策——“宽严相济”的外部经验与本土特色。
Study of criminal polices has been very popular in China and some nations of civil law tradition.Our scholars are interested in some issues in the field of criminal policies not only in China,but in other countries,such as Japan,France,and Germany.However,few people works on the research and study into the policies against crimes in the United Sates.Due to the economic hegemony of US and its great impact on the other countries in every aspect,it is rewarding for us to investigate the crime policies,especially its prevention policies though it doesn't necessarily mean its criminal justice system works well and its policies are efficient. This dissertation makes an attempt to probe into the criminal policies in the United States from the perspective of the policies at the extremes.To get better knowledge and understanding of the US policies can be rwarding.
The nomenclature of the policy against crimes in the US is not the same as the so-called Criminal Policy in China and other countries of civil law tradition,but the policies adopted in the field of criminal law to strike and prevent crime are within the same scope and almost of the same topics though they prefer different terminology such as crime policy,criminal justice policy,criminal law policy,public polic and crime control policy etc. This dissertation deals with those prevention and policies against crimes in a broad sense,which may be different from the ones in the narrow or mixed sense.
Since US differs from us in the system of government,the degree of democracy,the ideology,there is certainly great discrepancy in the two systems,and the different legal traditions calls for different attitudes and approaches to doing research.This paper will try to discuss the US issues in the US way,in the light of practice instead of the pure theoretical problems.
To begin with,the dissertation makes a brief introduction to the crime and criminal justice system for a better understanding of the issues at present.After that it talks about the process of public policy and its relationship with criminal policy.Then it discusses the constitutional and theoretical bases of those policies in order to articulate the validity of the policy-making,implementation and supervision.Subsequently,it focuses on the criminal policies at the extremes in US criminal justice system with the strict policies to habitual and repeated offenders and recidivisms and much more merciful one to young offenders and first-time offenders and etc.In addition,it emphasizes the "get tough" movement,to be specific, the "three strikes" law and the zero-tolerance.What's more,it reveals the policies in sentencing,gun control,drug,juvenile delinquency,and correctional system.At last,it draws a conclusion that we can borrow some of the US experiences and learn from the US lessons,thus helping us.
《美国刑事政策研究》一文,分为六章,各章基本内容是:
第一章,美国刑事政策概述,主要述说美国的犯罪状况,美国的刑事司法制度,美国的刑事政策含义,美国的公共政策要求与内涵,层层推进,并在此基础上了厘清美国的刑事政策与公共政策的关系。
第二章,美国刑事政策的宪法与理论基础,首先研究了美国刑事政策的宪法基础,这是最具美国刑事政策特点和特色的部分,充分体现了宪政国家的法治与人权要求。其次,研究了美国刑事政策的理论基础,这是阐述美国刑事政策的逻辑起点。“实用”是美国刑事政策的前提与要求,“实证”是美国刑事政策的方法与标准。民主与法治、效率与公正是刑事政策的价值取向。社会防卫与人权保障是刑事政策两极目的与双向任务。
第三章,美国的基本刑事政策——“重重轻轻”两极化的刑事政策,本章是全文的核心与重点。基于美国犯罪复杂化、两极化,为了更好地打击犯罪、预防犯罪和控制犯罪,使反犯罪的人、财、物资源予以有效地分配,达到最佳效果。美国从上世纪80年代中期以来,实行了“重重轻轻”的两极化的刑事政策。“重重”形势政策,针对恐怖主义犯罪,严重暴力犯罪,重大经济与财产犯罪,以及累犯等恢复死刑,实行终身监禁刑和不得假释的无期徒刑;“轻轻”的刑事政策,针对初犯、偶犯、过失犯、未成年人犯,普通刑事犯,采取刑事和解、恢复性司法、转处、缓刑、假释、社区矫正。本文对“重重轻轻”的政策进行了全方位考证与内容分析。
第四章,美国的具体刑事政策,主要介绍和分析了美国的“强硬”政策、“三振出局”政策、破窗理论与零容忍政策、死刑政策、监狱矫正政策、社区矫正政策和对被害人赔偿与保障政策等。这是最具操作层面的政策内容,也是受世人瞩目的地方。
第五章,美国刑事政策的评估与前瞻,着重对美国刑事政策的利与弊、好与坏、功与过等予以了评估,对美国刑事政策面临的问题与改革期待等,予以了分析。在此基础上,对21世纪美国犯罪问题的刑事政策、公共政策进行了探讨,认为从“911”恐怖事件开始,美国的刑事政策开始了转折,体现在以国家为本,采取单边主义和双重标准的反恐政策,假借反恐之名,行霸权主义和世界警察之实,在打击犯罪的同时,践踏着法治与人权。最后,对美国未来的刑事政策进行了若干大胆的预测与和展望。,
第六章,他山之石——美国刑事政策对我国的启示与借鉴,这是本文写作的动机与目的,研究美国的刑事政策,是为了学习与借鉴。通过对美国刑事政策的比较与分析,我们认为,单纯运用古典学派或新古典学派的报应理论,强调报应与惩罚,即“严打”及其威慑,或单纯依赖实证学派的目的刑的理论,强调教育与矫正,即“教化”及其复归,都是不能解决犯罪与罪犯问题的。只有将古典与实证学派的理论观点结合起来,与时俱进揉入新的理论和观点,针对现实的犯罪问题和特点,采取报应和预防相结合,惩罚与矫正相结合,犯罪行为与犯罪人、被害人及其成因和保护的综合考虑,并在此基础上的具有针对性的对策措施,才是行之有效的。预防与惩罚犯罪,必须科际整合、综合治理。美国的两极化刑事政策值得我们学习与借鉴,当严则严,当宽则宽,宽中有严,严中有宽,以严济宽,以宽济严,宽严适当,宽严合法,这就是我们必须坚持与正确运用的中国刑事政策——“宽严相济”的外部经验与本土特色。
Study of criminal polices has been very popular in China and some nations of civil law tradition.Our scholars are interested in some issues in the field of criminal policies not only in China,but in other countries,such as Japan,France,and Germany.However,few people works on the research and study into the policies against crimes in the United Sates.Due to the economic hegemony of US and its great impact on the other countries in every aspect,it is rewarding for us to investigate the crime policies,especially its prevention policies though it doesn't necessarily mean its criminal justice system works well and its policies are efficient. This dissertation makes an attempt to probe into the criminal policies in the United States from the perspective of the policies at the extremes.To get better knowledge and understanding of the US policies can be rwarding.
The nomenclature of the policy against crimes in the US is not the same as the so-called Criminal Policy in China and other countries of civil law tradition,but the policies adopted in the field of criminal law to strike and prevent crime are within the same scope and almost of the same topics though they prefer different terminology such as crime policy,criminal justice policy,criminal law policy,public polic and crime control policy etc. This dissertation deals with those prevention and policies against crimes in a broad sense,which may be different from the ones in the narrow or mixed sense.
Since US differs from us in the system of government,the degree of democracy,the ideology,there is certainly great discrepancy in the two systems,and the different legal traditions calls for different attitudes and approaches to doing research.This paper will try to discuss the US issues in the US way,in the light of practice instead of the pure theoretical problems.
To begin with,the dissertation makes a brief introduction to the crime and criminal justice system for a better understanding of the issues at present.After that it talks about the process of public policy and its relationship with criminal policy.Then it discusses the constitutional and theoretical bases of those policies in order to articulate the validity of the policy-making,implementation and supervision.Subsequently,it focuses on the criminal policies at the extremes in US criminal justice system with the strict policies to habitual and repeated offenders and recidivisms and much more merciful one to young offenders and first-time offenders and etc.In addition,it emphasizes the "get tough" movement,to be specific, the "three strikes" law and the zero-tolerance.What's more,it reveals the policies in sentencing,gun control,drug,juvenile delinquency,and correctional system.At last,it draws a conclusion that we can borrow some of the US experiences and learn from the US lessons,thus helping us.
引文
[1]FBI:"Violent Crime",Crime in the United Sates.2006,2007年9月。
[2]FBI:"Crime Rates Fall,in the First Half of 2007".2007 Crime in the United Sates:Preliminary Semiannual Uniform Crime Report,January through June.2008年1月7日。
[1]储槐植:《美国刑法》,北京大学出版社1996年版,第3-4页及第51-52页。
[1]诸槐植:《美国刑法》,北京大学出版社1996年版,第6-7页。
[1]US Department of Justice,Office of Justice Programs,Bureau of Justice Statistics:Correctional Populations.
[2]President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice,Challenge of Crime in a Free society (Washington,D.C.:Government Printing Office,1967),p.19.转引自 American Government and Politics Today:2004-2005 Brief Edition 2004,by Schmidt,Steffen W.,and Mack C.Shelley and Barbara A.Bardes. Thomson,Wadsworth,p.310.
[1]Shenkman,Richard.1988.Legends,Lies and Cherished Myths of American History,New York:Harper Collins,p.158.
[2]Schmidt,Steffen W.,and Mack C.Shelley and Barbara A.Bardes.2004.American Government and Politics Today:2004-2005Brief Edition,Thomson,Wadsworth,p.310.
[3]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.542..
[4]Blumstein,Alfred.2002."Prisons:A Policy Challenge".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,pp.451-458.
[5]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.542.
[1]Wilson,James Q.1983.Thinking about Crime,rev.ed,NewYork:Basic Books.转引自 Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.542.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.543.
[3]Taylor,Ralph B.2002."Physical Environment,Crime,Fear,and Resident-Based Control".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,pp.413-434.
[4]Sampson,Robert J.2002."The Counmunity".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Putersilia,p.225.
[5]Blumstein,Alfred.2002."Prisons:A policy Challenge".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,pp.451-458.
[6]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.543.
[7]Spelman,William.2000."The Limited Importance of Prison Expansion".In The Crime Drop in America,ed.Alfred Blumstein and Joel Wallman.New York:Cambridge University Press.转引自 Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.543.
[1]Chaiken,Jan,and Marcia Chaiken.1982.Varieties of Crimnal Behavior.Santa Monica,Calif.Rand.转引自Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.543.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.544.
[3]Chen,Elsa Y.1998.Estamating the Impacts of Three Strikes and You're out and Truth in Sentencing on Crime and Corrections;Chen,Elsa.2000.Three Strikes and Truth in Sentencing.PH.D.diss.,Department of Political Science,UCLA.转引自 Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.546.
[4]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.546.
[1]Schmidt,Steffen W.,and Mack C.Shelley and Barbara A.Bardes.2004.American Government and Politics Today:2004-2005 Brief Edition,Thomson,Wadsworth,p.310.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.546.
[3]Lynch,James.2002 "Crime in International Perspective".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.6.
[4]美国纽约城市大学John Jay刑事司法学院教授。
[5]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.540.
[1]Monkkonen,Eric.2001.Murder in New York City,Berkeley:University of California Press.转引自 Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.541.
[2]Franklin E.Zimring and Gordon Hawkins 1997.Crime is not the problem:Lethal violence in America.New York:Oxford University Press.转引自 Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.541.
[1]James Q.Wilson:哈佛大学教授,致力于公关政策学研究。
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.541.
[3]Lynch,James.2002."Criminal in International Perspective".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,pp.5-42.
[4]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.544.
[1]Farrington,David P.and Patric A.Langan.1992."Changes in Crime and Punishment in England and America in the 1980s." In Justice Quarterly 9:5-46.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.544.
[3]The Associated Press:FBI:Violent crimes in U.S.rise.Washington,Sept.24,2007.
[1]Willing,Richard.2006.Violent Crime on the Rise,Summit Participants Say,USATODAY,March 31.
[2]Bergstein,Brian.2008.Research links iPod,crime rise,Associated Press,March 7.
[3]Willing,Richard.2006.Violent Crime on the Rise,Summit Participants Say,USATODAY,March 31.
[4]FBI report:Hate crime in the US.
[1]Hancock,Harry W.,and Paul M.Sharp.2004.Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD,p.2.
[2]Hancock,Harry W.,and Paul M.Sharp.2004.Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD,p.2.
[1]Hancock,Harry W.,and Paul M.Sharp.2004.Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD,p.1.
[2]Hancock,Harry W.,and Paul M.Sharp.2004.Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD,p.1.
[3]Currie,Elliot:加州大学犯罪学、法律和社会学教授,他创立了一个基金会,帮助学生了解犯罪问题及政策对犯罪和其他社会问题的反应。
[4]Currie,Elliot.2004."Crime Justice,and the Social Environment".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.,Pearson Education LTD,pp52-69.
[5]Hancock,Harry W.,and Paul M.Sharp.2004.Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,Pearson Education Inc.,p.1.
[6]Hancock,Harry W.,and Paul M.Sharp.2004.Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,3~(rd) ed.Pearson Education LTD,p.2.
[7]曲新久:《公共政策的权力分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2002,第106页。
[1]曲新久:《刑事政策的权力分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2002,第16页。
[2]曲新久:《公共政策的权力分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2002,第225页。
[1]James F.Gilsinan:圣路易大学公共政策研究教授,公共服务学院院长。
[2]Gilsinan,James F.2004."Public Policy and Criminology:An Historical and Philosophical reassessment".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3~(rd) ed.,Pearson Education LTD,pp.22-34.
[3]Michael Gottfredson:纽约州立大学管理、政策、法律、社会学和心理学教授。Travis Hirschi:Arizona.亚利桑那州大学社会学和人类学教授。
[4]Gottfredson,Michael and Travis Hirschi.2004."Science Public Policy,and the Career Paradigm".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3~(rd) ed.,Pearson Education LTD,pp.35-51.
[1]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.537.
[2]Levitt,Steven D.2002."Deterence".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,pp.435-450.
[1]Bushway,Shawn and Peter Reuter.2002."Labor Markets and Crime".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.191.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.539.
[3]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.539.
[1]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,pp.539-540.
[2]主要盛行于20世纪欧美诸国的基本刑事政策,由于强调重重、轻轻,偏重于两极,以节省司法资源、提高刑罚效益、增大防治犯罪能力,所以俗称“两极化刑事政策”。由于各国犯罪“敌情”的不同,社会、政治、经济、文化的发展状况及形势而异,两极化刑事政策也呈流动性和相对性。美国在20世纪70年代采取的是“相对报应”的两极化刑事政策。但自90年代以来,由于民众对犯罪恐惧感的增大,社会安全感和幸福感的下降,美国采取了“更加报应的”两极化刑事政策,也称“强硬政策”。
[1]Plano,Jack.C.,and Milton Greenberg,Roy Olton,and Robert E.Riggs.1973.Political Science and Dictionary.Hinsdale,Ill.:The Dryden Press,p.311.
[1]Thomas R.Dye:政治学家、教育家,曾在乔治亚大学、威斯康星大学、宾夕法尼亚大学任教,佛罗里达州立大学荣誉退休教授,他的书影响了一代大学生。
[2]Dye,Thomas.1981.Understanding Public Policy,4th ed.Englewood Cliffs,N.J.:Prentice Hall,Inc.p.1.
[3]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p5.
[1]美国宪法确定了联邦政府各部门间的关系。联邦政府遵循的程序来源于宪法和美国早期共和党采用的一些程序。比如,宪法中没提到关于政党,但是政党却快速地统治了立法程序。见Ladd,Everett Carl.1985.The American Polity:The People and Their Government.New York:W.W.Norton & Co.Chap.5.
[2]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.7.
[3]Winter,William O.1981.State and Local Government in a Decentralized Republic.New York:Macmillan Publishing Co.Inc.pp.40-59.
[4]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.7.
[1]Winter,William O.1981.State and Local Government in a Decentralized Republic.New York:Macmillan Publishing Co.Inc.pp.60-64.
[2]Winter,William O.1981.State and Local Government in a Decentralized Republic.New York:Macmillan Publishing Co.Inc.pp.71-76.
[3]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.9.
[4]Hayes,Michael T.1992.Incrementalism and Public Policy.New York:Longman,pp.54-55.
[1]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.9.
[2]Mapp v.Ohio,307 US 643(1961)
[3]Miranda v.Arizona,348 US 436(1996)
[4]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rded.Pearson Education LTD.p.8.
[5]James E.Anderson:经济学家,波士顿大学教授。
[6]Anderson,James E.1981.Public Policy-Making,2nd.ed.New York,p.113.From Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rded.Pearson Education LTD.p.8.
[1]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.8.
[2]Lineberry,Robert,and Ira Sharkansky.1978.Urban Politics and Public Policy,3rd ed.New York:Harper & Row,p.15.
[3]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.10.
[1]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p11.
[2]Lineberry,Robert,and Ira Sharkansky.1978.Urban Politics and Public Policy,3rd ed.New York:Harper & Row,pp.10-12.
[3]Anderson,James.1981.Public Policy-making,3rd,ed New York:Holt,Rinehart and Winston,p.113.
[1]创制权:一种权利和程序,通过它们公民可以通过请愿形式提出法案。
[2]Lineberry,Robert,and Ira Sharkansky.1978.Urban Politics and Public Policy,3rd ed.New York:Harper & Row,p.13.
[3]Winter,William O.1981.State and Local Government in a Decentralized Republic.New York:Macmillan Publishing Co.Inc.pp.295-297.
[4]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T,R.Carr,and N.Joseph Cayer.1993.American Public Policy:An Introduction,4th ed.New York:St.Martin's Press,pp.7-10.
[1]Anderson,James.1981.Public Policy-making,3rd,ed New York:Holt,Rinehart and Winston,pp.15-16.
[2]Anderson,James.1981.Public Policy-making,3rd,ed New York:Holt,Rinehart and Winston,pp.31-34.
[3]Hojnacld,William P.1977."Kalamazoo,Michigan and South Bend,Indiana:A comparative Analysis of Policy Outcomes." Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation.University of Notre Dame.转引自 William P.Hojnacki:The Public Policy Process in the United States.Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.2004,p.13.
[4]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.13.
[1]Bonjean,Charles M.,and Terry N.Clark and Robert Lineberry,1971.Community Politics:A Behavioral Approach,New York:Free Press.这篇著名的文选着眼于讨论影响地方政府部门如何处理输入的诸多因素。
[2]Ladd,Everett Carl.1985.The American Polity:The People and Their Government.New York:W.W.Norton & Co.pp.351-53.
[3]Ladd,Everett Carl,.1985.The American Polity:The People and Their Government.New York:W.W.Norton &Co.p.356.
[1]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.14.
[2]Grant,Daniel R.,and H.C.Nixon.1982.State and Local Government in America,4th ed.Boston:Allyn and Bacon,pp.177-183.
[3]Ladd,Everett Carl.1985.The American Polity:The People and Their Government.New York:W.W.Norton & Co.pp.360-364.
[1]Ladd,Everett Carl.1985.The American Polity:The People and Their Government.New York:W.W.Norton & Co.,pp.365-368.
[2]Ladd,Everett Carl.1985.The American Polity:The People and Their Government.New York:W.W.Norton & Co.,pp.357-359.
[1]由于大城市更加多元化,周围的郊区在特征上更趋向于同源。
[2]Schultze,William A.1974.Urban and Community Politics.North Scituate,Mass.:Duxbury Press,Chapter 10.
[1]Schultze,William A.1974.Urban and Community Politics.North Scituate,Mass.:Duxbury Press,Chapter 10.
[2]Schoenbaum,Thomas J.1988.Waging Peace and War:Dean Rusk in the Truman,Kennedy and Johnson Years.New York:Simon & Schuster.在政府任职之前,Rusk是洛克菲勒基金会的会长。
[3]Martin Luther King,Jr:(1929-1968),美国民权运动的主要领导人之一。
[4]Jesse Louis Jackson,St.(born October 8,1941) is an American civil rights activist and Baptist minister
[5]Schultze,William A.1974.Urban and Community Politics.North Scituate,Mass.:Duxbury Press.Chapter 4 and 5.
[6]坦慕尼厅(Tammany Hall):是民主党的政治核心,自1790年代到1960年代一直在纽约的政治舞台上占主导地位。
[1]Richard Daley:芝加哥市的市长,在任21年(1955-1976)。
[2]David Lawrence:1959年1963年任美国宾夕法尼亚州州长。
[3]Meyerson,Martin,and Edward C.Banfield.1969."A Machine at work.".In the Urban Government:A Reader in Administration and Politics.ed.by Edward C.Banfield,New York:The Free Press pp.169-179.
[4]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.18.
[5]Winter,William O..1981.State and Local Government in a Decentralized Republic.New York:Macmillan Publishing Co.Inc.pp.115-159.
[6]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.18.
[7]Everett Carlladd,Jr.1970.American Political Parties:Social Political Parties:Social Change and Political Response,New York:W.W.Norton & Co.pp.205-228.
[8]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.19.
[1]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.19.
[2][美]F.I.格林斯坦、N.W.波尔斯彼主编:《政策与政策制定》,台湾幼狮文化事业公司,1983,第126-127页。转引自曲新久《刑事政策的权力分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2002,第30页。
[3][美]F.I.格林斯坦、N.W.波尔斯彼主编:《政策与政策制定》,台湾幼狮文化事业公司,1983,第126-127页。转引自曲新久《刑事政策的权力分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2002,第30页。
[4][美]F.I.格林斯坦、N.W.波尔斯彼主编:《政策与政策制定》,台湾幼狮文化事业公司,1983,第126-127页。转引自曲新久《刑事政策的权力分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2002,第30页。
[1]夏勇:从刑法的宪法制约引发的启示,中国论文下载中心,2006年10月26日。
[2]储槐植:《美国刑法》,北京大学出版社1996年版,第36页。
[1]许福生:《变动时期的刑事政策》,台湾:中央警察出版社,2003,第23页。
[2]“非犯罪化”(Decriminalization)是20世纪中叶以来各国刑法最富新意的改革。自20世纪50年代开始,几乎所有的国家都进行了不同形式和特点的非犯罪化实践。根据非犯罪化思想,把一些原来规定的轻微犯罪的行为(主要为无直接被害人的犯罪)除罪化;另外,将轻微的犯罪列入“违警罪”(或称“秩序法”)中。另外使用一些非刑罚性的制裁方法代替刑罚。这一思潮使得刑罚开始向轻缓化方向迈进。如在美国实行的缓刑、缓期判处等政策就是在这种思潮的影响下产生的。
[3]非机构化:也就是非监禁化,以克服监禁的副效应,让罪犯更好地在真实的社会环境中服刑与矫正。非机 构化实质是对剥夺自由刑的否定,由此倡导非监禁刑,推行社区矫正。
[1]转向处分:对初犯、未成年人较轻微犯罪不予以使用通常的司法体系对其进行审判、处罚,而转向接受教育性辅助设施或未成年法院。
[2]也有人认为,4D政策为:非犯罪化(decriminalization)、非刑罚化(depenalization)、非机构化(deinstitutionalization)、转向处分(division)。
[3]马克昌:论刑罚的本质,《法学评论》,1995年5月。
[4]许福生:《变动时期的刑事政策》,台湾:中央警察出版社,2003,第26页。
[1]许福生:《变动时期的刑事政策》,台湾:中央警察出版社,2003,第26页。
[1]Crime Policy of the Republican Party:at http:/www.criticism.com/policy/republicans-crime-policy.php
[2]Mann Act曼恩法案:1910年6月美国国会通过的一项法案,禁止州与州之间贩运妇女。
[1]Boyum,David A.and Mark A.R.Kieiman.2002."Substance Abuse Policy form a Crime-Control Perspective".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.331-382.
[2]Cook,Philip J.and Mark H.Moore and Anthony A.Braga.2002 "Gun Control".Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.291-331.
[3]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.548.
[1]Schmidt,Steffen W.,and Mack C.Shelley and Barbara A.Bardes.2004.American Government and Politics Today:2004-2005 Brief Edition,Thomson,Wadsworth,p.312.
[2]Schmidt,Steffen W.,and Mack C.Shelley and Barbara A.Bardes.2004.American Government and Politics Today:2004-2005 Brief Edition,Thomson,Wadsworth,p.312.
[3]United Sates v.Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative,532 US.483(2001)
[4]Schmidt,Steffen W.,and Mack C.Shelley and Barbara A.Bardes.2004.American Government and Politics Today:2004-2005 Brief Edition,Thomson,Wadsworth,p.312.
[1]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.548.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.548.
[1]Boyum,David A.and Mark A.R.Kleiman.2002."Substance Abuse Policy from a Crime-Control Perspective".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.331-382.
[2]"Treatment of Drug Abuse." In Drugs and Crime,ed.Michael Tonry and James Q.Wilson.p.393-460.
[3]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.550.
[4]Mechay,Stephen,and Rosalie Liccardo Pacula.2000."The Effectiveness of Workplace Drug prevention Programs:Does 'Zero Tolerance' work?" NBER Working Paper 7383.Cambridge,Mass.:National Bureau of Economic Research.转引自Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.550.
[1]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.550.
[2]Lott,John R.2000.More Guns,Less Crime,2d ed.Chicago:University of Chicago Press.转引自 Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.550.
[3]Ayres,Ian,and John Donohue.1999."Nondiscretionary Concealed Weapons Laws." American Law and Economic Review 1:436-70;Cook,Philip J.and Mark H.Moore and Anthony A.Braga.2002 "Gun Control".Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.291-331.
[4]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.550.
[5]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.550.
[6]Wright,James,and Peter H.Rossi.1986.Armed and Dangerous:A Survey of Felonies.New York:Aldine de Gruyter.Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.551.
[1]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.551.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.551.
[3]Sherman,Lawrence W.2002."Fair and Effective Policing".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.383-412.
[1]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.551.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.553.
[1]Tolan,Patrick.2002."Crime Prevention" Focus on Youth".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.109-148.
[2]Gottfredson,Denise C,and David B.Wilson,and Stacy S.Najaka.In In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.149-189.
[3]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.554.
[4]Cullen,Francis T.2002."Rehabilitation and Treatment Programs".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.253-89.
[1]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.554.
[2]Petersilia,John.2000."Community Correction".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.483-508.
[1]竹怀军,利子平:《我国刑事政策的抉择及其合理性论证》,《法学评论》,2006年04期。
[2]许福生:《变动时期的刑事政策》,台湾:中央警察出版社,2003,第31页。
[3]RICO:The Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act,该法有八个条文,其主要内容有四个方面:(1)规定没收财产刑,一旦被判处有罪,没收犯罪全部所得;(2)监禁刑最高达20年,特殊情况可处终身监禁,并且可处数额惊人的罚金;(3)允许受害人提出三倍于其损失的赔偿请求;(4)规定有经济保安措施,以防止同类罪行重演。更为重要的是,该法在三个方面突破了美国传统的刑法制度:一是规定犯罪“行为模式”允许有条件的从重溯及,这实际上违背了现代民主、法制社会中法不溯及既往的原则;二是规定没收财产刑,在私有财产神圣不可侵犯的美国社会,除叛国罪外,极少适用没收财产刑;三是刑事责任归责采用鬼影(Penumbra)规则,即共犯对实行犯在实施共同犯罪计划过程中所发生的一切当然的可能后果承担责任。转引自竹怀军、利子平:《我国刑事政策的抉择及其合理性论证》,《法学评论》,2006年04期。
[1]《携带武器的职业犯罪法案》:Armed Career Criminal Act,规定,联邦刑事案件中对被告三次定罪,其中两次是“严重的毒品犯罪”或者是“暴力重罪”,那么再犯携带武器所实施的重罪,就要提高处刑。除非被判处死刑,否则至少是15年监禁,最高为终身监禁。引自竹怀军、利子平:《我国刑事政策的抉择及其合理性论证》,《法学评论》,2006年04期。
[2]1994年《暴力犯罪控制及执法条例》,其内容为:对于前已触犯二次重罪,或前已触犯一次以上重罪之暴力重罪犯,或一次以上重罪的毒犯,若再犯一次重罪时,将被判处终身监禁,且不得假释。王文华:《中美累犯制度比较研究——以美国“三振出局法”为视角》,《中国刑法学年会文集》,(2005年度)中国人民公安大学出版社2005年10月,第一卷:《刑法制度研究》,第211页。
[3]王文华:《中美累犯制度比较研究——以美国“三振出局法”为视角》,《中国刑法学年会文集》,(2005年度)中国人民公安大学出版社2005年10月,第一卷:《刑法制度研究》,第211页。
[4]2001年10月26日通过了《美国2001年爱国者法案》,即《反恐法案》。
[5]人民网:《美三万青年团伙从事有组织犯罪威胁社会治安》,2006-10-04。
[1]许福生:《变动时期的刑事政策》,台湾:中央警察出版社,2003,第28-29页。
[2]刑事司法中的犹豫制度可以分为侦查阶段的移送犹豫、检察阶段的起诉犹豫、裁判阶段的宣告犹豫和执行犹豫等。
[3]许福生:《变动时期的刑事政策》,台湾:中央警察出版社,2003,第29-30页。
[4]许福生:《变动时期的刑事政策》,台湾:中央警察出版社,2003,第31页。
[5]“非犯罪化”(Decriminalization)是20世纪中叶以来各国刑法最富新意的改革。自20世纪50年代开始,几乎所有的国家都进行了不同形式和特点的非犯罪化实践。根据非犯罪化思想,把一些原来规定的轻微犯罪的行为(主要为无直接被害人的犯罪)除罪化;另外,将轻微的犯罪列入“违警罪”(或称“秩序法”)中。另外使用一些非刑罚性的制裁方法代替刑罚。这一思潮使得刑罚开始向轻缓化方向迈进。如在美国实行的缓刑、缓期判处等政策就是在这种思潮的影响下产生的。
[6]谢锡美:《科学地对待“严打”》,《华东刑事司法评论》2003年03期。
[1]竹怀军,利子平:《我国刑事政策的抉择及其合理性论证》,《法学评论》,2006年04期。
[2]宋英辉、许身健:《恢复性司法程序之思考》,中国论文下载中心,2008年3月10日。
[3]Clear,Todd R.and George F.Cole.1994.American Corrections,Belmont,California:Wadsworth Publishing Company.p.177.
[4]2002年纽约联邦法庭法官拉克夫判决,死刑违反美国宪法。根据美国法律,这个美国法庭首次做出的判决
[1]Gest,Ted.2001."Three Strikes:Baseball to Crime",in Crime and Politics:Big Government Erratic Campaign for Law and Order.,Oxford University Press,p.188.
[1]Gest,Ted.2001."Three Strikes:Baseball to Crime",in Crime and Politics:Big Government Erratic Campaign for Law and Order.,Oxford University Press,p.159.
[2]Bill Clinton,1994.State of the Union Address,25 January.http://www.thisnation.com/library/sotu/1994bc.html.
[3]Gest,Ted.2001."Three Strikes:Baseball to Crime",in Crime and Politics:Big Government Erratic Campaign for Law and Order.,Oxford University Press,p.189.
[4]John Carson,一位警察的儿子,在成长的过程中他常听父亲抱怨刑事司法制度的漏洞。大学毕业后,他在人口调查局工作。他涉足政治,是一个保守主义者。1986年开始,他在地方的一个电视节目上做评论员,提出自己关于政府开支、规章制度改革、教育和犯罪等观点。1988年在一次电视节目上,为使自己的观点简明、扼要、有力,他引用了这个棒球术语,企图说服人们:之所以有犯罪问题,主要原因是大多数罪犯不害怕法律。John Carson的建议是任何人如果被定罪且先前被处罚两次,在其第三次犯罪时,就应该对其做出所有可能的指控,不得缓刑、不得假释。起初,John Carson引用的容易让人记住的口号并没有引起多大的反响,甚至说几乎没有人对此做出反应。转引自Gest,Ted.2001.“Three Strikes:Baseball to Crime”,in Crime and Politics:Big Government Erratic Campaign for Law and Order.,Oxford University Press,pp.192.
[1]Gest,Ted.2001."Three Strikes:Baseball to Crime",in Crime and Politics:Big Government Erratic Campaign for Law and Order.,Oxford University Press,p.190-192.
[2]Richard Allen Davis,职业罪犯,他的犯罪生涯始于1967年,他有一连串的判罪记录,成人后大部分的时间呆在监狱里。他曾在公交车站绑架一位妇女并企图对其性侵扰,为此他在监狱服刑5年,被释放3年后,他又因绑架另一位妇女而获刑期16年。Klass案件发生时,他只服了刑期的一半,刚刚被释放,在假释期间。
[1]Gest,Ted.2001."Three Strikes:Baseball to Crime",in Crime and Politics:Big Government Erratic Campaign for Law and Order.,Oxford University Press,p.195.
[1]Harry A.Chernoff,Christopher M.Kelly and John R.Kroger,"The politics on Crime," Harvard Journal on Legislation,Volume 33(Summer 1996),P.527.
[2]Ted Gest:.2001.Crime and Politics:Three strikes:Baseball to Crime,Oxford University Press,p.197.
[1]Kathleen Maguire and Ann L.Pastore,eds.,Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics,(Washington,DC:US Department of Justice,Bureau of Justice,1999),P129.
[2]Ted Gest:Crime and Politics:Three strikes:Baseball to Crime,Oxford University Press,2001,P198.
[3]Ted Gest:Crime and Politics:Three strikes:Baseball to Crime,Oxford University Press,2001,P198.
[4]David J.Lynch and Krajicek,Scooped(New York:Columbia University Press,1998),PP.153,156-159.
[1]Gest,Ted.2001."Three strikes:Baseball to Crime".In Crime and Politics:Oxford University Press,P200.
[2]Gest,Ted.2001."Three strikes:Baseball to Crime".In Crime and Politics:Oxford University Press,P200.
[3]James P.Lynch and Williams J.Sabol,"Did Getting Tough on Crime Pay?"(Washington,D.C.:The Urban Institute,1997).
[4]Ted Gest:Crime and Politics:Three strikes:Baseball to Crime,Oxford University Press,2001,P201.
[5]85%的这个数字源于1984年的联邦打击犯罪法律。它规定囚犯只要达到规定的最大的“良好时间”的15%,就足以被释放。
[1]Beres,L.,Griffith,T.1998."Do three strikes laws make sense? Habitual offender statutes and criminal incapacitation".Georgetown Law Journal,87(1),pp.103-138.
[2]"State Legislator is Moving Toward Tougher Sentencing",Criminal Justice Newsletter.(June 15).1994c,p.1.
[3]Form Benekos,Peter J.& Alida V.Merlo.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.261.
[3]Benekos,Peter J.and Alida V.Merlo.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.261.
[4]Schneider,William.1993."Crime and Politics:Incumbents Got Mugged by Fear in Our Streets".Washington Post National Weekly Edition.(November 15-21):24.
[1]Lewis,Anthony,《纽约时报》的专栏作家。
[2]Lewis,Anthony.1994."Crime and Politics".New York Times.(September 16):A13.
[3]Broder,David.1994a."Population Explosion".The Washington Post National Weekly Edition.(February 21-17):37.
[4]Barry Goldwater,众议院议员,1964年共和党总统候选人。
[5]Benekos,Peter J.and Alida V.Merio.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.262.
[6]Lyndon Johnson:第36届美国总统。
[7]Congressional Digest,1994,"The Federal Role In Crime Control." Washington,DC(June-July),p2.
[1]Michael Dukakis:希腊移民的后裔,美国民主党人,曾担任马萨诸塞州州长,1988年民主党总统候选人。
[2]Then & Now:Michael Dukakis,CNN.com,Thursday,September 29,2005;Posted:12:48 p.m.EDT(16:48GMT).
[3]Willie Horton:在一次抢劫中对毫无抵御能力的加油站的工作人员戳了15刀,被判终身监禁不得假释。监狱服刑11年后,在48小时狱外短期休假时,又对一男子实施暴虐,用刀砍杀其22次,另外对其情人实施了野蛮的强奸。
[4]Bidinotto,Robert James.1988."Getting Away with Murder",Reader's Digest,July.
[5]Dukakis & Willie Horton.1988.The Willie Horton case,the Forerunner.com.
[6]Benekos,Peter J.and Alida V.Merlo.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.263.
[7]Shover,Neal and Werner Einstader.1988.Analyzing American Corrections,Belmont,CA:Wadsworth Publishing Co.p.51.
[8]Halfway house:返回社区训练所,是建于社区的安全措施低于监狱、限制性又严于其他建筑设施的社区矫正机构,又称之为“中途之家”。与缓刑、假释、严密缓刑和假释监督或住宅禁闭制度相比,训练所对生活环境的控制性更强,其实质是罪犯的居住条件介于监狱与自由社区之间。返回社区训练所制度的目的是为罪犯刑满返回社区前提供一个过渡性的(一般为六个月)、受到控制的居住环境,以培养其进入自由社区生活的独立适应能力。此制度重点关注罪犯个人的教育背景和就业能力。如,鼓励未读完中学的罪犯获取中学文凭(GED);鼓励缺乏职业技能的罪犯参加职业培训;帮助求职能力差的罪犯找到并稳定工作。参见:蔡国芹:“美国社区矫正体制的中间制裁制度”,《时代法学》2007年第6期。
[1]Lewis,Neff."Crime Rates Decline:Outrage Hasn't".New York Times,December,1993,p.3:B6.
[2]Michael Rand of the Justice Department,转引自 Lewis,Neff."Crime Rates Decline:Outrage Hasn't".New York Times,December,1993.p.3:B6.
[3][美]马克·博格艾兰·Y·苏尼.《美国的联邦量刑指南制度》,张明、戴昕译:http:/www.chinacourt.org/public/detail.php?id=185321.
[4]“应得的惩罚”原则是指量刑时必须根据犯罪行为的严重性而实施,同时兼顾犯罪人的人身危险性。刑罚的最终目的是“控制犯罪”,但是适当的刑罚应当是在“罪有应得”(应得的惩罚)的基础上确定的。翁凯一:《从英美国家的“应得的惩罚”原则看我国的量刑原则》。
[5]Rhine,Edward E.2004."Sentencing Reform and Correctional policy".In Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,ed.by Barry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,p.273.
[6]Rhine,Edward E.2004."Sentencing Reform and Correctional policy".In Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,ed.by Barry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,p.273.
[1]Tonry,Michael.1987.Sentencing Reform Impacts.National Institute of Justice,US.Department of Justice.Washington,DC:US Government Printing Office.
[2]Rhine,Edward E.2004."Sentencing Reform and Correctional policy".In Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,ed.by Barry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,p.273.
[3]Progressive Era:1890-1920美国“进步时代”。19世纪末20世纪初,美国社会面临着很多问题,例如,贫富差距扩大、经济秩序混乱、政治丑闻不断、道德水准下降、生活环境恶化等。所有这些问题都对美国社会秩序的稳定构成了直接的威胁。正是在这种背景下,美国社会出现了一个社会改革潮流,其中包括:争取社会正义运动、市政改革运动、争取女权运动等,涉及美国社会生活的许多方面的改革。在美国历史上,这场社会改革运动被称为“进步主义运动”
[4]Tonry,Michael.1987.Sentencing Reform Impacts.National Institute of Justice,US.Department of Justice.Washington,DC:US Government Printing Office.
[5]Shane-DuBow,Sandra,Brown,Alice P.,& Olsen,Erik.1985.Sentencing Reform in the United Sates:History,Content,and Effect.Washington,DC:US Government Printing Office.
[6]Shane-DuBow,Sandra,Brown,Alice P.,& Olsen,Erik.1985.Sentencing Reform in the United Sates:History,Content,and Effect.Washington,DC:US Government Printing Office.p.6.
[7]Rhine,Edward E.2004."Sentencing Reform and Correctional policy".In Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,ed.by Barry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,p.274.
[1]Rhine,Edward E.2004."Sentencing Reform and Correctional policy".In Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,ed.by Barry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,p.275.
[2]Tonry,Michael.1987.Sentencing Reform Impacts.National Institute of Justice,US.Department of Justice.Washington,DC:US Government Printing Office,p.77.
[3]Tonry,Michael.1988.Structuring Sentencing In Michael Tonry & Norval Morris(Eds.),Crime and Justice:A review of research,University of Chicago Press,pp.275.
[4]Von Hirsch,Andrew,Knapp,Kay A.& Tonry,Michael.1987.The Sentencing commission and its guidelines.Boston:Northern University Press,p.461.
[5]Rhine,Edward E.2004."Sentencing Reform and Correctional policy".In Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,ed.by Barry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,p.275.
[6]Morris Novral,& Tonry,Michael.1990.Between prison and probation:Intermediate punishments in a rational sentencing system.New York:Oxford University Press,p.39.
[1]Tonry,Michael.1987.Sentencing Reform Impacts.National Institute of Justice,US.Department of Justice.Washington,DC:US Government Printing Office,pp.45-75.
[2]Tonry,Michael.1987.Sentencing Reform Impacts.National Institute of Justice,US.Department of Justice.Washington,DC:US Government Printing Office,pp.45-75.
[3]吴景芳.《刑罚与量刑》,载《法律适用》,2004(2):10-16.
[4]Tonry,Michael.1987.Sentencing Reform Impacts.National Institute of Justice,US.Department of Justice.Washington,DC:US Government Printing Office,pp.45-75.
[5]US Government printing Office,1994,The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994." Conference Report.Washington DC,pp.194-195.
[1]Washington Laws.1994.1994 Pamphlet Edition Session Laws Fifty-Third Legislature 1994 Regular Session.Chapter 1 "Persistent Offenders-Life Sentence on Third Conviction."(Statute Law Committee) Olympia,WA,p.3.
[2]California Penal Service.1994.Chapter 12(A.B.No.971)(West) 1994 Portion of 1993-94 Regular Session "An Act to Amend Section 667 of the Penal Code." Clifornia Penal Code Section 1192.7.
[3]Georgia Statues,17-10-6.1.Code of Georgia,Title 17.Criminal Procedure,Chapter 10 Sentence and Punishment,Article 1.Procedure for Sentencing and Imposition of Punishment.
[1]Benekos,Peter J.and Alida V.Merlo.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.263,转引自 Final Legislative Report,1994,P.1.
[2]States that have some form of 3-STRIKES law are listed here.Three strikes and you are out,an official online resource by Mike Reynolds.http://www.threestrikes.org/3strikestates.html.
[3]Wood,Daniel B.2001.Three strikes'law:Is it too-cruel punishment?" The Christian Science Monitor,USA>Justice at http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/1108/p1s3-usju.html.
[4]Chen Jingwei,Chen Tung-ho,and Chiou Jiunn-cherng.2006."Three Strikes Laws and Repeat Offenders",Central Police University,Chinese Taipei,at http://www.tpac.gov.cn.
[5]Chen Jingwei,Chen Tung-ho,and Chiou Jiunn-cherng.2006."Three Strikes Laws and Repeat Offenders",Central Police University,Chinese Taipei,at http://www.tpac.gov.cn.转引自 Austin,J.,Clark,J.,Hardyman,P.and Henry,A.(2000).Three strikes and you're out:the implementation and impact of strike laws.U.S.Department of Justice,document No:181297.
[1]Peyser,Marc."Strike Three and You're Not Out".Newsweek,August 29,1994,p.53.
[2]"Mandatory Sentencing is Criticized by Justice" New York Times,March 10,1994a,P.A9-14.
[3]Benekos,Peter J.and Alida V.Merlo.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.265.
[4]New York Times,"Killer Withdraws Plea in a 3'Strikes' Case",September 28,1994,p.A19.
[5]Criminal Justice Newsletter."Three-Time Loser' Bill to be Introduced in House." January 24,1994,p.7.
[1]New York Times,"California Judge Refuses to Apply a Tough New Sentencing Law." September 20,1994,p.A9.
[2]Peyser,Marc."Strike Three and You're Not Out".Newsweek,August 29,1994.p.53.
[3]Griset,Pamala.1991.Determining Sentencing:The Promise and the Reality of Retributive Justice.Albany,NY:State University of New York Press,p.181.
[4]Egan,Timothy.1994."A 3-Strike Penal Law Shows It's Not as Simple as It Seems." New York Times.February 15,1994,p.A11.
[5]Bill Meats:Supreme Court upholds long sentences under 3-strikes-you're-out law,CNN.com/lawcenter,March,2003.
[6]Ewing v.California,538 U.S.11
[7]Lockyer v.Andrade,538 US.63.
[8]被告的犯罪历史可追溯到1984年,他被判多次轻罪和重罪。1993年,他被判定犯一级抢劫和三次被判定入室抢劫罪。他的犯罪历史还包括偷窃、殴打、持有武器等判罪。在1993年的定罪前,他共被判定犯有9
[1]Broder,David 1994."Population Explosion." The Washington Post National Weekly Edition.February 21-27,p.37.
[2]Rohter,Larry.1994."States Embracing Tougher Measures for Fighting Crime." New York Times,May 10,p.A12.
[3]Benekos,Peter J.and Alida V.Merlo.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.269.
[4]Criminal Justice Newsletter 1994."State Chief Justices Oppose Senate Crime Bill Provisions",February 15,p.1.
[1]Benekos,Peter J.and Alida V.Merlo.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.269.
[2]Currie,Elliot.1994."What's Wrong with the Crime Bill?" The Nation,January 31,p.120.
[3]Kramer,Michael.1994."Tough.But Smart?" Time.February,7,p.29.
[1]Robinson,M.2002.Justice Blind? Ideals and Realities of American Criminal Justice.Upper Saddle River,NJ:Prentice-Hall.
[2]Cox.S.and J.Wade.1998.The Criminal Justice Network:An Introduction.New York:McGraw-Hill.
[1]刘艳萍:“透视美国死刑及其上诉和复审”,《国家检察官学院河南分院学报》2006年第四期。
[2]N.C.carries out nation's 1,000th execution,http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10283003/(1.19).
[3]Boyd Becomes 1,000th Execution Since 1977 http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,177402,00.html.
[4]Kenneth Lee Boyd,http://www.clarkprosecutor.org/html/death/US/boyd1000.htm.
[5]Http://justice.uaa.alaska.edu/death.
[1]POLITICAL & SOCIAL ISSUES/ISSUES IN DEPTH-DEATH PENALTY,http://france.usembassy.gov/irc/politics/dpenalty.
[2]Appeal and Review of Death Sentences in Washington State,http://www.atg.wa.gov/deathpenalty/.
[1]The Federal Death Penalty System:Supplementary Data,Analysis and Revised Protocols for Capital Case Review http://www.usdoj.gov/dag/pubdoc/deathpenaltystudy.
[1]Mauer,Marc.1994."American Behind Bars:the International Use of Incarceration,1992-1993." The Sentencing Project.Washington D.C.,pp.1-2.
[2]Correction Digest,Senate Crime Bill Will More Than Double American Prison Population by Year of 2005." March 9,1994,p.1.
[3]Tucker,Beverly.1994."Can California Afford 3 Strikes?" In California Teachers Association Action,May,1994,p.7.
[4]Mauer,Marc.1994."American Behind Bars:the International Use of Incarceration,1992-1993." The Sentencing Project.Washington D.C.,p.22.
[5]National Council on Crime and Delinquency 1994."The Aging of California's Prison Population:An Assessment of Three Strikes Legislation" p.3.
[6]Gray,Jerry.1994."New Jersey Senate Approves Bill to Jail 3-Time Criminals for Life." New York Times,May 13,1994.p.B9.
[7]Levision,Arlene,1994."Three Strikes and you are out.." Erie Morning News,January 25,1994,p.B2.
[1]Thomas,Pierre.1994."Why '3 Strikes and You're out' Won't Reduce Crime".The Washington Post National Weekly Edition.July 18-24,1994.p.31.
[2]Geiger,Keith.1994."Upgrading School Building." The Washington Post National Weekly Edition.September,26-October 2,1994.p.22.
[3]Geiger,Keith.1994."Upgrading School Building." The Washington Post National Weekly Edition.September,26-October 2,1994.p.2.
[4]Benekos,Peter J.and Alida V.Merlo.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.268.
[1]Manet,Marc.1994."American Behind Bars:the International Use of Incarceration,1992-1993." The Sentencing Project.Washington D.C.,p.23.
[2]Benekos,Peter J.and Alida V.Merlo.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.268.
[1]刘强:《美国社区矫正的理论与实务》,中国人民公安大学出版社,2003,第14页。
[2]刘强:《美国社区矫正的理论与实务》,中国人民公安大学出版社,2003,第16页。
[3]刘强:《美国社区矫正的理论与实务》,中国人民公安大学出版社,2003,第21页。
[1]刘强:《美国社区矫正的理论与实务》,中国人民公安大学出版社,2003,第22页。
[1]刘强:《美国社区矫正的理论与实务》,中国人民公安大学出版社,2003,第32页。
[1][台]许福生著:《刑事政策》,中国民主法制出版社2006年版,第205-206页。
[2]据《纽约时报》1985年9月24日报道,纽约地区联邦法院对一名犯有诈骗罪的女犯判处5年缓刑监督,其中2年为家庭软禁。转引自储槐植著:《美国刑法》,北京大学出版社1996年版,第336-337页。
[1]储槐植著:《美国刑法》,北京大学出版社1996年版,第342-343页。
[1]刘强:《美国社区矫正的理论与实务》,中国人民公安大学出版社,2003,第32页。
[2]以下数据均来自于美国司法部司法统计局:http://www.usdoj.gov。
[1]转引自许福生:《变动时期的刑事政策》,台湾:中央警察出版社,2003,第26页。
[2]Marc Mauer是华盛顿特区量刑项目的执行理事,著有《监禁刑的竞赛》,此处引自于他在“北京矫正和监狱协会国际会议”上的讲话。
[3]Marc Mauer.2004."Lessons of the "Get Tough" Movement in the United States".The Sentencing Project Washington,D.C.,presented at International Corrections and Prison Association 6th Annual Conference Beijing,China.
[1]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.556.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.556.
[1]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.556.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.556.
[3]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.557.
[4]美国司法部:Key Crime & Justice Facts at a Glance,http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/glance.htm#expfunction.
[1]Bureau of Justice Statistics:CRIME:People's Chief Concerns:Six in 10 Americans say reducing crime should be a top priority for Congress in 2006,but other issues rank higher,Nov.2006.
[1]中新网:美联邦调查局报告显示美国女性犯罪率呈上升趋势,2003年10月29日。
[2]南方网:美国青少年女性犯罪率10年来逐年上升,2002年6月15日。
[3]仇恨犯罪是指违法者因歧视某人的种族、宗教信仰、性取向、民族、国籍或身体心理上的缺陷而侵犯此人或其财产的行为。
[4]新华网:美国仇恨犯罪率去年增近8%,2007年11月20日。
[5]董淑君、李兴安译:玛丽亚.博斯,巴巴拉.克拉菲尔德.乔治:对白领犯罪传统观念的挑战,《外国法译评》,1993年第四期。
[6]环球时报:美国打算释放老年犯,2003年09月17日。
[1]Elliott Currie,2004."Confronting Crime:Looking toward the Twenty-First Centruy".In Piblic Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.407.
[2]Young,Jock.1988."Recent Development in Criminology" In Ma.Haralambos(ed.),Developments in Sociology.London:Causeway,pp.138-141.
[3]Currie,Elliott,1985.Confronting Crime:An American Challenge.New York:Pantheon.
[4]Elliott Currie,2004."Confronting Crime:Looking toward the Twenty-First Centruy".In Piblic Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.407.
[5]Irwin,John,and James Austin.1987.It's about Time:Solving America's Prison Crowding Crisis.San Francisco:National Council on Crime and Deliquency.
[6]Elliott Currie,2004."Confronting Crime:Looking toward the Twenty-First Centruy".In Piblic Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.407.
[7]Will Gorge,1988."The Prop.13 Pendulum Swings Back",Los Angles Times,June 5.p5.
[1]Elliott Currie,2004."Confronting Crime:Looking toward the Twenty-First Centruy".In Piblic Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.407.
[2]Business Week.1998."Human Capital".September 19,p.103.
[3]Head Start:抢先,在赛跑中先于其他竟争对手出发。Had Start,“提前开始”项目,它为美国的低收入的家庭和学龄前儿童提供多方面的发展服务以及为其家庭提供社会服务。为儿童提供的服务主要集中在教育、社会情感发展、生理和心理健康以及营养等方面。
[4]US News and Report.1988."Save the Children".November 7.
[5]Samuelson,Robert.1988.Newsweek,November 14,p.559.
[1]Wilson,James Q.1988.Address to Western Society of Criminology,Monterey,CA:Feburary 26.
[2]Elliott Currie,2004."Confronting Crime:Looking toward the Twenty-First Centruy".In Piblic Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.408.
[3]Elliott Currie,2004."Confronting Crime:Looking toward the Twenty-First Centruy".In Piblic Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.409.
[4]Elliott Currie,2004."Confronting Crime:Looking toward the Twenty-First Centruy".In Piblic Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.410.
[1]Woodhead.Martin.1988."When Psychology Informs Public Policy:the Case of Early Childhood Intervention".American Psychologist 43(No.6,June)
[2]Elliott Currie,2004."Confronting Crime:Looking toward the Twenty-First Centruy".In Piblic Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.410.
[3]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.177.
[4]街头犯罪:包括行凶抢劫、抢劫、机动车盗窃。
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.177.
[2]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.177.
[3]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.177.
[4]Smith,Alexander and Harrier Pollach.1975.Some Sins Are Not Crimes,New York:New View Points,p.100
[5]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.178.
[1]美沙酮(methadone):一种德国在二战中发明的人工合成麻醉药(C21H 27NO)不如吗啡或海洛因那样容易让人上瘾,在戒毒治疗中被用作这些毒品的替代物。
[2]亚文化群:通过将自身组成一个整体,并对每个成员发生影响的共同社会地位、种族背景、居住区域、宗教及其他因素而区别于其他群体的文化分群。毒品亚文化群指由于吸食毒品而犯罪、或实施其他反社会行为的群体。
[3]Smith,Alexander and Harrier Pollach.1975.Some Sins Are Not Crimes,New York:New View Points,p.104.
[4]Euphoria:[医]精神愉快,异常欣快。
[5]快克:一种经过高度化学提纯的可卡因药丸,通过玻璃烟管吸取,很容易使人上瘾。
[6]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.178.
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.182.
[2]US Department of Justice,Beaureau of Justice Statistics,Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics,2000(Albany:Suny,Hindelang Criminal Justice Research Center),p.49.
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.184.
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.184.
[2]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.184.
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.186.
[2]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.186.
[3]Brady Bill,这是1994年通过的第一部重要的战胜了全国来复枪协会(NRA)的立法,是全国最大的,最强烈反对各种形式的火器规定。这个法案是以当时的总统侍从武官命名的,他在1981年企图刺杀里根总统时严重受伤,他的妻子成为了枪支控制积极倡导者。
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.188.
[2]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.189.
[3]US Department of Justice,Bureau of Justice Statistics,Source book of Criminal Justice Statistics,2000(Albany:Suny,Hindelang Criminal Justice Research Center,p.151)
[4]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.189.
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.189.
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.190.
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.191.
[2]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.191.
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.193.
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.197.转引自 Wakler,Sameul.2005.Sense and Nonsense About Crime and Drugs:A Policy Guide,Thomson Learning,p.197.
[2]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.197.
[1]美国学者胡顿在1939年、谢尔顿在1949年曾鼓吹过“犯罪的人”,并提出了曾在美国20世纪前后流行过一时的犯罪生物学理论,如主张“(罪犯)许许多多的不同,都说明罪犯在生物学上的低劣性。”“罪犯应当永远被隔离,而且,其中许多人应被禁止生男育女。”但始终未成为美国主流的犯罪学理论,也未根本性影响美国官方的刑事政策。参见[美]汉斯·托奇主编:《司法和犯罪心理学》,群众出版社1986年版,第215页。
[2][美]D·斯坦利·艾慈恩、杜格·A·蒂默著:《犯罪学》,群众出版社1988年版,第44页。
[1][美]里查德·昆尼等著:《新犯罪学》,中国国际广播出版社1988年版,第4页。
[2][美]里查德·昆尼等著:《新犯罪学》,中国国际广播出版社1988年版,第4页。
[3]同上,第149页。
[4]杨春洗主编:《刑事政策论》,北京大学出版社1994年版,第397-398页。
[1]郭建安著:《美国犯罪学的几个基本问题》,中国人民公安大学出版社1992年版,第127-129页。
[1][美]史蒂文·拉布著:《美国犯罪预防的理论与评价》,中国人民公安大学出版社1993年版,第199-203页。
[2][台]许福生著:《刑事政策学》,中国民主法制出版社2006年版,第122页。
[3][英]约翰·格拉海姆、特雷弗·白男德:《欧美预防犯罪方略》,群众出版社1998年版,第64-65页。
[4][美]史蒂文·拉布著:《美国犯罪预防的理论与评价》,中国人民公安大学出版社1993年版,第204-205页。
[1][台]许福生著:《刑事政策学》,中国民主法制出版社2006年版,第123页。
[2][台]许福生著:《刑事政策学》,中国民主法制出版社2006年版,第123页。
[1][台]许福生著:《刑事政策学》,中国民主法制出版社2006年版,第15页。
[2][台]许福生著:《刑事政策学》,中国民主法制出版社2006年版,第15页。
[3][台]许福生著:《刑事政策学》,中国民主法制出版社2006年版,第4页。
[1][台]许福生著:《刑事政策学》,中国民主法制出版社2006年版,第3页。
[2][美]D·斯坦利·艾兹恩、杜格·A·蒂默著:《犯罪学》,群众出版社1986年版,第610-611页。
[1]胡联合著:《转型与犯罪——中国转型期犯罪问题的实证研究》,中共中央党校出版社,第141页。
[1]胡联合著:《转型与犯罪——中国转型期犯罪问题的实证研究》,中共中央党校出版社,第143页。
[2]胡联合著:《转型与犯罪——中国转型期犯罪问题的实证研究》,中共中央党校出版社,第144页。
[3]“三振出局”就是美国总统克林顿于1994年在国情咨文中正式采用的政策,呼吁在全国推广。
[1]邵馨莲:《美国多州财政吃紧考虑提前释囚》,载《北京青年报》,2008年4月5日B2版。
[2]曲新久主编:《刑法学》,中国政法大学出版社2008年版,第246页。
[1]“等暴力犯罪”是指排出了法定的五种具体犯罪之外,还包括其他与所列举的五种具体犯罪具有相当严重性的暴力性犯罪,如故意伤害致人重伤或死亡、武装暴乱、武装叛乱、劫持航空器等,而不是一般性的暴力犯罪。
[2]金诚著:《转型期中国警务问题研究》,中国人民公安大学出版社,第159页。
[1]王顺安、刘艳萍:《论宽严相济与三个刑事政策的关系》,载《河北学刊》,2008年(2),第174页。
[2]陈兴良:《宽严相济刑事政策研究》,载《法学杂志》,2006(1)。
[3]储槐植:《刑事一体化与关系刑法论》北京大学出版社,1997年版,第305-306页。
[4]陈兴良:《宽严相济刑事政策研究》载《法学杂志》,2006(1)。
[1]肖扬:《中国刑事政策和策略问题》,法律出版社,1996年版,第72-75页。
[1]侯宏林:《刑事政策的价值分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2005年版,第276页。
[2]陈兴良:《宽严相济刑事政策研究》,载《法学杂志》,2006(1)。
[1]黄石:《“严打”政策的反思与重建》,载《江苏警官学院学报》,2005(6)。
[2]侯宏林:《刑事政策的价值分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2005年版,第301-308页。
[1]黄石:《“严打”政策的反思与重建》,载《江苏警官学院学报》,2005(6)。
[2]胡联合、胡鞍钢:《转型期中国犯罪治理的基本对策》,载《法学杂志》,2005(5)。
[3]侯宏林:《刑事政策的价值分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2005年版,第301-308页。
[4]戴宜生:他山之石有用吗?——读《犯罪罪率为什么降低》杂感,法学家茶座,2003(4)。
[1]梁根林:《刑事政策:立场与范畴》,法律出版社,2005年版,第23-42页。
[2]陈兴良:《宽严相济刑事政策研究》,载《法学杂志》,2006(1)。
[3]侯宏林:《刑事政策的价值分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2005年版,第301-308页。
[1]侯宏林:《刑事政策的价值分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2005年版,第270页。
[2]陈兴良:《宽严相济刑事政策研究》,载《法学杂志》,2006(1)。
[1]许福生:《刑事政策学》,中国民主与法制出版社2006年版,第75页。
[2]许福生:《刑事政策学》,中国民主与法制出版社2006年版,第75页。
[1][美]弗雷达·阿德勒、杰哈德·穆勒、威廉·拉菲尔注:《遏制犯罪——当代美国的犯罪问题及犯罪学研究》,中国民主法制出版社2006年,第360页。
[2][美]弗雷达·阿德勒、杰哈德·穆勒、威廉·拉菲尔注:《遏制犯罪——当代美国的犯罪问题及犯罪学研究》,中国民主法制出版社2006年,第361-366页。
[3][美]弗雷达·阿德勒、杰哈德·穆勒、威廉·拉菲尔注:《遏制犯罪——当代美国的犯罪问题及犯罪学研究》,中国民主法制出版社2006年,第360页。
[1][美]哈罗德·J·小杰克·赖特著:《犯罪学导论》,知识出版社1992年版,第505页。
[2][美]哈罗德·J·小杰克·赖特著:《犯罪学导论》,知识出版社1992年版,第505页。
1.[美]德沃金著,刘丽君译:《自由的法——对美国宪法的道德解读》,上海人民出版社,2000年版。
2.[美]雷蒙德.塔塔洛维奇等编:《美国政治中的道德争论》(美国公共政策和社会管理研究译丛),重庆出版社,2001年版。
3.[美]理查德·霍金斯,[美]杰弗里·P.阿尔珀特著,孙晓雳,林遐译:《美国监狱制度:刑罚与正义》,中国人民公安大学出版社,1991年版。
4.[美]D·斯坦利·艾慈恩、杜格·A·蒂默著:《犯罪学》,群众出版社,1988年版。
5.[美]F.I.格林斯坦、N.W.波尔斯彼主编:《政策与政策制定》,台湾幼狮文化事业公司,1983年版。
6.[美]查尔斯·E·林德布洛姆著,竺乾威、,胡君芳译:《决策过程》译文出版社,1988。
7.[美]查尔斯·德伯(Charles Derber):《疯狂的美国》,社会科学文献出版社,2005
8.[美]戴伊:《理解公共政策》(第十一版)/公共管理学经典教材原版影印丛书,北京大学出版社,2006年版。
9.[美]迪尼托著,何敬,葛其伟译,杨伟民校:《社会福利:政治与公共政策》(第五版),人民大学出版社,2007年版。
10.[美]弗雷达·阿德勒、杰哈德·穆勒、威廉·拉菲尔注:《遏制犯罪——当代美国的犯罪问题及犯罪学研究》,廖斌等译,中国民主法制出版社2006年版。
11.[美]哈罗德·J·小杰克·赖特著:《犯罪学导论》,知识出版社1992年版。
12.[美]亨廷顿著,程克雄译:《我们是谁.美国国家特性面临的挑战》,新华出版社,2005年版。
13.[美]卡瑞、[美]斯科尔尼克,张凤国等译《星条旗下的阴影:美国的社会事务与公共政策》,东方出版社,1994年版。
14.[美]里查德·昆尼等著:《新犯罪学》,中国国际广播出版社,1988年版。
15.[美]莫顿·J·霍维茨著:《美国法的变迁:1780-1860》,中国政法大学出版社,2004年版。
16.[美]萨利·安格尔·梅丽著,郭星华等译:《诉讼的话语——生活在美国社会底层人的法律意识,北京大学出版社,2007。
17.[美]史蒂文·拉布著:《美国犯罪预防的理论与评价》,中国人民公安大学出版社,1993年版。
18.[美]史蒂文·拉布著:张国昭等译:《美国犯罪预防的理论实践与评价》《中国人民公安大学出版社,1993年版。
19.[美]斯蒂芳·M·菲尔德曼:《从前现代主义到后现代主义的美国法律思想》,中国政法大学出版社,2005年版。
20.[美]托马斯.R.戴伊:《自上而下的政策制定》,人民大学出版社,2001年版。
21.[美]托马斯·R·戴伊著.鞠方安,吴忧译:《自上而下的政策制定》,中国人民大学出版社,2002年版。
22.[日]森本益之等著,戴波等译:《刑事政策学》,中国人民公安大学出版社,2004。
23.[台]许福生著:《刑事政策学》,中国民主法制出版社2006年版。
24.[英]David Canter著,吴宗宪等译:《犯罪的影子》,中国轻工业出版社,2002年版。
25.[英]弗里德利希·冯·哈耶克著.邓正来等译:《法律、立法与自由》(第二、三卷),中国大百科全书出版社,2000年版。
26.[英]约翰·格拉海姆、特雷弗·白男德:《欧美预防犯罪方略》,群众出版社,1998年版。
27.陈兴良:《宽严相济刑事政策研究》载《法学杂志》,2006第1期。
28.储槐植:《严而不厉:为刑法修订设计政策思想》,载《北京大学学报》(哲学社会科学版),1989年第6期。
29.储槐植《美国刑法》,北京大学出版社,1996年版。
30.储槐植:《刑事一体化与关系刑法论》,北京大学出版社,1997年版。
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128.Schoenbaum,Thomas J.1988.Waging Peace and War:Dean Rusk in the Truman, Kennedy and Johnson Years.New York:Simon & Schuster.
129.Schultze,William A.1974.Urban and Community Politics.North Scituate,Mass.:Duxbury Press.
130.Shenkman,Richard.1988.Legends,Lies and Cherished Myths of American History,New York:HarperCollins.
131.Sherman,Lawrence W.2002.“Fair and Effective Policing”.In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia.
132.Shover,Neal and Werner Einstader.1988.Analyzing American Corrections,Belmont,CA:Wadsworth Publishing Co.
133.Smith,Alexander and Harrier Pollach.1975.Some Sins Are Not Crimes,New York:New View Points.
134.Spelman,William.2000.“The Limited Importance of Prison Expansion”.In The Crime Drop in America,ed.by Alfred Blumstein and Joel Wallman.New York:Cambridge University Press.
135.Stanley Tookie Williams Executed at San Quentin,http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=05/12/13/1524254
136.“State Legislator is Moving Toward Tougher Sentencing”,Criminal Justice Newsletter.(June 15).1994c,p.1.
137.Statel,Sally.1999.Drug Treatment:The case for Coercion.Washington,D.C.:AEI Press.
138.Taylor,Ralph B.2002.“Physical Environment,Crime,Fear,and Resident-Based Control”.In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia.
139.Ted Gest.2001.Crime and Politics:Three strikes:Baseball to Crime,Oxford University Press.
140.The Associated Press.2007.FBI:Violent crimes in U.S.rise.Washington,Sept.24.
141.The Federal Death Penalty System:Supplementary Data,Analysis and Revised Protocols for Capital Case Review:http://www.usdoj.gov/dag/pubdoc/deathpenaltystudy.
142.The Federal Death Penalty,http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.
143.The Sentencing Project.1994.Why‘3 Strikes and You're out’Won't Reduce Crime.Washington D.C.
144.The Vindicator.1994.Law Will Star in Fall Campaigns,August 28,p.A5.
145.Then &Now:Michael Dukakis,CNN.com,Thursday,September 29,2005;Posted:12:48 p.m.EDT(16:48 GMT).
146.Thomas,Pierre.1994.“Why‘3 Strikes and You're out’Won't Reduce Crime”.The Washington Post National Weekly Edition.July 18-24.
147.Thompson v.Oklahoma 487 U.S.815(1988).
148.Tolan,Patrick.2002.“Crime Prevention”Focus on Youth”.In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia.
149.Tom Chorneau:Schwarzenegger denies clemency to convicted murderer Cooper,http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/news/archive/2004/01/30/state 1807ES T0122.DTL.
150.Tucker,Beverly.1994.“Can California Afford 3 Strikes?”In California Teachers Association Action.
151.United Sates v.Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative,532 US.483(2001).
152.United States v.McVeigh,918 F.Supp.1467.
153.United States v.Nixon,418 U.S.683(1974)
154.US Department of Justice:Key Crime & Justice Facts at a Glance,http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/glance.htm#expfunction
155.US Department of Justice,Bureau of Justice Statistics,Source book of Criminal Justice Statistics,2000(Albany:Suny,Hindelang Criminal Justice Research Center)
156.US Department of Justice,Office of Justice Programs,Bureau of Justice Statistics:Correctional Populations.
157.US Foreign Policy:http://terrorism.about.com/od/usforeignpolicy.
158.US Government printing Office,1994.“The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994.”Conference Report.Washington DC.
159.US News and Report.1988.“Save the Children”.
160.Wakler,Sameul.2005.Sense and Nonsense About Crime and Drugs:A Policy Guide,Thomson Learning.
161.Washington Laws.1994.Chapter 1“Persistent Offenders-Life Sentence on Third Conviction.”(Statute Law Committee) Olympia,WA.1994 Pamphlet Edition Session Laws Fifty-Third Legislature 1994 Regular Session.
162.Wikipedia:Zero Tolerance,at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_tolerance.
163.Will Gorge,1988.“The Prop.13 Pendulum Swings Back”,Los Angles Times.
164.Willing,Richard.2006.Violent Crime on the Rise,Summit Participants Say,USA TODAY.
165.Wilson,James Q.1988.Address to Western Society of Criminology,Monterey,CA.
166.Wilson,James Q.2002.“Crime and Public Policy”.In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia.
167.Winter,William O.1981.State and Local Government in a Decentralized Republic.New York:Macmillan Publishing Co.Inc.
168.Wolfgang,M.E.,Figlio,R.M.,and Sellin,Thornstein.l972.Delinquency in a Birth Cohort.The University of Chicago Press.
169.Wood,Daniel B.2001.“Three strikes' law:Is it too-cruel punishment?”The Christian Science Monitor,USA Justice.
170.Woodhead.Martin.1988.“When Psychology Informs Public Policy:the Case of Early Childhood Intervention”.American Psychologist 43(No.6,June)
171.Wright,James,and Peter H.Rossi.1986.Armed and Dangerous:A Survey of Felonies.New York:Aldine de Gruyter.
172.Young,Jock.1988.“Recent Development in Criminology”In Ma.Haralambos (ed.),Developments in Sociology.London:Causeway.
[2]FBI:"Crime Rates Fall,in the First Half of 2007".2007 Crime in the United Sates:Preliminary Semiannual Uniform Crime Report,January through June.2008年1月7日。
[1]储槐植:《美国刑法》,北京大学出版社1996年版,第3-4页及第51-52页。
[1]诸槐植:《美国刑法》,北京大学出版社1996年版,第6-7页。
[1]US Department of Justice,Office of Justice Programs,Bureau of Justice Statistics:Correctional Populations.
[2]President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice,Challenge of Crime in a Free society (Washington,D.C.:Government Printing Office,1967),p.19.转引自 American Government and Politics Today:2004-2005 Brief Edition 2004,by Schmidt,Steffen W.,and Mack C.Shelley and Barbara A.Bardes. Thomson,Wadsworth,p.310.
[1]Shenkman,Richard.1988.Legends,Lies and Cherished Myths of American History,New York:Harper Collins,p.158.
[2]Schmidt,Steffen W.,and Mack C.Shelley and Barbara A.Bardes.2004.American Government and Politics Today:2004-2005Brief Edition,Thomson,Wadsworth,p.310.
[3]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.542..
[4]Blumstein,Alfred.2002."Prisons:A Policy Challenge".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,pp.451-458.
[5]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.542.
[1]Wilson,James Q.1983.Thinking about Crime,rev.ed,NewYork:Basic Books.转引自 Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.542.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.543.
[3]Taylor,Ralph B.2002."Physical Environment,Crime,Fear,and Resident-Based Control".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,pp.413-434.
[4]Sampson,Robert J.2002."The Counmunity".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Putersilia,p.225.
[5]Blumstein,Alfred.2002."Prisons:A policy Challenge".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,pp.451-458.
[6]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.543.
[7]Spelman,William.2000."The Limited Importance of Prison Expansion".In The Crime Drop in America,ed.Alfred Blumstein and Joel Wallman.New York:Cambridge University Press.转引自 Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.543.
[1]Chaiken,Jan,and Marcia Chaiken.1982.Varieties of Crimnal Behavior.Santa Monica,Calif.Rand.转引自Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.543.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.544.
[3]Chen,Elsa Y.1998.Estamating the Impacts of Three Strikes and You're out and Truth in Sentencing on Crime and Corrections;Chen,Elsa.2000.Three Strikes and Truth in Sentencing.PH.D.diss.,Department of Political Science,UCLA.转引自 Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.546.
[4]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.546.
[1]Schmidt,Steffen W.,and Mack C.Shelley and Barbara A.Bardes.2004.American Government and Politics Today:2004-2005 Brief Edition,Thomson,Wadsworth,p.310.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.546.
[3]Lynch,James.2002 "Crime in International Perspective".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.6.
[4]美国纽约城市大学John Jay刑事司法学院教授。
[5]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.540.
[1]Monkkonen,Eric.2001.Murder in New York City,Berkeley:University of California Press.转引自 Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.541.
[2]Franklin E.Zimring and Gordon Hawkins 1997.Crime is not the problem:Lethal violence in America.New York:Oxford University Press.转引自 Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.541.
[1]James Q.Wilson:哈佛大学教授,致力于公关政策学研究。
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.541.
[3]Lynch,James.2002."Criminal in International Perspective".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,pp.5-42.
[4]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.544.
[1]Farrington,David P.and Patric A.Langan.1992."Changes in Crime and Punishment in England and America in the 1980s." In Justice Quarterly 9:5-46.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.544.
[3]The Associated Press:FBI:Violent crimes in U.S.rise.Washington,Sept.24,2007.
[1]Willing,Richard.2006.Violent Crime on the Rise,Summit Participants Say,USATODAY,March 31.
[2]Bergstein,Brian.2008.Research links iPod,crime rise,Associated Press,March 7.
[3]Willing,Richard.2006.Violent Crime on the Rise,Summit Participants Say,USATODAY,March 31.
[4]FBI report:Hate crime in the US.
[1]Hancock,Harry W.,and Paul M.Sharp.2004.Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD,p.2.
[2]Hancock,Harry W.,and Paul M.Sharp.2004.Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD,p.2.
[1]Hancock,Harry W.,and Paul M.Sharp.2004.Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD,p.1.
[2]Hancock,Harry W.,and Paul M.Sharp.2004.Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD,p.1.
[3]Currie,Elliot:加州大学犯罪学、法律和社会学教授,他创立了一个基金会,帮助学生了解犯罪问题及政策对犯罪和其他社会问题的反应。
[4]Currie,Elliot.2004."Crime Justice,and the Social Environment".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.,Pearson Education LTD,pp52-69.
[5]Hancock,Harry W.,and Paul M.Sharp.2004.Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,Pearson Education Inc.,p.1.
[6]Hancock,Harry W.,and Paul M.Sharp.2004.Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,3~(rd) ed.Pearson Education LTD,p.2.
[7]曲新久:《公共政策的权力分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2002,第106页。
[1]曲新久:《刑事政策的权力分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2002,第16页。
[2]曲新久:《公共政策的权力分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2002,第225页。
[1]James F.Gilsinan:圣路易大学公共政策研究教授,公共服务学院院长。
[2]Gilsinan,James F.2004."Public Policy and Criminology:An Historical and Philosophical reassessment".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3~(rd) ed.,Pearson Education LTD,pp.22-34.
[3]Michael Gottfredson:纽约州立大学管理、政策、法律、社会学和心理学教授。Travis Hirschi:Arizona.亚利桑那州大学社会学和人类学教授。
[4]Gottfredson,Michael and Travis Hirschi.2004."Science Public Policy,and the Career Paradigm".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3~(rd) ed.,Pearson Education LTD,pp.35-51.
[1]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.537.
[2]Levitt,Steven D.2002."Deterence".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,pp.435-450.
[1]Bushway,Shawn and Peter Reuter.2002."Labor Markets and Crime".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.191.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.539.
[3]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.539.
[1]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,pp.539-540.
[2]主要盛行于20世纪欧美诸国的基本刑事政策,由于强调重重、轻轻,偏重于两极,以节省司法资源、提高刑罚效益、增大防治犯罪能力,所以俗称“两极化刑事政策”。由于各国犯罪“敌情”的不同,社会、政治、经济、文化的发展状况及形势而异,两极化刑事政策也呈流动性和相对性。美国在20世纪70年代采取的是“相对报应”的两极化刑事政策。但自90年代以来,由于民众对犯罪恐惧感的增大,社会安全感和幸福感的下降,美国采取了“更加报应的”两极化刑事政策,也称“强硬政策”。
[1]Plano,Jack.C.,and Milton Greenberg,Roy Olton,and Robert E.Riggs.1973.Political Science and Dictionary.Hinsdale,Ill.:The Dryden Press,p.311.
[1]Thomas R.Dye:政治学家、教育家,曾在乔治亚大学、威斯康星大学、宾夕法尼亚大学任教,佛罗里达州立大学荣誉退休教授,他的书影响了一代大学生。
[2]Dye,Thomas.1981.Understanding Public Policy,4th ed.Englewood Cliffs,N.J.:Prentice Hall,Inc.p.1.
[3]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p5.
[1]美国宪法确定了联邦政府各部门间的关系。联邦政府遵循的程序来源于宪法和美国早期共和党采用的一些程序。比如,宪法中没提到关于政党,但是政党却快速地统治了立法程序。见Ladd,Everett Carl.1985.The American Polity:The People and Their Government.New York:W.W.Norton & Co.Chap.5.
[2]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.7.
[3]Winter,William O.1981.State and Local Government in a Decentralized Republic.New York:Macmillan Publishing Co.Inc.pp.40-59.
[4]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.7.
[1]Winter,William O.1981.State and Local Government in a Decentralized Republic.New York:Macmillan Publishing Co.Inc.pp.60-64.
[2]Winter,William O.1981.State and Local Government in a Decentralized Republic.New York:Macmillan Publishing Co.Inc.pp.71-76.
[3]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.9.
[4]Hayes,Michael T.1992.Incrementalism and Public Policy.New York:Longman,pp.54-55.
[1]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.9.
[2]Mapp v.Ohio,307 US 643(1961)
[3]Miranda v.Arizona,348 US 436(1996)
[4]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rded.Pearson Education LTD.p.8.
[5]James E.Anderson:经济学家,波士顿大学教授。
[6]Anderson,James E.1981.Public Policy-Making,2nd.ed.New York,p.113.From Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rded.Pearson Education LTD.p.8.
[1]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.8.
[2]Lineberry,Robert,and Ira Sharkansky.1978.Urban Politics and Public Policy,3rd ed.New York:Harper & Row,p.15.
[3]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.10.
[1]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p11.
[2]Lineberry,Robert,and Ira Sharkansky.1978.Urban Politics and Public Policy,3rd ed.New York:Harper & Row,pp.10-12.
[3]Anderson,James.1981.Public Policy-making,3rd,ed New York:Holt,Rinehart and Winston,p.113.
[1]创制权:一种权利和程序,通过它们公民可以通过请愿形式提出法案。
[2]Lineberry,Robert,and Ira Sharkansky.1978.Urban Politics and Public Policy,3rd ed.New York:Harper & Row,p.13.
[3]Winter,William O.1981.State and Local Government in a Decentralized Republic.New York:Macmillan Publishing Co.Inc.pp.295-297.
[4]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T,R.Carr,and N.Joseph Cayer.1993.American Public Policy:An Introduction,4th ed.New York:St.Martin's Press,pp.7-10.
[1]Anderson,James.1981.Public Policy-making,3rd,ed New York:Holt,Rinehart and Winston,pp.15-16.
[2]Anderson,James.1981.Public Policy-making,3rd,ed New York:Holt,Rinehart and Winston,pp.31-34.
[3]Hojnacld,William P.1977."Kalamazoo,Michigan and South Bend,Indiana:A comparative Analysis of Policy Outcomes." Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation.University of Notre Dame.转引自 William P.Hojnacki:The Public Policy Process in the United States.Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.2004,p.13.
[4]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.13.
[1]Bonjean,Charles M.,and Terry N.Clark and Robert Lineberry,1971.Community Politics:A Behavioral Approach,New York:Free Press.这篇著名的文选着眼于讨论影响地方政府部门如何处理输入的诸多因素。
[2]Ladd,Everett Carl.1985.The American Polity:The People and Their Government.New York:W.W.Norton & Co.pp.351-53.
[3]Ladd,Everett Carl,.1985.The American Polity:The People and Their Government.New York:W.W.Norton &Co.p.356.
[1]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.14.
[2]Grant,Daniel R.,and H.C.Nixon.1982.State and Local Government in America,4th ed.Boston:Allyn and Bacon,pp.177-183.
[3]Ladd,Everett Carl.1985.The American Polity:The People and Their Government.New York:W.W.Norton & Co.pp.360-364.
[1]Ladd,Everett Carl.1985.The American Polity:The People and Their Government.New York:W.W.Norton & Co.,pp.365-368.
[2]Ladd,Everett Carl.1985.The American Polity:The People and Their Government.New York:W.W.Norton & Co.,pp.357-359.
[1]由于大城市更加多元化,周围的郊区在特征上更趋向于同源。
[2]Schultze,William A.1974.Urban and Community Politics.North Scituate,Mass.:Duxbury Press,Chapter 10.
[1]Schultze,William A.1974.Urban and Community Politics.North Scituate,Mass.:Duxbury Press,Chapter 10.
[2]Schoenbaum,Thomas J.1988.Waging Peace and War:Dean Rusk in the Truman,Kennedy and Johnson Years.New York:Simon & Schuster.在政府任职之前,Rusk是洛克菲勒基金会的会长。
[3]Martin Luther King,Jr:(1929-1968),美国民权运动的主要领导人之一。
[4]Jesse Louis Jackson,St.(born October 8,1941) is an American civil rights activist and Baptist minister
[5]Schultze,William A.1974.Urban and Community Politics.North Scituate,Mass.:Duxbury Press.Chapter 4 and 5.
[6]坦慕尼厅(Tammany Hall):是民主党的政治核心,自1790年代到1960年代一直在纽约的政治舞台上占主导地位。
[1]Richard Daley:芝加哥市的市长,在任21年(1955-1976)。
[2]David Lawrence:1959年1963年任美国宾夕法尼亚州州长。
[3]Meyerson,Martin,and Edward C.Banfield.1969."A Machine at work.".In the Urban Government:A Reader in Administration and Politics.ed.by Edward C.Banfield,New York:The Free Press pp.169-179.
[4]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.18.
[5]Winter,William O..1981.State and Local Government in a Decentralized Republic.New York:Macmillan Publishing Co.Inc.pp.115-159.
[6]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.18.
[7]Everett Carlladd,Jr.1970.American Political Parties:Social Political Parties:Social Change and Political Response,New York:W.W.Norton & Co.pp.205-228.
[8]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.19.
[1]Hojnacki,William P.2004."The Public Policy Process in the United States".In the Public Policy,Crime and Criminal Justice,ed.by Harry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,3rd ed.Pearson Education LTD.p.19.
[2][美]F.I.格林斯坦、N.W.波尔斯彼主编:《政策与政策制定》,台湾幼狮文化事业公司,1983,第126-127页。转引自曲新久《刑事政策的权力分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2002,第30页。
[3][美]F.I.格林斯坦、N.W.波尔斯彼主编:《政策与政策制定》,台湾幼狮文化事业公司,1983,第126-127页。转引自曲新久《刑事政策的权力分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2002,第30页。
[4][美]F.I.格林斯坦、N.W.波尔斯彼主编:《政策与政策制定》,台湾幼狮文化事业公司,1983,第126-127页。转引自曲新久《刑事政策的权力分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2002,第30页。
[1]夏勇:从刑法的宪法制约引发的启示,中国论文下载中心,2006年10月26日。
[2]储槐植:《美国刑法》,北京大学出版社1996年版,第36页。
[1]许福生:《变动时期的刑事政策》,台湾:中央警察出版社,2003,第23页。
[2]“非犯罪化”(Decriminalization)是20世纪中叶以来各国刑法最富新意的改革。自20世纪50年代开始,几乎所有的国家都进行了不同形式和特点的非犯罪化实践。根据非犯罪化思想,把一些原来规定的轻微犯罪的行为(主要为无直接被害人的犯罪)除罪化;另外,将轻微的犯罪列入“违警罪”(或称“秩序法”)中。另外使用一些非刑罚性的制裁方法代替刑罚。这一思潮使得刑罚开始向轻缓化方向迈进。如在美国实行的缓刑、缓期判处等政策就是在这种思潮的影响下产生的。
[3]非机构化:也就是非监禁化,以克服监禁的副效应,让罪犯更好地在真实的社会环境中服刑与矫正。非机 构化实质是对剥夺自由刑的否定,由此倡导非监禁刑,推行社区矫正。
[1]转向处分:对初犯、未成年人较轻微犯罪不予以使用通常的司法体系对其进行审判、处罚,而转向接受教育性辅助设施或未成年法院。
[2]也有人认为,4D政策为:非犯罪化(decriminalization)、非刑罚化(depenalization)、非机构化(deinstitutionalization)、转向处分(division)。
[3]马克昌:论刑罚的本质,《法学评论》,1995年5月。
[4]许福生:《变动时期的刑事政策》,台湾:中央警察出版社,2003,第26页。
[1]许福生:《变动时期的刑事政策》,台湾:中央警察出版社,2003,第26页。
[1]Crime Policy of the Republican Party:at http:/www.criticism.com/policy/republicans-crime-policy.php
[2]Mann Act曼恩法案:1910年6月美国国会通过的一项法案,禁止州与州之间贩运妇女。
[1]Boyum,David A.and Mark A.R.Kieiman.2002."Substance Abuse Policy form a Crime-Control Perspective".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.331-382.
[2]Cook,Philip J.and Mark H.Moore and Anthony A.Braga.2002 "Gun Control".Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.291-331.
[3]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.548.
[1]Schmidt,Steffen W.,and Mack C.Shelley and Barbara A.Bardes.2004.American Government and Politics Today:2004-2005 Brief Edition,Thomson,Wadsworth,p.312.
[2]Schmidt,Steffen W.,and Mack C.Shelley and Barbara A.Bardes.2004.American Government and Politics Today:2004-2005 Brief Edition,Thomson,Wadsworth,p.312.
[3]United Sates v.Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative,532 US.483(2001)
[4]Schmidt,Steffen W.,and Mack C.Shelley and Barbara A.Bardes.2004.American Government and Politics Today:2004-2005 Brief Edition,Thomson,Wadsworth,p.312.
[1]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.548.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.548.
[1]Boyum,David A.and Mark A.R.Kleiman.2002."Substance Abuse Policy from a Crime-Control Perspective".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.331-382.
[2]"Treatment of Drug Abuse." In Drugs and Crime,ed.Michael Tonry and James Q.Wilson.p.393-460.
[3]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.550.
[4]Mechay,Stephen,and Rosalie Liccardo Pacula.2000."The Effectiveness of Workplace Drug prevention Programs:Does 'Zero Tolerance' work?" NBER Working Paper 7383.Cambridge,Mass.:National Bureau of Economic Research.转引自Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.550.
[1]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.550.
[2]Lott,John R.2000.More Guns,Less Crime,2d ed.Chicago:University of Chicago Press.转引自 Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.550.
[3]Ayres,Ian,and John Donohue.1999."Nondiscretionary Concealed Weapons Laws." American Law and Economic Review 1:436-70;Cook,Philip J.and Mark H.Moore and Anthony A.Braga.2002 "Gun Control".Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.291-331.
[4]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.550.
[5]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.550.
[6]Wright,James,and Peter H.Rossi.1986.Armed and Dangerous:A Survey of Felonies.New York:Aldine de Gruyter.Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.551.
[1]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.551.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.551.
[3]Sherman,Lawrence W.2002."Fair and Effective Policing".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.383-412.
[1]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.551.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.553.
[1]Tolan,Patrick.2002."Crime Prevention" Focus on Youth".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.109-148.
[2]Gottfredson,Denise C,and David B.Wilson,and Stacy S.Najaka.In In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.149-189.
[3]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.554.
[4]Cullen,Francis T.2002."Rehabilitation and Treatment Programs".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.253-89.
[1]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.554.
[2]Petersilia,John.2000."Community Correction".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.483-508.
[1]竹怀军,利子平:《我国刑事政策的抉择及其合理性论证》,《法学评论》,2006年04期。
[2]许福生:《变动时期的刑事政策》,台湾:中央警察出版社,2003,第31页。
[3]RICO:The Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act,该法有八个条文,其主要内容有四个方面:(1)规定没收财产刑,一旦被判处有罪,没收犯罪全部所得;(2)监禁刑最高达20年,特殊情况可处终身监禁,并且可处数额惊人的罚金;(3)允许受害人提出三倍于其损失的赔偿请求;(4)规定有经济保安措施,以防止同类罪行重演。更为重要的是,该法在三个方面突破了美国传统的刑法制度:一是规定犯罪“行为模式”允许有条件的从重溯及,这实际上违背了现代民主、法制社会中法不溯及既往的原则;二是规定没收财产刑,在私有财产神圣不可侵犯的美国社会,除叛国罪外,极少适用没收财产刑;三是刑事责任归责采用鬼影(Penumbra)规则,即共犯对实行犯在实施共同犯罪计划过程中所发生的一切当然的可能后果承担责任。转引自竹怀军、利子平:《我国刑事政策的抉择及其合理性论证》,《法学评论》,2006年04期。
[1]《携带武器的职业犯罪法案》:Armed Career Criminal Act,规定,联邦刑事案件中对被告三次定罪,其中两次是“严重的毒品犯罪”或者是“暴力重罪”,那么再犯携带武器所实施的重罪,就要提高处刑。除非被判处死刑,否则至少是15年监禁,最高为终身监禁。引自竹怀军、利子平:《我国刑事政策的抉择及其合理性论证》,《法学评论》,2006年04期。
[2]1994年《暴力犯罪控制及执法条例》,其内容为:对于前已触犯二次重罪,或前已触犯一次以上重罪之暴力重罪犯,或一次以上重罪的毒犯,若再犯一次重罪时,将被判处终身监禁,且不得假释。王文华:《中美累犯制度比较研究——以美国“三振出局法”为视角》,《中国刑法学年会文集》,(2005年度)中国人民公安大学出版社2005年10月,第一卷:《刑法制度研究》,第211页。
[3]王文华:《中美累犯制度比较研究——以美国“三振出局法”为视角》,《中国刑法学年会文集》,(2005年度)中国人民公安大学出版社2005年10月,第一卷:《刑法制度研究》,第211页。
[4]2001年10月26日通过了《美国2001年爱国者法案》,即《反恐法案》。
[5]人民网:《美三万青年团伙从事有组织犯罪威胁社会治安》,2006-10-04。
[1]许福生:《变动时期的刑事政策》,台湾:中央警察出版社,2003,第28-29页。
[2]刑事司法中的犹豫制度可以分为侦查阶段的移送犹豫、检察阶段的起诉犹豫、裁判阶段的宣告犹豫和执行犹豫等。
[3]许福生:《变动时期的刑事政策》,台湾:中央警察出版社,2003,第29-30页。
[4]许福生:《变动时期的刑事政策》,台湾:中央警察出版社,2003,第31页。
[5]“非犯罪化”(Decriminalization)是20世纪中叶以来各国刑法最富新意的改革。自20世纪50年代开始,几乎所有的国家都进行了不同形式和特点的非犯罪化实践。根据非犯罪化思想,把一些原来规定的轻微犯罪的行为(主要为无直接被害人的犯罪)除罪化;另外,将轻微的犯罪列入“违警罪”(或称“秩序法”)中。另外使用一些非刑罚性的制裁方法代替刑罚。这一思潮使得刑罚开始向轻缓化方向迈进。如在美国实行的缓刑、缓期判处等政策就是在这种思潮的影响下产生的。
[6]谢锡美:《科学地对待“严打”》,《华东刑事司法评论》2003年03期。
[1]竹怀军,利子平:《我国刑事政策的抉择及其合理性论证》,《法学评论》,2006年04期。
[2]宋英辉、许身健:《恢复性司法程序之思考》,中国论文下载中心,2008年3月10日。
[3]Clear,Todd R.and George F.Cole.1994.American Corrections,Belmont,California:Wadsworth Publishing Company.p.177.
[4]2002年纽约联邦法庭法官拉克夫判决,死刑违反美国宪法。根据美国法律,这个美国法庭首次做出的判决
[1]Gest,Ted.2001."Three Strikes:Baseball to Crime",in Crime and Politics:Big Government Erratic Campaign for Law and Order.,Oxford University Press,p.188.
[1]Gest,Ted.2001."Three Strikes:Baseball to Crime",in Crime and Politics:Big Government Erratic Campaign for Law and Order.,Oxford University Press,p.159.
[2]Bill Clinton,1994.State of the Union Address,25 January.http://www.thisnation.com/library/sotu/1994bc.html.
[3]Gest,Ted.2001."Three Strikes:Baseball to Crime",in Crime and Politics:Big Government Erratic Campaign for Law and Order.,Oxford University Press,p.189.
[4]John Carson,一位警察的儿子,在成长的过程中他常听父亲抱怨刑事司法制度的漏洞。大学毕业后,他在人口调查局工作。他涉足政治,是一个保守主义者。1986年开始,他在地方的一个电视节目上做评论员,提出自己关于政府开支、规章制度改革、教育和犯罪等观点。1988年在一次电视节目上,为使自己的观点简明、扼要、有力,他引用了这个棒球术语,企图说服人们:之所以有犯罪问题,主要原因是大多数罪犯不害怕法律。John Carson的建议是任何人如果被定罪且先前被处罚两次,在其第三次犯罪时,就应该对其做出所有可能的指控,不得缓刑、不得假释。起初,John Carson引用的容易让人记住的口号并没有引起多大的反响,甚至说几乎没有人对此做出反应。转引自Gest,Ted.2001.“Three Strikes:Baseball to Crime”,in Crime and Politics:Big Government Erratic Campaign for Law and Order.,Oxford University Press,pp.192.
[1]Gest,Ted.2001."Three Strikes:Baseball to Crime",in Crime and Politics:Big Government Erratic Campaign for Law and Order.,Oxford University Press,p.190-192.
[2]Richard Allen Davis,职业罪犯,他的犯罪生涯始于1967年,他有一连串的判罪记录,成人后大部分的时间呆在监狱里。他曾在公交车站绑架一位妇女并企图对其性侵扰,为此他在监狱服刑5年,被释放3年后,他又因绑架另一位妇女而获刑期16年。Klass案件发生时,他只服了刑期的一半,刚刚被释放,在假释期间。
[1]Gest,Ted.2001."Three Strikes:Baseball to Crime",in Crime and Politics:Big Government Erratic Campaign for Law and Order.,Oxford University Press,p.195.
[1]Harry A.Chernoff,Christopher M.Kelly and John R.Kroger,"The politics on Crime," Harvard Journal on Legislation,Volume 33(Summer 1996),P.527.
[2]Ted Gest:.2001.Crime and Politics:Three strikes:Baseball to Crime,Oxford University Press,p.197.
[1]Kathleen Maguire and Ann L.Pastore,eds.,Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics,(Washington,DC:US Department of Justice,Bureau of Justice,1999),P129.
[2]Ted Gest:Crime and Politics:Three strikes:Baseball to Crime,Oxford University Press,2001,P198.
[3]Ted Gest:Crime and Politics:Three strikes:Baseball to Crime,Oxford University Press,2001,P198.
[4]David J.Lynch and Krajicek,Scooped(New York:Columbia University Press,1998),PP.153,156-159.
[1]Gest,Ted.2001."Three strikes:Baseball to Crime".In Crime and Politics:Oxford University Press,P200.
[2]Gest,Ted.2001."Three strikes:Baseball to Crime".In Crime and Politics:Oxford University Press,P200.
[3]James P.Lynch and Williams J.Sabol,"Did Getting Tough on Crime Pay?"(Washington,D.C.:The Urban Institute,1997).
[4]Ted Gest:Crime and Politics:Three strikes:Baseball to Crime,Oxford University Press,2001,P201.
[5]85%的这个数字源于1984年的联邦打击犯罪法律。它规定囚犯只要达到规定的最大的“良好时间”的15%,就足以被释放。
[1]Beres,L.,Griffith,T.1998."Do three strikes laws make sense? Habitual offender statutes and criminal incapacitation".Georgetown Law Journal,87(1),pp.103-138.
[2]"State Legislator is Moving Toward Tougher Sentencing",Criminal Justice Newsletter.(June 15).1994c,p.1.
[3]Form Benekos,Peter J.& Alida V.Merlo.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.261.
[3]Benekos,Peter J.and Alida V.Merlo.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.261.
[4]Schneider,William.1993."Crime and Politics:Incumbents Got Mugged by Fear in Our Streets".Washington Post National Weekly Edition.(November 15-21):24.
[1]Lewis,Anthony,《纽约时报》的专栏作家。
[2]Lewis,Anthony.1994."Crime and Politics".New York Times.(September 16):A13.
[3]Broder,David.1994a."Population Explosion".The Washington Post National Weekly Edition.(February 21-17):37.
[4]Barry Goldwater,众议院议员,1964年共和党总统候选人。
[5]Benekos,Peter J.and Alida V.Merio.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.262.
[6]Lyndon Johnson:第36届美国总统。
[7]Congressional Digest,1994,"The Federal Role In Crime Control." Washington,DC(June-July),p2.
[1]Michael Dukakis:希腊移民的后裔,美国民主党人,曾担任马萨诸塞州州长,1988年民主党总统候选人。
[2]Then & Now:Michael Dukakis,CNN.com,Thursday,September 29,2005;Posted:12:48 p.m.EDT(16:48GMT).
[3]Willie Horton:在一次抢劫中对毫无抵御能力的加油站的工作人员戳了15刀,被判终身监禁不得假释。监狱服刑11年后,在48小时狱外短期休假时,又对一男子实施暴虐,用刀砍杀其22次,另外对其情人实施了野蛮的强奸。
[4]Bidinotto,Robert James.1988."Getting Away with Murder",Reader's Digest,July.
[5]Dukakis & Willie Horton.1988.The Willie Horton case,the Forerunner.com.
[6]Benekos,Peter J.and Alida V.Merlo.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.263.
[7]Shover,Neal and Werner Einstader.1988.Analyzing American Corrections,Belmont,CA:Wadsworth Publishing Co.p.51.
[8]Halfway house:返回社区训练所,是建于社区的安全措施低于监狱、限制性又严于其他建筑设施的社区矫正机构,又称之为“中途之家”。与缓刑、假释、严密缓刑和假释监督或住宅禁闭制度相比,训练所对生活环境的控制性更强,其实质是罪犯的居住条件介于监狱与自由社区之间。返回社区训练所制度的目的是为罪犯刑满返回社区前提供一个过渡性的(一般为六个月)、受到控制的居住环境,以培养其进入自由社区生活的独立适应能力。此制度重点关注罪犯个人的教育背景和就业能力。如,鼓励未读完中学的罪犯获取中学文凭(GED);鼓励缺乏职业技能的罪犯参加职业培训;帮助求职能力差的罪犯找到并稳定工作。参见:蔡国芹:“美国社区矫正体制的中间制裁制度”,《时代法学》2007年第6期。
[1]Lewis,Neff."Crime Rates Decline:Outrage Hasn't".New York Times,December,1993,p.3:B6.
[2]Michael Rand of the Justice Department,转引自 Lewis,Neff."Crime Rates Decline:Outrage Hasn't".New York Times,December,1993.p.3:B6.
[3][美]马克·博格艾兰·Y·苏尼.《美国的联邦量刑指南制度》,张明、戴昕译:http:/www.chinacourt.org/public/detail.php?id=185321.
[4]“应得的惩罚”原则是指量刑时必须根据犯罪行为的严重性而实施,同时兼顾犯罪人的人身危险性。刑罚的最终目的是“控制犯罪”,但是适当的刑罚应当是在“罪有应得”(应得的惩罚)的基础上确定的。翁凯一:《从英美国家的“应得的惩罚”原则看我国的量刑原则》。
[5]Rhine,Edward E.2004."Sentencing Reform and Correctional policy".In Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,ed.by Barry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,p.273.
[6]Rhine,Edward E.2004."Sentencing Reform and Correctional policy".In Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,ed.by Barry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,p.273.
[1]Tonry,Michael.1987.Sentencing Reform Impacts.National Institute of Justice,US.Department of Justice.Washington,DC:US Government Printing Office.
[2]Rhine,Edward E.2004."Sentencing Reform and Correctional policy".In Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,ed.by Barry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,p.273.
[3]Progressive Era:1890-1920美国“进步时代”。19世纪末20世纪初,美国社会面临着很多问题,例如,贫富差距扩大、经济秩序混乱、政治丑闻不断、道德水准下降、生活环境恶化等。所有这些问题都对美国社会秩序的稳定构成了直接的威胁。正是在这种背景下,美国社会出现了一个社会改革潮流,其中包括:争取社会正义运动、市政改革运动、争取女权运动等,涉及美国社会生活的许多方面的改革。在美国历史上,这场社会改革运动被称为“进步主义运动”
[4]Tonry,Michael.1987.Sentencing Reform Impacts.National Institute of Justice,US.Department of Justice.Washington,DC:US Government Printing Office.
[5]Shane-DuBow,Sandra,Brown,Alice P.,& Olsen,Erik.1985.Sentencing Reform in the United Sates:History,Content,and Effect.Washington,DC:US Government Printing Office.
[6]Shane-DuBow,Sandra,Brown,Alice P.,& Olsen,Erik.1985.Sentencing Reform in the United Sates:History,Content,and Effect.Washington,DC:US Government Printing Office.p.6.
[7]Rhine,Edward E.2004."Sentencing Reform and Correctional policy".In Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,ed.by Barry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,p.274.
[1]Rhine,Edward E.2004."Sentencing Reform and Correctional policy".In Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,ed.by Barry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,p.275.
[2]Tonry,Michael.1987.Sentencing Reform Impacts.National Institute of Justice,US.Department of Justice.Washington,DC:US Government Printing Office,p.77.
[3]Tonry,Michael.1988.Structuring Sentencing In Michael Tonry & Norval Morris(Eds.),Crime and Justice:A review of research,University of Chicago Press,pp.275.
[4]Von Hirsch,Andrew,Knapp,Kay A.& Tonry,Michael.1987.The Sentencing commission and its guidelines.Boston:Northern University Press,p.461.
[5]Rhine,Edward E.2004."Sentencing Reform and Correctional policy".In Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,ed.by Barry W.Hancock and Paul M.Sharp,p.275.
[6]Morris Novral,& Tonry,Michael.1990.Between prison and probation:Intermediate punishments in a rational sentencing system.New York:Oxford University Press,p.39.
[1]Tonry,Michael.1987.Sentencing Reform Impacts.National Institute of Justice,US.Department of Justice.Washington,DC:US Government Printing Office,pp.45-75.
[2]Tonry,Michael.1987.Sentencing Reform Impacts.National Institute of Justice,US.Department of Justice.Washington,DC:US Government Printing Office,pp.45-75.
[3]吴景芳.《刑罚与量刑》,载《法律适用》,2004(2):10-16.
[4]Tonry,Michael.1987.Sentencing Reform Impacts.National Institute of Justice,US.Department of Justice.Washington,DC:US Government Printing Office,pp.45-75.
[5]US Government printing Office,1994,The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994." Conference Report.Washington DC,pp.194-195.
[1]Washington Laws.1994.1994 Pamphlet Edition Session Laws Fifty-Third Legislature 1994 Regular Session.Chapter 1 "Persistent Offenders-Life Sentence on Third Conviction."(Statute Law Committee) Olympia,WA,p.3.
[2]California Penal Service.1994.Chapter 12(A.B.No.971)(West) 1994 Portion of 1993-94 Regular Session "An Act to Amend Section 667 of the Penal Code." Clifornia Penal Code Section 1192.7.
[3]Georgia Statues,17-10-6.1.Code of Georgia,Title 17.Criminal Procedure,Chapter 10 Sentence and Punishment,Article 1.Procedure for Sentencing and Imposition of Punishment.
[1]Benekos,Peter J.and Alida V.Merlo.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.263,转引自 Final Legislative Report,1994,P.1.
[2]States that have some form of 3-STRIKES law are listed here.Three strikes and you are out,an official online resource by Mike Reynolds.http://www.threestrikes.org/3strikestates.html.
[3]Wood,Daniel B.2001.Three strikes'law:Is it too-cruel punishment?" The Christian Science Monitor,USA>Justice at http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/1108/p1s3-usju.html.
[4]Chen Jingwei,Chen Tung-ho,and Chiou Jiunn-cherng.2006."Three Strikes Laws and Repeat Offenders",Central Police University,Chinese Taipei,at http://www.tpac.gov.cn.
[5]Chen Jingwei,Chen Tung-ho,and Chiou Jiunn-cherng.2006."Three Strikes Laws and Repeat Offenders",Central Police University,Chinese Taipei,at http://www.tpac.gov.cn.转引自 Austin,J.,Clark,J.,Hardyman,P.and Henry,A.(2000).Three strikes and you're out:the implementation and impact of strike laws.U.S.Department of Justice,document No:181297.
[1]Peyser,Marc."Strike Three and You're Not Out".Newsweek,August 29,1994,p.53.
[2]"Mandatory Sentencing is Criticized by Justice" New York Times,March 10,1994a,P.A9-14.
[3]Benekos,Peter J.and Alida V.Merlo.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.265.
[4]New York Times,"Killer Withdraws Plea in a 3'Strikes' Case",September 28,1994,p.A19.
[5]Criminal Justice Newsletter."Three-Time Loser' Bill to be Introduced in House." January 24,1994,p.7.
[1]New York Times,"California Judge Refuses to Apply a Tough New Sentencing Law." September 20,1994,p.A9.
[2]Peyser,Marc."Strike Three and You're Not Out".Newsweek,August 29,1994.p.53.
[3]Griset,Pamala.1991.Determining Sentencing:The Promise and the Reality of Retributive Justice.Albany,NY:State University of New York Press,p.181.
[4]Egan,Timothy.1994."A 3-Strike Penal Law Shows It's Not as Simple as It Seems." New York Times.February 15,1994,p.A11.
[5]Bill Meats:Supreme Court upholds long sentences under 3-strikes-you're-out law,CNN.com/lawcenter,March,2003.
[6]Ewing v.California,538 U.S.11
[7]Lockyer v.Andrade,538 US.63.
[8]被告的犯罪历史可追溯到1984年,他被判多次轻罪和重罪。1993年,他被判定犯一级抢劫和三次被判定入室抢劫罪。他的犯罪历史还包括偷窃、殴打、持有武器等判罪。在1993年的定罪前,他共被判定犯有9
[1]Broder,David 1994."Population Explosion." The Washington Post National Weekly Edition.February 21-27,p.37.
[2]Rohter,Larry.1994."States Embracing Tougher Measures for Fighting Crime." New York Times,May 10,p.A12.
[3]Benekos,Peter J.and Alida V.Merlo.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.269.
[4]Criminal Justice Newsletter 1994."State Chief Justices Oppose Senate Crime Bill Provisions",February 15,p.1.
[1]Benekos,Peter J.and Alida V.Merlo.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.269.
[2]Currie,Elliot.1994."What's Wrong with the Crime Bill?" The Nation,January 31,p.120.
[3]Kramer,Michael.1994."Tough.But Smart?" Time.February,7,p.29.
[1]Robinson,M.2002.Justice Blind? Ideals and Realities of American Criminal Justice.Upper Saddle River,NJ:Prentice-Hall.
[2]Cox.S.and J.Wade.1998.The Criminal Justice Network:An Introduction.New York:McGraw-Hill.
[1]刘艳萍:“透视美国死刑及其上诉和复审”,《国家检察官学院河南分院学报》2006年第四期。
[2]N.C.carries out nation's 1,000th execution,http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10283003/(1.19).
[3]Boyd Becomes 1,000th Execution Since 1977 http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,177402,00.html.
[4]Kenneth Lee Boyd,http://www.clarkprosecutor.org/html/death/US/boyd1000.htm.
[5]Http://justice.uaa.alaska.edu/death.
[1]POLITICAL & SOCIAL ISSUES/ISSUES IN DEPTH-DEATH PENALTY,http://france.usembassy.gov/irc/politics/dpenalty.
[2]Appeal and Review of Death Sentences in Washington State,http://www.atg.wa.gov/deathpenalty/.
[1]The Federal Death Penalty System:Supplementary Data,Analysis and Revised Protocols for Capital Case Review http://www.usdoj.gov/dag/pubdoc/deathpenaltystudy.
[1]Mauer,Marc.1994."American Behind Bars:the International Use of Incarceration,1992-1993." The Sentencing Project.Washington D.C.,pp.1-2.
[2]Correction Digest,Senate Crime Bill Will More Than Double American Prison Population by Year of 2005." March 9,1994,p.1.
[3]Tucker,Beverly.1994."Can California Afford 3 Strikes?" In California Teachers Association Action,May,1994,p.7.
[4]Mauer,Marc.1994."American Behind Bars:the International Use of Incarceration,1992-1993." The Sentencing Project.Washington D.C.,p.22.
[5]National Council on Crime and Delinquency 1994."The Aging of California's Prison Population:An Assessment of Three Strikes Legislation" p.3.
[6]Gray,Jerry.1994."New Jersey Senate Approves Bill to Jail 3-Time Criminals for Life." New York Times,May 13,1994.p.B9.
[7]Levision,Arlene,1994."Three Strikes and you are out.." Erie Morning News,January 25,1994,p.B2.
[1]Thomas,Pierre.1994."Why '3 Strikes and You're out' Won't Reduce Crime".The Washington Post National Weekly Edition.July 18-24,1994.p.31.
[2]Geiger,Keith.1994."Upgrading School Building." The Washington Post National Weekly Edition.September,26-October 2,1994.p.22.
[3]Geiger,Keith.1994."Upgrading School Building." The Washington Post National Weekly Edition.September,26-October 2,1994.p.2.
[4]Benekos,Peter J.and Alida V.Merlo.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.268.
[1]Manet,Marc.1994."American Behind Bars:the International Use of Incarceration,1992-1993." The Sentencing Project.Washington D.C.,p.23.
[2]Benekos,Peter J.and Alida V.Merlo.2004."Three Strikes and you are out——The Political Sentencing Game",Public Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.268.
[1]刘强:《美国社区矫正的理论与实务》,中国人民公安大学出版社,2003,第14页。
[2]刘强:《美国社区矫正的理论与实务》,中国人民公安大学出版社,2003,第16页。
[3]刘强:《美国社区矫正的理论与实务》,中国人民公安大学出版社,2003,第21页。
[1]刘强:《美国社区矫正的理论与实务》,中国人民公安大学出版社,2003,第22页。
[1]刘强:《美国社区矫正的理论与实务》,中国人民公安大学出版社,2003,第32页。
[1][台]许福生著:《刑事政策》,中国民主法制出版社2006年版,第205-206页。
[2]据《纽约时报》1985年9月24日报道,纽约地区联邦法院对一名犯有诈骗罪的女犯判处5年缓刑监督,其中2年为家庭软禁。转引自储槐植著:《美国刑法》,北京大学出版社1996年版,第336-337页。
[1]储槐植著:《美国刑法》,北京大学出版社1996年版,第342-343页。
[1]刘强:《美国社区矫正的理论与实务》,中国人民公安大学出版社,2003,第32页。
[2]以下数据均来自于美国司法部司法统计局:http://www.usdoj.gov。
[1]转引自许福生:《变动时期的刑事政策》,台湾:中央警察出版社,2003,第26页。
[2]Marc Mauer是华盛顿特区量刑项目的执行理事,著有《监禁刑的竞赛》,此处引自于他在“北京矫正和监狱协会国际会议”上的讲话。
[3]Marc Mauer.2004."Lessons of the "Get Tough" Movement in the United States".The Sentencing Project Washington,D.C.,presented at International Corrections and Prison Association 6th Annual Conference Beijing,China.
[1]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.556.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.556.
[1]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.556.
[2]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.556.
[3]Wilson,James Q.2002."Crime and Public Policy".In Crime:Public Policies for Crime Control,ed.by James Q.Wilson and Joan Petersilia,p.557.
[4]美国司法部:Key Crime & Justice Facts at a Glance,http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/glance.htm#expfunction.
[1]Bureau of Justice Statistics:CRIME:People's Chief Concerns:Six in 10 Americans say reducing crime should be a top priority for Congress in 2006,but other issues rank higher,Nov.2006.
[1]中新网:美联邦调查局报告显示美国女性犯罪率呈上升趋势,2003年10月29日。
[2]南方网:美国青少年女性犯罪率10年来逐年上升,2002年6月15日。
[3]仇恨犯罪是指违法者因歧视某人的种族、宗教信仰、性取向、民族、国籍或身体心理上的缺陷而侵犯此人或其财产的行为。
[4]新华网:美国仇恨犯罪率去年增近8%,2007年11月20日。
[5]董淑君、李兴安译:玛丽亚.博斯,巴巴拉.克拉菲尔德.乔治:对白领犯罪传统观念的挑战,《外国法译评》,1993年第四期。
[6]环球时报:美国打算释放老年犯,2003年09月17日。
[1]Elliott Currie,2004."Confronting Crime:Looking toward the Twenty-First Centruy".In Piblic Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.407.
[2]Young,Jock.1988."Recent Development in Criminology" In Ma.Haralambos(ed.),Developments in Sociology.London:Causeway,pp.138-141.
[3]Currie,Elliott,1985.Confronting Crime:An American Challenge.New York:Pantheon.
[4]Elliott Currie,2004."Confronting Crime:Looking toward the Twenty-First Centruy".In Piblic Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.407.
[5]Irwin,John,and James Austin.1987.It's about Time:Solving America's Prison Crowding Crisis.San Francisco:National Council on Crime and Deliquency.
[6]Elliott Currie,2004."Confronting Crime:Looking toward the Twenty-First Centruy".In Piblic Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.407.
[7]Will Gorge,1988."The Prop.13 Pendulum Swings Back",Los Angles Times,June 5.p5.
[1]Elliott Currie,2004."Confronting Crime:Looking toward the Twenty-First Centruy".In Piblic Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.407.
[2]Business Week.1998."Human Capital".September 19,p.103.
[3]Head Start:抢先,在赛跑中先于其他竟争对手出发。Had Start,“提前开始”项目,它为美国的低收入的家庭和学龄前儿童提供多方面的发展服务以及为其家庭提供社会服务。为儿童提供的服务主要集中在教育、社会情感发展、生理和心理健康以及营养等方面。
[4]US News and Report.1988."Save the Children".November 7.
[5]Samuelson,Robert.1988.Newsweek,November 14,p.559.
[1]Wilson,James Q.1988.Address to Western Society of Criminology,Monterey,CA:Feburary 26.
[2]Elliott Currie,2004."Confronting Crime:Looking toward the Twenty-First Centruy".In Piblic Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.408.
[3]Elliott Currie,2004."Confronting Crime:Looking toward the Twenty-First Centruy".In Piblic Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.409.
[4]Elliott Currie,2004."Confronting Crime:Looking toward the Twenty-First Centruy".In Piblic Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.410.
[1]Woodhead.Martin.1988."When Psychology Informs Public Policy:the Case of Early Childhood Intervention".American Psychologist 43(No.6,June)
[2]Elliott Currie,2004."Confronting Crime:Looking toward the Twenty-First Centruy".In Piblic Policy,Crime,and Criminal Justice,p.410.
[3]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.177.
[4]街头犯罪:包括行凶抢劫、抢劫、机动车盗窃。
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.177.
[2]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.177.
[3]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.177.
[4]Smith,Alexander and Harrier Pollach.1975.Some Sins Are Not Crimes,New York:New View Points,p.100
[5]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.178.
[1]美沙酮(methadone):一种德国在二战中发明的人工合成麻醉药(C21H 27NO)不如吗啡或海洛因那样容易让人上瘾,在戒毒治疗中被用作这些毒品的替代物。
[2]亚文化群:通过将自身组成一个整体,并对每个成员发生影响的共同社会地位、种族背景、居住区域、宗教及其他因素而区别于其他群体的文化分群。毒品亚文化群指由于吸食毒品而犯罪、或实施其他反社会行为的群体。
[3]Smith,Alexander and Harrier Pollach.1975.Some Sins Are Not Crimes,New York:New View Points,p.104.
[4]Euphoria:[医]精神愉快,异常欣快。
[5]快克:一种经过高度化学提纯的可卡因药丸,通过玻璃烟管吸取,很容易使人上瘾。
[6]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.178.
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.182.
[2]US Department of Justice,Beaureau of Justice Statistics,Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics,2000(Albany:Suny,Hindelang Criminal Justice Research Center),p.49.
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.184.
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.184.
[2]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.184.
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.186.
[2]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.186.
[3]Brady Bill,这是1994年通过的第一部重要的战胜了全国来复枪协会(NRA)的立法,是全国最大的,最强烈反对各种形式的火器规定。这个法案是以当时的总统侍从武官命名的,他在1981年企图刺杀里根总统时严重受伤,他的妻子成为了枪支控制积极倡导者。
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.188.
[2]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.189.
[3]US Department of Justice,Bureau of Justice Statistics,Source book of Criminal Justice Statistics,2000(Albany:Suny,Hindelang Criminal Justice Research Center,p.151)
[4]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.189.
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.189.
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.190.
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.191.
[2]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.191.
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.193.
[1]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.197.转引自 Wakler,Sameul.2005.Sense and Nonsense About Crime and Drugs:A Policy Guide,Thomson Learning,p.197.
[2]Cochran,Clarke E.,and Lawrence C.Mayer,T.R.Carr and N.Joseph Cayer.2006.American Public Policy:An Introduction,Crime and Criminal Justice:Dilemmas of Social Control,p.197.
[1]美国学者胡顿在1939年、谢尔顿在1949年曾鼓吹过“犯罪的人”,并提出了曾在美国20世纪前后流行过一时的犯罪生物学理论,如主张“(罪犯)许许多多的不同,都说明罪犯在生物学上的低劣性。”“罪犯应当永远被隔离,而且,其中许多人应被禁止生男育女。”但始终未成为美国主流的犯罪学理论,也未根本性影响美国官方的刑事政策。参见[美]汉斯·托奇主编:《司法和犯罪心理学》,群众出版社1986年版,第215页。
[2][美]D·斯坦利·艾慈恩、杜格·A·蒂默著:《犯罪学》,群众出版社1988年版,第44页。
[1][美]里查德·昆尼等著:《新犯罪学》,中国国际广播出版社1988年版,第4页。
[2][美]里查德·昆尼等著:《新犯罪学》,中国国际广播出版社1988年版,第4页。
[3]同上,第149页。
[4]杨春洗主编:《刑事政策论》,北京大学出版社1994年版,第397-398页。
[1]郭建安著:《美国犯罪学的几个基本问题》,中国人民公安大学出版社1992年版,第127-129页。
[1][美]史蒂文·拉布著:《美国犯罪预防的理论与评价》,中国人民公安大学出版社1993年版,第199-203页。
[2][台]许福生著:《刑事政策学》,中国民主法制出版社2006年版,第122页。
[3][英]约翰·格拉海姆、特雷弗·白男德:《欧美预防犯罪方略》,群众出版社1998年版,第64-65页。
[4][美]史蒂文·拉布著:《美国犯罪预防的理论与评价》,中国人民公安大学出版社1993年版,第204-205页。
[1][台]许福生著:《刑事政策学》,中国民主法制出版社2006年版,第123页。
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[1][台]许福生著:《刑事政策学》,中国民主法制出版社2006年版,第15页。
[2][台]许福生著:《刑事政策学》,中国民主法制出版社2006年版,第15页。
[3][台]许福生著:《刑事政策学》,中国民主法制出版社2006年版,第4页。
[1][台]许福生著:《刑事政策学》,中国民主法制出版社2006年版,第3页。
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[1]胡联合著:《转型与犯罪——中国转型期犯罪问题的实证研究》,中共中央党校出版社,第141页。
[1]胡联合著:《转型与犯罪——中国转型期犯罪问题的实证研究》,中共中央党校出版社,第143页。
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[3]“三振出局”就是美国总统克林顿于1994年在国情咨文中正式采用的政策,呼吁在全国推广。
[1]邵馨莲:《美国多州财政吃紧考虑提前释囚》,载《北京青年报》,2008年4月5日B2版。
[2]曲新久主编:《刑法学》,中国政法大学出版社2008年版,第246页。
[1]“等暴力犯罪”是指排出了法定的五种具体犯罪之外,还包括其他与所列举的五种具体犯罪具有相当严重性的暴力性犯罪,如故意伤害致人重伤或死亡、武装暴乱、武装叛乱、劫持航空器等,而不是一般性的暴力犯罪。
[2]金诚著:《转型期中国警务问题研究》,中国人民公安大学出版社,第159页。
[1]王顺安、刘艳萍:《论宽严相济与三个刑事政策的关系》,载《河北学刊》,2008年(2),第174页。
[2]陈兴良:《宽严相济刑事政策研究》,载《法学杂志》,2006(1)。
[3]储槐植:《刑事一体化与关系刑法论》北京大学出版社,1997年版,第305-306页。
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[1]肖扬:《中国刑事政策和策略问题》,法律出版社,1996年版,第72-75页。
[1]侯宏林:《刑事政策的价值分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2005年版,第276页。
[2]陈兴良:《宽严相济刑事政策研究》,载《法学杂志》,2006(1)。
[1]黄石:《“严打”政策的反思与重建》,载《江苏警官学院学报》,2005(6)。
[2]侯宏林:《刑事政策的价值分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2005年版,第301-308页。
[1]黄石:《“严打”政策的反思与重建》,载《江苏警官学院学报》,2005(6)。
[2]胡联合、胡鞍钢:《转型期中国犯罪治理的基本对策》,载《法学杂志》,2005(5)。
[3]侯宏林:《刑事政策的价值分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2005年版,第301-308页。
[4]戴宜生:他山之石有用吗?——读《犯罪罪率为什么降低》杂感,法学家茶座,2003(4)。
[1]梁根林:《刑事政策:立场与范畴》,法律出版社,2005年版,第23-42页。
[2]陈兴良:《宽严相济刑事政策研究》,载《法学杂志》,2006(1)。
[3]侯宏林:《刑事政策的价值分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2005年版,第301-308页。
[1]侯宏林:《刑事政策的价值分析》,中国政法大学出版社,2005年版,第270页。
[2]陈兴良:《宽严相济刑事政策研究》,载《法学杂志》,2006(1)。
[1]许福生:《刑事政策学》,中国民主与法制出版社2006年版,第75页。
[2]许福生:《刑事政策学》,中国民主与法制出版社2006年版,第75页。
[1][美]弗雷达·阿德勒、杰哈德·穆勒、威廉·拉菲尔注:《遏制犯罪——当代美国的犯罪问题及犯罪学研究》,中国民主法制出版社2006年,第360页。
[2][美]弗雷达·阿德勒、杰哈德·穆勒、威廉·拉菲尔注:《遏制犯罪——当代美国的犯罪问题及犯罪学研究》,中国民主法制出版社2006年,第361-366页。
[3][美]弗雷达·阿德勒、杰哈德·穆勒、威廉·拉菲尔注:《遏制犯罪——当代美国的犯罪问题及犯罪学研究》,中国民主法制出版社2006年,第360页。
[1][美]哈罗德·J·小杰克·赖特著:《犯罪学导论》,知识出版社1992年版,第505页。
[2][美]哈罗德·J·小杰克·赖特著:《犯罪学导论》,知识出版社1992年版,第505页。
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9.[美]迪尼托著,何敬,葛其伟译,杨伟民校:《社会福利:政治与公共政策》(第五版),人民大学出版社,2007年版。
10.[美]弗雷达·阿德勒、杰哈德·穆勒、威廉·拉菲尔注:《遏制犯罪——当代美国的犯罪问题及犯罪学研究》,廖斌等译,中国民主法制出版社2006年版。
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18.[美]史蒂文·拉布著:张国昭等译:《美国犯罪预防的理论实践与评价》《中国人民公安大学出版社,1993年版。
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