中国主要粮食国际竞争力研究
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摘要
随着世界粮食供求形势的变化,中国粮食安全问题一直备受关注。特别是中国成为世界贸易组织成员之后,粮食市场国际化趋势不断发展,中国粮食已经并将越来越深入地融入世界市场竞争之中。由于各国各产业在世界经济体系中的地位是由多种因素所决定的,从国际分工角度看比较优势具有决定性作用,从产业竞争角度看竞争优势又起决定性作用。决定比较优势的因素主要是资源禀赋条件及配置状况,而决定竞争优势的因素不仅包括产业内部的直接和间接因素,还包括产业外部的商业环境因素的作用。虽然具有比较优势的产业较容易形成和保持竞争优势,缺乏比较优势的产业较难形成和保持竞争优势,但这并不意味具有比较优势的产业就一定能形成和保持竞争优势,而不具有比较优势的产业就无法形成和保持竞争优势。因此,中国粮食在现有比较优势前提下,要想进一步发展,就必须不断提高其国际竞争优势。但要提高中国粮食的国际竞争优势,关键是要在构造中国粮食国际竞争力研究的理论框架和经济分析方法的基础上,全面系统地研究中国粮食的竞争优势状况及其影响竞争优势的各种因素的作用情况,以便采取积极对策来提高其国际竞争力。
     一、研究思路和分析框架
     (一)研究目标和思路
     中国粮食国际竞争力研究的主要目标是:首先,以现有的产业国际竞争力理论和国际贸易理论为基础,构建中国粮食产业国际竞争力研究的经济分析框架;然后,全面系统地研究中国粮食产业国际竞争力状况及变动趋势,全面系统地研究产业内部各种直接及间接因素和产业外部各种商业环境因素如何决定和影响中国粮食的国际竞争力;最后,构建中国粮食国际竞争力的评价指标,并提出有针对性和切合实际地提高中国粮食国际竞争力的对策建议。
     中国粮食国际竞争力研究的基本思路是:首先,主要以迈克尔·波特的产业国际竞争力理论和国际贸易理论为理论基础,构建中国粮食国际竞争力研究的经济分析框架。然后,采用比较分析法、因素分析法、实证分析法和规范分析法等,通过对粮食生产和贸易的比较分析,确定中国粮食国际竞争研究范围;通过对粮食国际竞争力实现指标(市场占有率和贸易竞争指数)的比较分析,研究和探讨中国粮食国际竞争力发展状况;通过对决定和影响国际竞争力的三个直接和间接因素(成本和价格、质量和安全、生产力水平)、四个基本因素(生产要素条件、国内市场需求、相关和辅助产业、企业战略、结构和竞争)和政府作用的国际比较分析,研究和探讨中国粮食国际竞争力形成原因。最后,构造出比较系统的中国粮食国际竞争力评价指标,并提出有针对性和切合实际地提高中国粮食国际竞争力的对策建议,为进一步提高中国粮食国际竞争力提供理论和客观依据。
     产业国际竞争力研究的基本客观观测资料就是相关国家特定产业的国际市场占有率和盈利率,这是产业国际竞争力的最终实现指标,反映了产业国际竞争的实际结果。然而,产业国际竞争力研究的目的不仅仅是客观描述特定产业国际竞争的实际结果,而且要发现决定或影响各国特定产业国际竞争力的各种因素,即寻找导致产业国际竞争的实际结果以及未来趋势的原因,从而揭示和论证各产业国际竞争力的因果关系。由于在现实经济中,有许多因素影响着各国各产业的国际竞争力,因此,如何将无数影响各国各产业国际竞争力的因素清理成清晰的逻辑因果线条,以突出其中最具重要性的因素,成为对各国特定产业国际竞争力研究必须解决的重要问题。
     中国粮食国际竞争力研究,首先需要确定比较研究的主要产品范围和国家范围,然后再从国际竞争力的实现结果和决定及影响国际竞争力因素两方面进行全面系统地分析。从结果分析,粮食国际竞争力可直接表现为市场占有率,市场占有率越高、获利越多,则表明其国际竞争力越强。从决定及影响因素分析,一切有助于其开拓市场、占领市场,并以此获取利润的因素,都可作为研究对象。在此,我们把反映竞争结果的指标称为国际竞争力实现指标,它们表现了国际竞争力的实现程度;把反映竞争实力(即竞争力强弱的原因)的因素称为影响国际竞争力的直接和间接因素,它们能解释为什么具有或不具有国际竞争力;把反映竞争实力以外的对其国际竞争力具有重要作用的因素,称为决定和影响国际竞争力的环境因素,它们能对国际竞争力强弱具有重要的决定和影响作用。
     (二)分析框架
     生产和贸易国际比较
     我们通过在世界范围内对粮食的生产和贸易进行国际比较分析,来具体明确中国粮食国际竞争力研究的产品范围。通过粮食生产和贸易的国际比较分析,来具体明确世界各种粮食主要生产国或地区、主要出口国或地区,从而确定中国粮食国际竞争力研究的国际比较范围。通过粮食贸易的国际比较分析,来具体明确世界各种粮食的主要进口国或地区,从而确定中国粮食国际竞争力研究的市场机会和目标市场范围。
     国际竞争力实现指标
     反映国际竞争力结果的实现指标包括市场占有率、贸易竞争指数、固定市场份额模型、显示性比较优势等,其中最主要的指标是市场占有率和盈利率。由于企业获利情况的统计资料较难获得,而且当主要分析国际竞争力结果时可以假定其所获利润与市场占有率为正相关关系。因此,我们主要用市场占有率和贸易竞争指数来考察中国粮食参与国际竞争的实际结果,并进行国际比较。市场占有率是反映国际竞争力结果的最直接和最简单的实现指标,可以表明其在国际和国内市场竞争中所具有的竞争实力,它反映了国际竞争力的实现程度。在自由、良好(WTO规则)的市场条件下,本国市场和国际市场一样都对外国开放。因此本国国内市场占有率、进口国市场占有率和国际市场占有率,均能反映其国际竞争力的强弱,市场占有率高国际竞争力就强;反之,则弱。市场占有率也可用来分析国际竞争力强弱的动态变化,如果在一定时期内市场占有率有所提高,则说明国际竞争力在增强;反之,则说明国际竞争力呈下降趋势。贸易竞争指数可以表明某国生产的某种产品是净进口,还是净出口,以及净进口或净出口的相对规模,从而反映某国生产的某种产品相对于世界市场上供应的其它国家的该产品来讲,是处于生产效率的竞争优势还是劣势以及优劣势的程度。这里贸易竞争指数用来反映中国粮食相对于世界其它粮食主要出口国,是处于生产效率的竞争优势还是劣势以及优劣势的程度,从而说明其国际竞争力状况及变动趋势。
     决定和影响国际竞争力的直接和间接因素
     影响国际竞争力的直接和间接因素反映的是在国际竞争中所拥有的实力,或者是已实现的国际竞争力的直接和间接解释变量。这些因素可以决定粮食在国际市场的竞争结果,也可以解释为什么某种粮食在国际市场上具有或不具有竞争力。影响粮食国际竞争力的直接和间接因素很多,我们将主要从以下几方面分析其对中国粮食国际竞争力的影响,并进行国际比较。
     成本和价格。成本是决定产品价格的基础,成本的高低决定了产品是否具有价格竞争优势和获利能力。正因为产品成本很大程度上决定着产品价格,尤其当生产和贸易处于完全竞争状态时,激烈的竞争将使产品的长期均衡价格趋同于长期成本,从而产品的竞争力状况也能在一定程度上从产品价格中体现出来。决定粮食成本的主要因素是要素价格及其成本构成,因此种子、化肥、农药价格、劳动力价格、地租价格以及各要素在单位产品中的构成等可以作为分析粮食是否具有国际竞争力的重要影响因素。由于本文需要与其它粮食主要出口国进行比较分析,要想全面掌握各种粮食主要出口国的成本构成和平均成本历史数据,是一件很难、工作量也很大的事情。我们利用美国农业部数据对中国粮食的成本构成进行国际比较分析。我们还运用生产者价格指数时序数据,并通过与其它粮食主要出口国的比较分析来衡量中国粮食的成本和价格竞争力变动,及其对国际竞争力的影响。相同的产品在同一市场上,价格越低越具有竞争力,这是一个公认的普遍存在的事实,也是经济分析的一个基础。这里排除了与营销策略和消费需求有关的各种复杂因素。因为现实中随着消费水平的提高,消费者对粮食的需求将更多地考虑其质量和安全等,使得粮食的国际竞争力已经不仅仅取决于产品价格的高低,但当产品质量和安全指标非常接近、企业营销策略差异也不大时,价格仍然是一个影响产品竞争力的重要因素。因此,比较不同国家的同种粮食在同一市场上的销售价格,可以说明各国同种粮食在价格方面的竞争力差异。
     质量和安全。质量是影响竞争力的较复杂的因素,一方面对质量的评价并不仅取决于理化指标和技术等级,还取决于消费者对产品质量的要求,因为消费者不需要的过高质量,将很难实现其价值;另一方面高质量往往也要有高投入及较高的价格。因此按照现代营销观念企业应当针对目标顾客的需求提供适当质量的产品以适应特定的购买者阶层。但通常认为市场售价相同的同种粮食中,较高质量的产品具有较强的竞争力,并且能够获得较大的附加价值。基于这一认识,经济学家通常用反映产品附加价值水平的指标来间接反映产品的质量水平。我们采用出口产品质量指数,来考察各国各种粮食的质量及附加价值的变化,从而反映各国各种粮食质量的提高状况,并间接反映出口粮食的价值与技术含量方面的竞争力状况。安全卫生是影响食品质量,从而影响其国际竞争力的一个重要因素。通常随着经济发展以及买方市场的形成和发展,市场对各种食品的需求将越来越注重其安全卫生。尤其是随着物质文化生活水平的不断提高,人们对自身和整个社会长远利益的日益关心,使其对食品安全卫生问题会越来越重视。因此,谁的产品能以较低的成本和优质安全卫生满足目标市场的需求,谁就可能在未来的竞争中处于优势或主导地位。
     生产力水平、品种资源和技术。各国各种粮食生产力水平的高低直接决定了其生产效率和生产成本的高低或优劣,从而影响各国各种粮食国际竞争力水平。反映粮食生产力水平的指标主要是单位面积产量,因此我们主要用单位面积产量来评价各种粮食的生产力水平,并通过国际比较来分析判断中国粮食的生产力水平及其对国际竞争力的影响。虽然影响粮食生产力水平的因素很多,但粮食优良品种资源状况则可能是影响粮食生产力水平的重要因素,如果优良的专门化粮食品种资源匮乏,将直接影响其生产效率和产品质量。技术是决定生产效率的关键因素之一,在很大程度上决定了生产力水平、产品成本和价格,并且对产品质量、产品结构和新产品开发具有决定性作用,特别是随着现代科技发展步伐加快,技术进步已成为粮食发展的重要动力。对技术的经济计量比较困难,我们主要通过对影响粮食生产力水平的各种技术研究和应用状况的国际比较,来观察由于技术上的差距对中国粮食国际竞争力的影响。
     决定和影响国际竞争力的环境因素
     我们以迈克尔·波特的产业国际竞争力的“国家菱图”为理论依据,将生产要素条件,国内市场需求状况,相关和辅助产业状况,企业战略、结构和竞争,作为决定和影响粮食国际竞争力的四个基本因素,把政府作用和机遇作为决定和影响粮食国际竞争力的两个辅助因素,把这些基本因素和辅助因素之间相互影响和相互作用的复杂系统作为决定和影响粮食国际竞争力的环境因素。由于目前还很难探索到一种能将这一复杂系统综合起来,对粮食国际竞争力的决定和影响进行系统研究的方法。因此,我们还是分别对基本因素和辅助因素对中国粮食国际竞争力的决定和影响进行国际比较分析,但研究中将特别注意各因素之间的相互影响和相互作用。
     四个基本因素
     生产要素条件。一个国家拥有某一特定产业竞争所需要的高级要素和专用型要素,就能拥有最具深远和持久的竞争优势。高级要素和专用型要素的可获得性和质量决定着取得竞争优势的优良性和竞争优势升级的速度。我们主要分析与粮食生产关系密切的基本要素(耕地、劳动力素质、资本实力等)和高级要素(交通和通信设施、高级人才和研究经费及成果等),并通过国际比较,来分析判断造成中国粮食国际竞争力现状的生产要素方面的优势和劣势。
     国内市场需求状况。国内需求通过对规模经济的影响能带来静态的效率,而更重要的影响则是动态的,国内需求决定企业革新的速度与性质。影响国内需求的三个因素是:国内需求的构成、国内需求增长规模和模式、国内需求偏好对国际市场的传导机制,且后两方面的重要性是由前一个因素决定的。所以对国际竞争力的决定,国内需求质的方面的重要性要大于其量的方面。因此,我们主要对中国和世界粮食主要出口国的食物消费构成、粮食消费构成、消费增长及其饱和度、消费者的成熟度和挑剔性、国内需求的国际化趋势等进行国际比较分析,从而分析判断其对中国粮食国际竞争力的影响。
     相关和辅助产业状况。特定产业的相关和辅助产业是否具有国际竞争力,对促进和增强该产业的国际竞争优势具有重要意义。就是说如果上游供应产业具有国际竞争力,将通过效率高、时间短、速度快等使下游产业获得竞争优势,但为使某一产业具有国际竞争力,没有必要要求所有的相关和辅助产业都具有国际竞争优势,那些对创新和该产业的发展没有重要影响的投入品可以从国外进口。对某一产业的竞争优势具有重要影响的相关和辅助产业包括该产业的供应产业、可以与该产业相协调和共享某些活动的产业、以及互补产品的产业。粮食的相关和辅助产业较多,但与粮食国际竞争力关系比较密切的主要是肥料、农药、良种繁育、产品加工等。因此我们主要从这几个方面进行国际比较分析,来分析判断其对中国粮食国际竞争力的影响。
     企业战略、结构和竞争。企业战略、结构和国内竞争对一国某产业国际竞争力的影响,一方面表现在国内企业的竞争策略是否与本国环境以及该产业的竞争优势来源有机结合;另一方面表现在国内是否拥有有效的竞争机制,以及这种有效的竞争机制是否与该产业的竞争优势来源密切配合。企业规模和市场占有率是决定企业产品市场竞争综合实力的重要因素,尤其对于规模经济效益明显的粮食;粮食生产经营企业扩大经营规模和提高市场占有率,还有利于提高产品的品牌竞争力。一国国内某产业高效率运行和健全完善的现代市场体系将有助于获得竞争优势,提高国际竞争力。因此,我们主要围绕企业规模化程度、粮食经营主体的组织形式及其竞争策略等方面进行国际比较分析。
     两个辅助因素
     政府作用。政府在产业国际竞争优势中的真正作用是影响生产要素条件、市场需求条件、相关和辅助产业状况以及企业战略、结构和竞争等基本因素。政府可以主动或被动地影响(和被影响)四个因素中的任何一个。在市场经济条件下,市场应当是配置资源的基础,而市场机制在某些方面却会表现出失灵,这就需要政府进行宏观调控以充分发挥市场机制的作用。但是,政府宏观调控的目的只能是弥补市场失灵,政府如果不遵循经济规律,过分干预将会造成比市场机制失灵更严重的后果。因此,在市场经济条件下,政府的宏观调控必须建立在不损害市场机制所固有的竞争性,保证市场机制有效运行的基础之上,即应严格局限在市场机制失灵的领域,这也符合乌拉圭回合农业协议的要求。政府作用运行的好将有助于决定国际竞争优势的因素更好发挥作用,提高国际竞争优势,反之则可能削弱国际竞争优势。因此,我们主要从市场机制在粮食市场某些方面的失灵,需要政府进行必要宏观调控的原理出发,分析中国政府在调控市场失灵方面的基本政策措施对粮食国际竞争力的影响,并进行国际比较。
     机遇。虽然偶然事件本身给某些产业提高国际竞争力创造了机遇,但因偶然事件的随机性很大。所以,某国粮食能否获得国际竞争优势,更主要的还是取决于四个基本因素和政府的作用。因此,我们把机遇作为提高国际竞争力的特定市场机会,其研究的中心将主要是如何通过四个基本因素和政府作用来把握机遇,获得或提高国际竞争力。
     二、主要研究结论
     (一)生产和贸易
     世界和中国粮食作物收获面积和产量主要集中在稻谷、小麦和玉米三个品种上,世界谷物产量主要集中在中国、美国、欧盟、印度、俄联邦等国,中国是世界上谷物产量最多的国家。世界水稻产量主要集中在亚洲,尤其集中于中国、印度、印度尼西亚、孟加拉、越南、泰国、缅甸和菲律宾,中国是世界上稻谷产量最多的国家。世界小麦产量主要集中在中国、欧盟、美国、印度、俄罗斯、加拿大、澳大利亚、巴基斯坦、土耳其和阿根廷等十多个国家,中国是世界上小麦种植面积和产量最多的国家。世界玉米产量主要集中在美国、中国、巴西、墨西哥和法国。中国是仅次于美国的世界重要玉米生产大国。
     世界谷物贸易品种主要是稻谷、小麦、玉米及其制品。世界谷物出口集中在美国、欧盟、加拿大、阿根廷、澳大利亚、泰国等国家。世界谷物进口量较多的国家主要有日本、墨西哥、韩国、埃及、伊朗、巴西、中国、印度尼西亚、沙特阿拉伯和欧盟国家。水稻是三大粮食作物中贸易量最小的,但却是20世纪90年代以来贸易增长最快的粮食作物;世界稻谷及其产品的出口贸易主要是大米,世界大米出口主要集中在中国、泰国、越南、美国、印度、巴基斯坦和欧盟国家等,世界大米的进口国家比较分散。世界小麦及产品贸易主要是小麦和小麦粉以及加工品,小麦是世界三大粮食作物中贸易量最大的;世界小麦和小麦粉出口主要集中在美国、加拿大、欧盟国家、澳大利亚、阿根廷和塔吉克斯坦等。相对于世界小麦进口国,出口国较多,但小麦进口量较多的国家有欧盟国家、日本、中国、巴西、伊朗、阿尔及利亚、伊拉克、摩洛哥、印度尼西亚、韩国等。世界玉米及产品的出口贸易主要是玉米,玉米也是国际粮食贸易中仅次于小麦的品种。世界玉米出口最多的国家是美国,其它主要出口国有欧盟、阿根廷和中国等。相对于世界玉米进口国家,出口国家较多,但进口较多的国家主要有欧盟国家、日本、韩国、墨西哥、马来西亚、哥伦比亚、阿尔及利亚和巴西等。
     (二)国际竞争力状况
     在三种主要粮食作物中,水稻的国际竞争力较高,玉米和小麦的国际竞争力很低。其具体情况如下:
     中国水稻国际市场占有率相对较高的品种有大米、米粉和大米发酵饮品,贸易竞争指数较高的品种主要是大米、精/糙米、稻谷及米粉,所以相对来说大米和米粉的国际竞争力较强。但与各品种的世界其它主要出口国相比较,中国的国际竞争力还是相对较弱。
     中国小麦粉的国际市场占有率很低,但在呈上升趋势,中国面点、小麦麸、面包和小麦微生物的国际市场占有率一直很低。总的来看,中国小麦的国际竞争力较弱,近两年略微有所上升。各项竞争力指标表现为:中国小麦的国际市场占有率一直很低,本国国内市场占有率在不断上升后达到目前较高的水平,贸易竞争指数一直为负数且绝对值较大。
     中国玉米国际市场占有率波动幅度较大,但近年来略有上升趋势;中国玉米的贸易竞争指数在多数年份为负值,近两年来为正值,总体上看竞争力较弱。中国玉米在世界主要进口国的市场份额一直很低。中国玉米油、甜玉米、玉米面、玉米麸、玉米饼等各种玉米产品的国际竞争力也都较弱。
     (三)直接和间接因素
     成本和价格
     在单位产品生产成本上,中国稻谷和小麦相对于美国具有优势。原因是中国稻谷和小麦以小农户生产为主,大量低成本劳动力代替了大部分机械的使用以及中国极低的土地租金,导致中国的稻谷和小麦生产成本较低,而美国稻谷和小麦专业化生产带来的高劳动生产率和规模效应已被高劳动力机会成本、高昂的土地使用成本和农业机械费用所抵消。中国单位面积玉米生产成本低于美国,单位产品玉米生产成本也低于美国,而单产也低于美国。
     从生产者价格指数分析来看,中国稻谷除了某些年份相对于泰国其价格优势在上升外,相对于其它国家其价格优势均呈下降趋势,并且波动幅度很大;中国小麦相对于其它所有国家均处于价格劣势,而且这种价格劣势上升趋势非常明显;中国玉米除了相对于泰国和德国在多数年份价格优势在上升外,相对于其它国家在多数年份价格优势在下降。
     中国大米出口价格在多数年份均低于世界平均水平,也低于除了越南和缅甸以外的其它大米主要出口国的价格水平,因此可以认为价格不是制约中国大米国际竞争力的重要因素。中国小麦出口价格相对于世界平均水平和世界主要出口国的价格水平波动幅度较大,时而高于时而低于世界平均价格水平。中国玉米出口价格多数年份低于世界平均价格水平,与世界玉米主要出口国美国和阿根廷的价格水平比较接近,但明显低于欧盟等其它主要出口国的价格水平。
     质量和安全
     相对于大米主要出口国泰国、美国和越南等,中国大米质量指数波动幅度较大,而且有些年份小于1,其质量竞争力较差。中国小麦质量指数多数年份小于1,其波动幅度明显大于世界小麦主要出口国;中国小麦粉质量指数多数年份大于1,其波动幅度明显大于世界小麦粉主要出口国:中国面点的质量指数多数年份大于1,但明显低于世界面点主要出口国的质量指数。中国玉米和玉米油的质量指数多数年份大于1,但波动幅度大于世界玉米主要出口国;中国甜玉米质量指数多数年份小于1,其波动幅度明显大于世界甜玉米主要出口国。
     中国稻米整体品质不高,特别是缺乏不同用途的高档优质米;与小麦主要出口国相比较,中国小麦质量还存在很大差距,特别是供货质量稳定性较差;中国东北玉米与美国等其它国家玉米的内在品质没有多大差异,而相差最大的是商业品质。
     几乎所有发达国家在药物和有害物质残留、动植物疫病防治和检疫、农产品质量等级测定等方面都做到了国内标准和国际标准一致(有些已经超过食品法典委员会的标准),并有完善的监控体系。而中国的情况是只有出口农产品能达到国际标准或进口国标准,国内市场还是较低的标准,药物、有害物质残留和动植物疫病防治、检疫等监控工作也主要针对进出口产品进行。因此国内市场由于农药、抗生素和兽药的大量使用,甚至滥用,致使动植物食品中药物和有害物质残留问题严重,加之某些检疫性疫病时有流行,动植物疫病防治和检疫工作漏洞较大,直接影响了农产品的食用安全性。这不仅严重影响国内市场需求及出口市场的稳定和扩大,而且按着SPS协议规定也无法限制世界农产品主要出口国的产品进入中国市场。
     生产力水平、品种资源和技术
     中国水稻单产一直大大高于世界平均水平,并且一直高于除了美国以外的其它世界重要大米出口国的单产水平,但目前还低于美国、澳大利亚、埃及和日本的单产水平。中国小麦单产已经超过世界平均水平,目前除明显低于欧盟国家外,高于世界其它主要出口国的单产水平。目前中国玉米单产略高于世界平均水平,但还明显低于美国、欧盟、加拿大等,与阿根廷的单产水平接近。因此,从单位面积产量对中国粮食国际竞争力的影响看,在玉米和稻谷上的表现比在小麦上更为明显,单产水平低也直接影响了成本和价格的竞争优势。
     中国粮食生产力水平低于发达国家,并且质量较差的主要原因在于缺乏优良的品种和生产技术方面的差距。总体上看中国农业的科技含量较低。一方面,科技进步对农业生产的贡献率低;另一方面,农产品加工转化技术落后。长期以来由于粮食短缺和粮食安全等问题的政策导向,粮食育种主要以高产品种为导向,使得粮食优质品种的科技储备相对不足,是影响中国粮食质量水平提高的重要原因之一。
     (四)环境因素——基本因素
     生产要素条件
     中国人均耕地拥有量大大低于世界平均水平,也低于世界粮食主要出口国美国、加拿大、阿根廷等国的水平,中国这样一个人多地少的国家,随着人均粮食消费量的不断增加,耕地资源的短缺将越来越成为制约中国粮食国际竞争力的重要因素之一。总体来看,中国农业基础设施还是比较脆弱,抗御灾害能力较差。中国成人文盲率指标仅比印度好些,低于所有世界粮食主要出口国;中国中学毛入学率增长速度很快,但仍低于除了巴西、泰国和印度之外的所有其它粮食主要出口国;中国大学毛入学率和每10万居民中大学生数量是所有粮食主要出口国中最低的。劳动力素质低的一个重要原因可能是教育经费不足,中国公共教育经费占GNP的比重也是所有粮食主要出口国中最低的。与其它粮食主要出口国相比较,中国交通和通讯基础设施总体水平相对比较落后,它不仅不利于粮食的快速运输,也不利于市场信息的快速传递。并且中国从事研究和开发的高级人才和研究经费相对比较缺乏。
     国内市场需求
     中国人均消费谷物在所有粮食主要出口国中是最高的。中国人均消费量最高的粮食产品是大米,其次是小麦,中国大米消费水平大大高于世界平均水平,小麦消费水平也高于世界平均水平,只是玉米消费水平接近世界平均水平,但中国人均大米、小麦和玉米的消费量都已经呈下降趋势。世界粮食主要出口国国内人均消费量或占有量都处于较高水平。世界各种粮食主要出口国的国内消费量均已经呈下降趋势,因此可以认为各主要粮食出口国国内市场饱和度均比较高。各国之间的差距主要表现在饱和时间到来的早晚,相对来说中国各种粮食产品的饱和水平都是20世纪90年代后才开始出现的,而发达国家之间的差异也较大。
     发达国家更多是从粮食产品消费中获得热量和蛋白质,而发展中国家不仅获得热量和蛋白质,脂肪的获取量也较高,即发达国家粮食食品消费质量水平相对较高,而发展中国家还比较低。
     相关和辅助产业
     相对于玉米和小麦,中国水稻产品的出口产品结构优势较强,但与世界水稻产品主要出口国泰国、欧盟和美国相比较其出口结构优势还是较差:中国玉米产品不具有出口产品结构优势;中国小麦产品国际市场占有率都很低,出口产品结构劣势非常明显。
     欧美等发达国家利用生物技术,培育开发出一批优质、高产、多抗、专用、特用等目标形状的粮食新品种。中国除了水稻高产品种育种技术一直处于世界领先地位,尤其是中国的两系水稻杂交技术世人瞩目外,小麦和玉米的良种繁育方面与发达国家还有较大距离。
     中国农业生产资料国际市场占有率呈上升趋势,但与美国、加拿大和欧盟相比较还有较大差距。中国农业机械国际市场占有率一直很低。中国肥料的生产量和消费量都很高,但全部肥料和各品种的进出口贸易情况都是进口量大大高于出口量;世界粮食主要出口国美国和欧盟等的肥料贸易都是进口量大于出口量;中国单位面积耕地消费肥料明显高于世界平均水平,也高于很多世界粮食主要出口国的水平,但各国各种肥料消费比例差异较大。中国农药的国际市场占有率呈上升趋势,在世界粮食主要出口中只低于美国和欧盟国家,但与美国和欧盟国家相比较差距还很大。
     总体来看,中国粮食加工技术落后,加工水平也较低。在粮食生产的产前、产中和产后各环节中,中国在产前和产中的技术力量较强,但产后技术(包括收获、干燥、加工储藏等技术)是薄弱环节。
     企业战略、结构与竞争
     在世界所有粮食主要生产国和主要出口国中,中国农户生产规模是最小的。人口众多,农业劳动力向非农产业转移困难,导致农业生产规模过小、机械化水平低和农业劳动生产率低等,都严重制约了中国粮食国际竞争力水平的提高。此外,由于中国农民组织化程度很低,大多数小规模分散经营的农户都没有属于自己的产销一体化组织,只能独自分别进入市场,不仅市场竞争能力弱,也较难适应不断变化的市场需求。加之目前中国粮食市场体系不够健全,农户只能根据现货市场价格决定未来生产经营活动,使得粮食市场和价格形成周期性波动,农户的收益也形成周期性波动局面。
     世界粮食主要出口国的经验也都表明,粮食生产的主要形式是家庭农场,而粮食加工和销售则主要是公司制或合作制的企业。当粮食生产以农户小规模分散经营,加工销售商的经营规模和市场集中程度较低的情况下,实施合作制将有利于粮食获得并增强竞争优势,但相对于美国、加拿大、澳大利亚和欧盟等国家,目前中国粮食中的合作社组织形式很少。改革开放后,中国农村出现一种新型的民办技术经济服务组织——农村专业技术协会,以适应市场经济发展的需要。但总体上看,还远远不能满足联系大多数农户的需要,无法帮助大多数农户克服小规模分散经营的缺陷。
     (五)环境因素——政府作用
     粮食产业特性及其相关政策
     粮食在与非农产业竞争中存在的弱质性,决定了需要政府通过实施国内支持和国际贸易政策等宏观调控来克服市场机制的失灵,政府宏观调控的目标通常是改善贸易条件和降低市场价格的周期波动幅度。粮食生产的农户小规模分散经营,需要政府通过必要的支持和引导,使生产经营者从产业组织上选择适应特定资源状况的组织形式,来增强其市场竞争能力。为了克服粮食比较利益低于非农产业的弱质性,欧美在乌拉圭回合协议达成前主要采取直接价格支持措施,乌拉圭回合协议达成后开始逐渐转向采用直接收入补贴和“绿箱”政策;为克服农业受自然因素影响较大,疫病容易发生等,发达国家都对农业的环境改善、疫病防治和根除提供了大量的支持。世界粮食主要出口国对粮食生产的支持手段和支持幅度差异较大。为克服粮食生产的农户小规模分散经营,使之适应大规模的加工和销售的要求。世界粮食主要出口国不仅从产业组织上选择了适应本国特定资源状况的组织形式,而且适应特定产业组织形式发展的需要,政府也都进行了必要的支持和引导。中国到目前为止,无论行业协会还是合作经济组织的数量和规模都非常有限,覆盖农户的比例也很小,尤其是政府对行业协会和合作经济组织支持力度不够(包括政策、法规和资金等)。
     粮食生产周期较长,对市场价格的反应具有滞后性,如果任凭市场机制自行调节难以使农产品供给及时追随市场价格的变化,造成农产品短缺和过剩的效应放大,从而会产生蛛网效应。农产品的这一特点决定了政府应采取宏观调控手段,促进市场体系的健全和完善,并通过宏观调控手段维持市场体系的良好运行。目前市场经济比较发达的世界粮食主要出口国,都拥有健全完善的农业市场体系,既包括农产品及其生产要素的现货市场也包括农产品及其生产要素的期货市场(或远期交易市场)。使生产经营者不仅可以利用其来套期保值,规避价格波动的风险,也可以根据价格变动随时调整供求,从而起到规避或减小价格波动风险的作用。中国因市场经济体制确立时间较短,农业市场体系尤其是粮食市场体系建设还很不完善。不仅粮食现货市场发育不完善,使粮食期货市场功能不能很好发挥,而且种子、化肥等生产要素市场体系的建设和发展更为滞后。
     粮食生产经营过程中的许多具有公共物品性质的基础设施,尤其是教育、科研、技术推广、道路、水利设施等,需要政府通过公共投资或相应的支持措施来解决。虽然在发达国家,非政府公共投资农业科研的比例不断上升。但政府和私人对农业科技投资的领域界限分明,私人投资的范围主要集中在知识产权容易受到保护、市场潜力大、产品市场开放程度高、以产前和产后农业技术为主的应用性研究;而政府则逐渐加强在基础研究、应用研究以及知识产权不易得到保护、技术难以物化、社会效益高于经济效益的应用基础和应用研究。无论发达国家还是发展中国家,农业技术推广投资几乎都来自政府财政拨款,尤其以地方政府为主。中国政府财政对农业科研投资强度低于其它所有农产品主要出口国(甚至低于世界上最低收入国家的平均数),政府财政投资占农业科研投资比例虽然高于美国和欧盟国家,但与几个发展中国家相比差距很大。中国政府财政对农业科技投资不足还表现在农业科技投资在国家财政支出中的地位大大低于农业在国民经济中的地位。中国政府财政对农业投入不足并呈逐年下降趋势,其中农业科技(尤其是农业科研)的财政投入不足更为严峻。这已经在某种程度上影响了农业科技成果的产出和应用,从而影响中国农产品的国际竞争能力。
     粮食生产经营过程中的信息不对称性,需要有政府等组织或机构作为介于生产经营者和消费者之间的第三方,来公正地对农产品的安全卫生和质量等级进行认定,实施有效的监督,并通过大众传播媒介向消费者传递公正的农产品安全卫生和质量等级信息,从而有助于克服经验性商品由于信息不对称而导致的市场失灵。中国农产品安全和质量监控工作由多部门管理,各部门分别独立工作,使农产品安全和质量监督检验工作衔接较差。由于国内农产品市场还没有健全而完善的安全质量标准体系和监控体系,更没有介于生产经营者和消费者之间的具有权威性的第三方对上市农产品进行全面的权威认证工作,也加剧了信息不对称的程度。多年来美国农业部的农产品分级系统紧跟市场步伐,不断满足市场需求的新变化。目前美国农业部的农产品分级服务不仅对产品进行认证,还对生产过程进行认证,创造或促进了名牌产品的发展。加拿大政府一直把农产品质量认定和评级作为一项重要职能,农产品品质认定由联邦监督员完成。丹麦农产品安全卫生和质量监督工作主要由政府完成。
     粮食生产经营过程中可能产生的外部性问题,只有通过政府的宏观调控才可能减少或消除对外部环境的危害。从世界粮食主要出口国的情况来看,除了中国、阿根廷、泰国、印度等属于发展中国家外,其他多数为发达国家,由于各国经济发展水平不同直接影响了国家政策措施的差异。很多发达国家或地区在加快制定和实施有关农业环境工程方面的法规和政策,更加重视保护环境和食品安全。一些发展中国家也积极采取措施来迎合世界农产品主要进口国消费者的需要和欲望。中国虽然已经开始重视这方面的工作,但与发达国家相比还有很大差距。
     政府农业政策措施的国际比较
     从生产者支持水平的国际比较可以看出,中国对水稻、小麦和玉米的生产者支持水平一直偏低,并且在多数年份政府对粮食生产者的补贴占粮食种植者收入的百分比(即相对PSE)为负值,尤其是水稻和玉米。从财政预算支持农业占GDP比重的国际比较来看,中国农业支持总量相对于中国经济发展水平来说,并不算低,甚至可以说是相对比较高的。但如果从财政预算支农占农牧业总产值比例的国际比较来看,中国财政预算支持农业的水平就相对偏低。从分类生产者支持政策来看,在WTO规则允许的12种“绿箱”政策措施中,中国仅使用了六种,远低于其它粮食主要进出口国。中国近些年对农业的综合支持量一直低于WTO农业协议允许的水平。
     从政府对粮食生产者支持结构的国际比较可以发现:中国农业补贴支出少,对农业发展的支持力度小。中国属于“绿箱”措施的农业补贴支出很少,占农业生产总值的比例很低,中国“黄箱”措施的农业补贴支出占农业生产总值的比例为1.23%,而同期美国和欧盟对本国农业的补贴(包括“绿箱”、“黄箱”和“蓝箱”补贴)分别占到农业生产总值的50%和60%。中国农业补贴措施种类少,对农业的影响程度低。在“绿箱”补贴措施中,其他国家所采用的保险补贴、休耕等资源停用补贴、农业结构调整补贴等在中国还是空白,中国刚刚启用对农民的直接补贴。对农民主要采用价格支持等间接补贴,农民得到的补贴是间接的,从补贴中使农民得到的利益在效果上不明显。
     健全和完善的市场信息系统是粮食生产经营者根据市场需求进行正确生产经营决策的依据,是克服粮食因生产周期长而导致的市场供求和价格波动影响的有效途径。虽然中国农业及粮食市场信息系统有了很大发展,但农业信息化的普及程度仍比较低,农业信息网站建设存在总体规模较小、地域分布不平衡、信息的标准化和时效性较差、信息的开放性和共享程度低等问题。再加上中国的农业生产者及粮食种植者规模小、经营分散、文化程度较低、缺乏粮食种植者自己的协会组织等原因,使政府信息和其它市场信息很难及时迅速地传递到生产经营者,导致农户的信息化程度相当低。多数发达国家在充分发挥市场机制作用的基础上,十分重视健全和完善市场信息系统,并重视政府信息源与生产经营者之间的很好衔接。
     关税、配额、出口补贴等国际贸易政策通过影响国内粮食市场与国际粮食市场的一体化变化,从而影响粮食的国际竞争力。关税和配额对进口国的粮食生产者有利,从而有助于提高进口国的粮食在国内市场竞争力;但关税和配额将使出口国的粮食生产者受损,从而降低出口国的粮食在进口国市场的竞争力。出口补贴的作用方向与关税和配额正好相反。乌拉圭回合农业协议使所有世贸组织成员国都承诺了要对农产品的进口关税和出口补贴进行削减。在加入世贸组织的谈判过程中,中国承诺到2004年将农产品关税税率降到17%左右,与世界农产品平均关税水平相比,中国的农产品进口关税税率已经比较低。进口关税对本国农产品国际竞争力的影响除了关税水平外,还可通过关税升级、关税高峰、复杂关税、关税配额和特殊保障机制等多个方向来表现。中国农产品关税升级、关税高峰策略都有使用,但复杂关税使用很少;美国、欧盟等发达国家农产品关税升级、关税高峰和复杂关税使用的比较显著(尤其在需要特殊保障的产品上)。中国在所有农产品进口方面均没有特殊保障条款,而美国、欧盟、日本有复杂关税的品种几乎都有特殊保障条款。在加入世贸组织的谈判过程中,中国承诺取消农产品出口补贴,包括价格补贴、实物补贴,以及对出口产品加工、仓储、运输的补贴。放弃农产品出口补贴,削弱了中国农产品的出口竞争力。
     一般来说,发达国家出口补贴的农产品数量多,补贴水平相对较高,而发展中国家的补贴农产品数量少,补贴水平相对较低。而且中国很少或没有采用出口信贷、出口保险、出口市场开发等国际贸易措施,也使得中国粮食的国际竞争力降低。此外,在WTO的乌拉圭回合农业协议规则下,各成员国对农业政策调整都做出了积极的反应,在完成WTO农业协议中的减让承诺的基础上,积极调整本国(地区)农业发展政策,通过增加财政支出等手段来促进本国(地区)农业快速发展来适应WTO这种新的农业贸易制度框架,并不断提高本国(地区)农产品的国际竞争力,最大程度地支持本国(地区)农业的长期持续发展。
     三、评价指标构造和对策思考
     (一)评价指标构造
     我们把反映竞争结果的指标称为国际竞争力实现指标,它们表现了国际竞争力的实现程度:把反映竞争实力(即竞争力强弱的原因)的因素称为影响国际竞争力的直接和间接因素,它们能解释为什么具有或不具有国际竞争力;把反映竞争实力以外的对其国际竞争力具有重要作用的因素,称为决定和影响国际竞争力的环境因素,它们能对国际竞争力强弱具有重要的决定和影响作用。根据已经确定的分析框架和中国粮食国际竞争力研究的结果,我们构造出如表8-1所示的中国粮食国际竞争力评价指标体系。这一指标体系不仅有助于进一步研究中国粮食国际竞争力变化趋势,而且对于研究农产品国际竞争力具有重要借鉴意义。
     (二)对策思考
     粮食属于资源密集型产品,由于中国粮食生产资源相对匮乏,粮食的国际竞争力比较弱。因此,在WTO框架下为不断提高中国粮食的国际竞争力,粮食发展的基本思路是:充分运用WTO的“绿箱”和“黄箱”政策,加强宏观调控和对粮食的支持与保护,确保粮食供需基本平衡,保障粮食安全;同时,不断提高粮食的国际竞争力。为此,应主要采取下列对策措施。
     首先,加快优势粮食产业基地建设。虽然决定和影响粮食竞争力的因素既包括产业内部的直接和间接因素,也包括产业外部的商业环境因素。但实际上,每一方面的因素都与粮食产业基地建设密切相关。因为,产业基地建设有利于提高粮食对市场需求的适应能力,有利于增强粮食的成本和价格竞争优势,有利于提升粮食的质量和安全卫生水平,有助于提升粮食的生产效率,有助于获得粮食经营的规模效益和提高营销绩效,能够促进有利于提升产业竞争力的环境系统的健全和完善。但这并不是说任何粮食产品在任何地区只要实施产业基地建设就一定能提升其竞争力。中国粮食产业基地建设应在考虑各种粮食产品和各地区比较优势的同时,以各种粮食产品和各地区的竞争优势为前提,来选定特定的优势粮食产品和优势区域。只有这样,才能真正实施扶优扶强的非均衡发展战略,重点培育优势粮食产品和优势区域,充分发挥区域优势,尽快提升中国粮食的竞争力。
     其次,充分发挥政府对粮食市场的宏观调控作用。借鉴国际经验并结合中国实际,政府对粮食宏观调控政策措施的重点应是:进一步增强具有国际竞争力的粮食产品在国内和国际市场的竞争优势,这不仅有助于抵御外国产品的大量进入,更有助于提高中国各种粮食产品的国际竞争力。具体包括:通过必要的政策措施和财政支持克服粮食的弱质性和不良外部性;健全和完善粮食市场体系,减少并降低粮食市场的波动性;加快建立健全粮食安全卫生和质量等级认证和监控体系。
     第三,提高政府财政对农业公共物品的投资强度。虽然限于中国经济发展水平和经济实力,不可能与世界其它发达国家在粮食国内支持上展开竞争,但仍需要政府提高对粮食科研和农业技术推广体系的投资强度,为提升粮食竞争力提供技术支撑,提高对水利、基本粮田保护、生态环境保护等农业生产基础设施建设和粮食市场基础设施建设的投资强度,为提升粮食竞争力提供物质和市场的基础保障。
With the world change in supply and demand of grain, the grain safety problem in China has become a focus. Especially after WTO accession, China's grain market has been increasingly and deeply merged into the competition of the world market, and this trend will be lasting, as the ceaseless development trend of the internationalization of grain market. While the statuses of different countries' different industries are decided by variable factors, comparative advantage has decisive function from the view of international division of labor, and competitive advantage has a determinant effect from the view of industrial competition. The chief factors of comparative advantage are the gifts of resource and its location, while competitive advantage is not only determined by industry-inner direct and indirect factors, but also industry-outer business environment factors. Although the industries possessing comparative advantage are easier to form and keep stronger competitive advantage than the ones lack of comparative advantage, it doesn't mean the latter can't form and keep competitive advantage. Therefore, based on the current comparative advantage. China's grain must increasingly enhance their international competitive advantage if they want to make further development. To improve their international competitive advantage, it is crucial to roundly and systemically study the status of the competitive advantage of China's grain, even the effect produced by various factors influencing their competitive advantage, based on constructing the theoretical framework and economic analysis methods of the international competitiveness research for China's grain, so as to take positive Countermeasures to enhance the international competitiveness of China's grain.
     I. The research thinking and analysis framework
     i . The goal in research and thinking
     The main objectives of study on the international competitiveness of China's grain can be divided into three parts: the first one is to construct the economic analysis framework of the international competitiveness of China's grain industry, based on the present international competitiveness theory of industry and international trade theory. The second one is to study roundly and systematically the international competitiveness status of China's grain industry and change trend, as well as the way of various kinds of direct and indirect factors inside the industry and various kinds of commercial environmental factors outside the industry determining and influencing the international competitiveness of China's grain. And the last one is to construct the evaluation index of international competitiveness of China's grain, then put forward the pointed and sensible Countermeasures and suggestions on the improvement of the international competitiveness of China's grain.
     The basic thinking of study on the international competitiveness of China's grain goes on step by step as follows: above all, it's to construct the economic analysis framework of the international competitiveness of China's grain industry based on Michael Potter's international competitiveness theory of industry and international trade theory. Then, through the compare and analysis on the product and trade of grain, it's to confirm the research scope of the international competitiveness of China's grain, adopting analytical comparison, the analytic approach of factor, analytic approach of the real example and the specs analytic approach, etc.. While, we study and probe into the development status of the international competitiveness of China's grain by comparing and analyzing the realization index of the international competitiveness of grain ( market share and trade competition index); study and probe into the formed reason of the international competitiveness of China's grain through comparing and analyzing three direct and indirect factors (cost and price, quality and safety, productivity level), four basic factors(the condition of production factor, market demand condition, relevant and auxiliary industry's state, as well enterprise's strategy, structure and competition, etc.) and the function of government. Finally, construct some systemic evaluation index of the international competitiveness of China's grain, and put forward the pointed and sensible Countermeasures and suggestions on the enhancement of the international competitiveness of China's grain, so as to provide theoretical and external basis for further increasing the international competitiveness of China's grain.
     The basic objective observation data studying in industry's international competitiveness is the international occupation rate of market and profit rate of the relevant national specific industry; it is the final realizing index of industry's international competitiveness, reflecting the actual result of industry's international competition. However, the purpose to study in industry's international competitiveness is not merely to describe the actual result of specific industry's international competition objectively, and should find the various kinds of determining and influencing factors of various countries' specific industry's international competitiveness, namely look for the reasons which cause actual result and the trend of industry's international competition in the future, thus announce and prove the causality of the international competitiveness of every industry. It is because that there are a lot of factors influencing the international competitiveness of every industry of various countries in realistic economy, so how to sort out the countless factors influencing international competitiveness of every industry in different countries into the clear logic causality lines, in order to stress the most important factor among them, become the important problem that research in international competitiveness of specific industry must solve in different countries.
     The study in the international competitiveness of China's grain needs to confirm main product range and national range that are relatively studied at first, then analyze comprehensively and systematically from two respects of the realization result and determining and influencing factors of international competitiveness. Analyzing from the result, the international competitiveness of grain can be shown as the occupation rate of market directly, the higher the occupation rate is, the more a profit is, indicating its international competitiveness is better. Analyzing from the decision and influence factors, the factors that is helpful to exploit market, dominate the market, and obtain profit, can all be regarded as the research objects. Here, we call the indexes which reflect the competition result as realizing index of international competitiveness, they have displayed the realization degree of the international competitiveness; and call the factors that can reflect competition strength (namely the reason of competitiveness power) as direct and indirect factors which influence international competitiveness, they can explain why some product has international competitiveness or not; and call factor beyond competition strength which has important function for the international competitiveness as the determining and influencing environmental factor of the international competitiveness, they can have important decision and influence function on international competitiveness power.
     ii. Analysis framework
     International comparison of the production and trade
     Through international comparative analysis to the production and trade overview of the grain worldwide, define the range of product studying in international competitiveness of China's grain specifically. Through the international comparative analysis of the grain production and trade overview, define the main producing countries of various kinds of grain in the world or the areas, main exporters or areas concretely, thus confirm the international comparison range studying in international competitiveness of China's grain. Through the international comparative analysis of the grain trade overview, define the main importers or areas of different grain of the world concretely, thus confirm market chance and goal market range studying in international competitiveness of China's grain.
     The realization index of the international competitiveness
     The realization index reflecting the international competitiveness result including occupation rate of market, trade competition index, regular market share model, showing comparative advantage, etc., the main index among them is the occupation rate of market and profit rate. Because the statistical data of enterprise's profit-making situation is more difficult to get, and we can assume that its occupation rate of market and profit obtained are concerned for positive correlation when analyzing the international competitiveness result mainly. So we mainly investigate the actual result of participating in international competition of China's grain with the occupation rate of market and trade, and compare worldwide. The occupation rate of market is the simplest realization index that reflects the result of international competitiveness most directly, can show its competition strength in international and domestic market competition, it has reflected the realization degree of the international competitiveness. Under freedom, good (WTO rule) market terms, both of the national market and the international market are open to the foreign countries. So the occupation rate of domestic market, occupation rate of market of importer and occupation rate of international market, can reflect the power of its international competitiveness, the higher the occupation rate of market is, the stronger the international competitiveness is; On the contrary, weak.
     The occupation rate of market can be used for analyzing the dynamic change of international competitiveness power, if the occupation rate of market is raised to some extent during a specified period of time, it proves that the international competitiveness is being strengthened; On the contrary, it proves that the international competitiveness presents the downward trend. The competition index of trade can indicate that a certain product which one country produces is the net import or net export, and the relative scale of net import or net export, reflect the degree of the inferior position or excellent position of a competition advantage in production efficiency about some a certain product that country produce compared to the same product of other country that world market supply with. The trade competition index here is used for reflecting the China's grain the degree of the inferior position or excellent position of a competition advantage in production efficiency to the other main exporter of grain in the world, thus explain its international competitiveness state and change trend.
     Direct and indirect factors influencing international competitiveness
     Direct and indirect factors influencing international competitiveness reflect strength of international competition, or the direct and indirect explaining variable of international competitiveness that has already been realized. These factors can determine the competition result in the international market of grain, and can explain why a certain grain has competition or not in the international market too. There are a lot of direct and indirect factors of influencing the international competitiveness of grain, we will analyze their impacts on international competitiveness of China's grain from the following aspects mainly, and compare worldwide.
     Cost and price The cost is a foundation of determining the product cost; the level of the cost has determined whether the products have a price competition advantage and earning capacity. Just because the cost of goods is determining the product price to a great extent, especially when the production and trade are in the perfect competition state, keen competition will make the long-term price of equilibrium of the products convergent in the standing cost, thus the competitiveness state of the products can be embodied from the product price to a certain extent. The main factor of determining the grain cost is the price and cost composition of key element, so the seed, chemical fertilizer, price of agriculture chemical, workforce's price, the price of the land rent and composition of every key element in the unit product, etc. can be regarded as the important influencing factors when analyzing whether the grain has international competitiveness. Because this text needs to carry on comparative analysis with the other main exporter of grain, if you want to master the cost composition and the historical data of average unit cost of the main exporter of various kinds of grain in an all-round way, it is a very difficult, big workload. We utilize United States Department of Agriculture's data to form international comparative analysis to the cost of the China's grain. We still use time sequence data of producer's price index, and weigh the change in the cost of the China's grain and price competitiveness through the comparative analysis with the other main exporters of grain, and weigh the impact on international competitiveness. The same products on the same market, the lower the price is, the more competitive the price is, and this is a generally acknowledged ubiquitous fact and a foundation of economic analysis too. It has got rid of various kinds of complicated factors related to marketing tactics and consumption demand here. Because of with the improvement of the level of consumption, consumer's demand to grain will consider their quality and safety, etc. more, this make the international competitiveness of the grain not merely depend on the level of the product cost, as product quality and safety index is very close, enterprise marketing tactics difference is quite small too, the price remains the important factor of influencing products competitiveness. So, comparing the selling price on the same market of the same kind of grain in different countries can state the competitiveness difference in price of the same kind of grain in various countries.
     Quality and safety Quality is a more complicated factor of influencing the competitiveness, on one hand the evaluation on quality not merely depends on the physics and chemistry index and industrial grade, still depends on consumer's requisition for product quality, it is very difficult to realize the value of the overtop quality that consumers do not need; Often high quality should request higher investments and higher prices too on the other hand. So, enterprise should offer products of proper quality in order to adapt to specific buyer stratum according to modern marketing idea. But it is usually considered that in the same price of the same kind of grain market, the products with higher quality have stronger competitiveness, and can obtain greater additional value. Because of this understanding, the economists usually use the index of reflecting the additional value of the product to reflect the quality level of the products indirectly. We adopt the quality index of export products to investigate the changes of quality and surtax value of different grain in various countries, thus reflect the improvement states of different grain quality in various countries, and reflect indirectly that the competitiveness state of the value of the exports grain and the technological content. The safety and health is an important influencing factor that influences grain quality and then its international competitiveness. Usually with economic development and forming and development of buyer's market, market demand for various kinds of grain pay more attention to their safe hygiene. Especially with the improvement of material and culture living standard, people pay more attention to one's own and social long-term interest day by day, which makes the question of safety and health of the grain paid more and more attention to. So those whose products can meet goal market's demands with lower cost and high-quality safety and health will be those who may be in the advantage or leading position in the competition in the future.
     Productivity level, variety resource and technology The productivity level of each kind of grain in each country directly determines its production efficiency and production cost, so as to influence the international competitiveness level of some grain in certain country. The main important index reflecting the productivity level of grain is the output per unit area. So we can judge the productivity level of various kinds of grain mostly by the output per unit area, and through international comparison evaluate the productivity level of China's grain, along with the effect to its international competitiveness. Although there are a lot of factors influencing grain productivity level, the excellent breed resource state of grain may be a big factor affecting productivity level of grain. If the fine breed resource of the grain is deficient, their production efficiency and product quality will be directly influenced. Technology, which is one of the key factors determining production efficiency, not only determines productivity level, product cost and price in high degree, but also has a decisive role in the aspects of product quality, product structure and new product development. Especially as modern scientific and technological developing steps are accelerated, the technological progress has already become the important driving force of grain industry's development. While it's hard to economically measure technology effect, we can still estimate the effect of technical gap on the international competitiveness of China's grain, through the international comparison of various kinds of technical research affecting the productivity level of grain, and their application status.
     Environmental factors determining and influencing international competitiveness
     We use the picture of national "diamond" of international competitiveness of Industry created by Michael Potter as theoretical foundation, terms of production factor, domestic market demand state, and use relevant and auxiliary industry's state, enterprise's strategy, structure and competition as determining and influencing the four basic factors of the international competitiveness of grain, regarding government function and opportunity as the two cofactors determining and influencing international competitiveness of grain, and regarding interactive complicated system composing of basic factors and cofactors as environmental factors determining and influencing international competitiveness of grain .Because at present it is very difficult to explore one that can stand up this complicated system synthetically, in order to analyze systematically its decision and influence of the international competitiveness of grain. So, we still carry on international comparative analysis to the decision and influence of the international competitiveness of China's grain through differentiating right basic factor and cofactor, but we should pay special attention to influencing of each other and interaction between every factor while studying.
     Four basic factors
     Condition for factors of production If a country has a certain advanced key element and special-purpose key element needed in specific industry's competition, it can have a most far-reaching and lasting competition advantage. The procurability (attainable possibility) and quality of advanced crucial element and special-purpose key element determine the quality of getting fine competitive advantage and the velocity of upgrading the competitive advantage. We mainly analyze the basic key elements having close relation with grain-production (involving cultivated land, workforce's quality, capital strength, etc.) and the advanced key elements (facilities of traffic and communication, senior talent and research funds and achievement, etc.), while analyze and judge the advantages and disadvantages in the factors of production that lead to the current situation of international competitiveness of China's grain through international compare.
     Demand in domestic market The domestic demand can bring static efficiency through the impact on large-scale production, more important influence is dynamic, and the domestic demand determines the speed and nature that enterprises improve. Three factors of influencing the domestic demand are: The composition of the domestic demand, the increasing scale and the increasing mode of the domestic demand, conduction mechanism of domestic demand preference to the international market correctly, and the importance of the last two respects is decided by the former factor. So to the decision of the international competitiveness, the importance of the quality of the domestic demand should be greater than their quantity. So we carry on international comparative analysis mainly in consume structure of the grain and the grain, consume increasing and degree of saturation, maturity, nitpicking degree and internationalized trend of domestic demand of consumer, etc. in China and other main grain exporters worldwide, thus analyze and judge its impact on international competitiveness of China's grain.
     The related and assistant industry Whether the relevant and auxiliary industry of the specific industry has international competitiveness is very significant to promote and strengthen the international competition advantage of this industry. That is to say if the supplying industry of the upper reaches has international competitiveness, the downstream industry will obtain the competition advantage through high efficiency, short time, fast speed, but in order to make one industry have international competitiveness, it is unnecessary to require all relevant and auxiliary industries to have international competition advantages, those input can be imported from foreign countries which have no important influence for the innovation and the development of this industry.
     The influential relevant and auxiliary industries for the competition advantage of one industry include the supply industry of this industry, the industry that can be concert with this industry and share some activity with this industry, and industry of the complementary products. There are more relevant and auxiliary industries of the grain, but mainly fertilizer, agriculture chemical, improved variety and the processed products etc. have closer relation with the international competitiveness of grain, So we carry on international comparative analysis from these respects mainly, to analyze and judge its impact on international competitiveness of China's grain.
     The strategy, structure and competition of business enterprise The impact that enterprise's strategy, structure and domestic competition have on international competitiveness of one industry in one country, on one hand displays in whether the competitive strategy of domestic enterprises is combined with the national environment and competition advantage source of this industry organically; on the other hand whether there is valid competition mechanism at home and whether such effective competition mechanism has close cooperation with competition advantage source of this industry. The scope of the enterprise and occupation rate of market are important factors determining comprehensive competition strength of enterprise's products market, especially for the grain whose economic benefits of the scale are obvious; The enterprises of producing and managing grain expand business scale and improve the occupation rate of market, which is still helpful to raise the brand competitiveness of the products. The high efficiency operation and perfect modern market system of some industry in one country is helpful to obtain competitive advantage and to improve the international competitiveness. So we carry on international comparative analysis mainly about enterprise scale degree, organizational form of grain enterprise and his competitive strategy etc.
     Two cofactors
     Government function Government's real function in industry's international competition advantage is to influence the basic factors such as the condition of production factor, market demand condition, relevant and auxiliary industry's state, and enterprise's strategy, structure and competition, etc. The government can influence (and influenced) any one in four factors initiatively or passively. Under the condition of market economy, the market should be a foundation of disposing resources, but the market mechanism will do not work in some aspects, this needs the government to carry on macro adjustments and controls in order to fully give play to the role of market mechanism. However, the purpose of government's macro adjustments and controls can only remedy the market that does not work, if the government does not follow the economic law, it will cause more serious consequence than the market mechanism that doesn't work to intervene excessively. So, under the condition of market economy, the government's macro adjustments and controls must be set up on the foundation that do not damage the inherent competitiveness of market mechanism, guarantee that the market mechanism operates effectively, namely should confine strictly to the field in which the market mechanism does not work, this accords with the demands for agricultural agreement of Uruguay Round too. It is helpful to the factor that determines international competition advantage to fun
     ction better, and to improve the international competition advantage that government operates well; on the contrary it may weaken the international competition advantage. So, we are mainly based on the principle that the government need to carry on essential macro adjustments and controls when market mechanism does not work in some respect of grain markets, and analyze the impact on international competitiveness of grain that basic policies and measures of Chinese Government have in adjusting and controlling the market which does not work, and compare worldwide.Opportunity Though incident has created the opportunity to raise the international competitiveness for some industries, but because the randomness of the incident is very great, whether the grain of one country could win the international competition advantage, the more important one is to depend on four basic factors and the government's function. So we regard the opportunity as the specific market chance to improve the international competitiveness, the center of the study is mainly how to seize the opportunity through four basic factors and government's function, obtain or improve the international competitiveness.
     II. Main research conclusions
     i. Production and trade
     The reap area and output of the world and Chinese cereal crops concentrate mainly on three varieties of grains, wheat, maize, world grain output centers in China, U.S.A., European Union, India, the union of Russia etc., the output of the grain in China is the greatest over the world. The output of world rice are mostly decided by Asian countries', mainly including China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thailand, Burma and Philippine, the output of the grain in China is the most in the world. World wheat's output mainly centers in more than ten countries such as China, European Union, U.S.A., India, Russia, Canada, Australia, Pakistan, Turkey and Argentina, etc., the cultivated area and output of the wheat in China are greatest in the world. World maize output mainly centers in U.S.A., China, Brazil, Mexico and France. China is the second important country of producing maize only to American in the world.
     The grain assortment of the world trade is mainly grain, wheat, maize and their products. World grain export centers in the countries such as U.S.A., European Union, Canada, Argentina, Australia, Thailand, etc. Japan, Mexico, Korea S., Egypt, Iran, Brazil, China, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia and European Union country is mainly the countries that have more import volume of the world grain. The volume of rice trade is minimum in three major cereal crops, but its trade volume rises fastest since 1990s; The export trade of the world grain and products is mainly rice, world rice export centers in China, Thailand, Vietnam, U.S.A., India, Pakistan, European Union country, etc. mainly, the rice importer of the world is more scattered. World wheat and products trade are mainly wheat, wheat powder and processed goods, the volume of wheat trade is the biggest of the three main cereal crops in world; The world wheat and wheat powder export mainly centers in U.S.A., Australia, Argentina and Tajikistan, Canada, European Union, etc. To the wheat importers of the world, there are more exporters, but there are European Union's countries, Japan, China, Brazil, Iran, Algeria, Iraq, Morocco, Indonesia, Korea S., etc. where there is more import volume of wheat. The export trade of the world maize and products is mainly maize, the maize is the second variety only to the wheat in the international grain trade too. U.S.A. is the greatest export country of the world maize, other main exporters is European Union, Argentina, China, etc. mainly. To the maize importer of the world, there are more exporters, the countries which import more are European Union country, Japan, Korea S., Mexico, Malaysia, Colombia, Algeria, Brazil, etc.
     ii. The status of international competitiveness
     The international competitiveness of the rice is relatively high in three kinds of main cereal crops; the international competitiveness of the maize and wheat is very low. Its concrete conditions are as follows: rice, vermicelli and fermented drink of rice are the varieties of the Chinese rice which has relatively higher international occupation rate of market, the varieties having higher trade competition index are mainly rice, the precise /brown rice, grains and vermicelli's, so comparatively the international competitiveness of the rice and vermicelli is relatively strong. But compared with other main exporters, the international competitiveness of China is still relatively weak.
     The international occupation rate of market of the Chinese wheat powder is very low, but on the rise, the international occupation rate of market of Chinese millet cake, wheat bran, bread and wheat microorganism has been very low all the time. As a whole, the international competitiveness of the Chinese wheat is relatively weak, have risen to some extent slightly in the past two years. Every competitiveness index is shown as: The international occupation rate of market of the Chinese wheat has been very low all the time, the occupation rate of domestic market of this country reaches higher level at present after rising constantly, the competition index of trade has been the negative number and its absolute value has been relatively great all the time. The international fluctuating range of occupation rate of market of the Chinese maize is relatively great, but the rate has slightly the ascendant trend in recent years; The trade competition index of the Chinese maize is the negative value in many years, on the occasion of the positive value in the past two years, the competitiveness is relatively weak on the whole. The Chinese maize has been very low all the time in the market share of main importers in the world. The international competitiveness of different maize products, such as Chinese maize oil, corn, maize flour, maize bran, corndodger, etc. are relatively weak too.
     iii. Direct and Indirect factors
     Cost and price
     On the production cost of the unit product, China's grain and wheat have the advantage compared with the United States. The reason is that the China's grain and the wheat are produced by the small peasant households as principle, and a great deal of the labor forces with the low cost have replaced most mechanical use and China's extremely low land rent, which cause the production costs of grain and the wheat of China are lower, but the high labor productivity and the scale effect that specialized production brings by the American grain and the wheat are offset by the high labor force opportunity cost, high land use cost and agricultural farm machinery expenses .The China's grain produc
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