亲子互动与儿童心理理论的发展
|
摘要
心理理论和亲子互动都是当前发展心理学中最热门、最活跃的两个研究领域。本研究试图通过观察亲子游戏来探讨亲子互动与儿童心理理论发展的关系，在理论上探究儿童的心理理论发展差异产生的社会根源，在实践中为父母在家庭中如何有效地促进儿童心理理论发展提供科学依据。
共有53名3-5岁儿童和他们的母亲完成了所有的实验。研究的程序包括亲子游戏拍摄、儿童心理理论任务和母亲教养方式问卷调查。对亲子游戏的参与方式、情感交流、心理状态术语使用、非心理状态术语使用和母亲教养方式进行编码。研究结果如下：
(1)控制了年龄因素后，儿童的亲子游戏参与方式中的主动参与和建议游戏两种方式与儿童心理理论发展之间存在显著的相关；而对于母亲来说，指导游戏的参与方式和儿童心理理论发展存在显著相关。
(2)控制了年龄因素之后，儿童情感交流方面的分享积极情感和心理理论发展之间存在显著相关。而母亲这方面的指标和儿童心理理论发展没有显著相关。
(3)控制了年龄因素后，儿童心理理论发展和儿童心理状态术语使用存在显著相关；同样地，儿童心理理论发展和母亲心理状态术语使用也存在显著相关。
(4)控制了年龄因素后，儿童心理理论发展和母亲及儿童非心理状态术语的使用都存在显著相关。但是当控制了母亲和儿童的心理状态术语使用总数后，显著相关不存在，这或许表明：非心理状态术语的使用是以心理状态术语的使用为中介而对儿童心理理论发展产生影响。
(5)母亲教养方式问卷的结果表明，控制了年龄因素后，母亲的严厉惩罚和儿童心理理论发展之间存在显著相关；而通过亲子互动观察得到的结果表明，控制了年龄因素后，母亲的情感温暖理解和儿童心理理论发展之间存在显著相关。两个结果不一致，可能是因为亲子游戏具有特殊性和情境性，所以结果和通过问卷得来的一般情况有差异。
总之，通过观察亲子游戏，我们发现亲子互动的许多方面和儿童心理理论发展都有密切的关系。这给我们启示：亲子互动差异是儿童心理理论发展差异产生的社会根源之一，父母可以通过改变亲子游戏的参与方式、情感交流、心理状态术语的使用、非心理状态术语的使用和教养方式等方面来促进儿童心理理论的发展。
Theory of mind (TOM) and parent-child interaction are two hot issues in the research field of development psychology. This study tries to explore the relationship between TOM and parent-child interaction through an observation of parent-child play. One aim is to explore the social origin of the difference of children's TOM, the other is to provide some advice for parents to facilitate their children's TOM effectively in their families.
Fifty-three 3-5-year-olds children and their mothers are involved in this study. Children are asked to finish four TOM tasks and mothers fill in parenting style questionnaire separately. Children and their parents take part in the parent-child play together and their interactions are videorecorded. Parent-child play is coded for 5 aspects: participative style, emotion communication, mental state utterances, non-mental state utterances and mother's parenting style. The results indicate that:
(1) After control of age, children's TOM is significantly related to their initiatively joining play, suggesting play of participative style and mother's teaching play.
(2) After control of age, there is a positive correlation between children's TOM and their sharing positive affect. Yet we don't find the same result between children's TOM and their mothers' sharing positive affect.
(3) After control of age, children's TOM is significantly related to the use of their mental state utterances and their mothers'.
(4) After control of age, children's TOM is significantly related to the non-mental state utterances on specific categories , such as links to the life and the sum of the non-mental state utterances. But controlling of the sum of the mental state utterances, this relation is not existed. It possible that the non-mental state utterances affect the development of children's TOM indirectly, for example through mental state utterances.
(5) The result of mothers' parenting style questionnaire indicates that children's TOM is significantly related to mothers' severe punishing after control of age. The result of observation shows a positive correlation between children's TOM and mothers' warmth and understanding. We think that the difference is due to parent-child play is a special situation whereas questionnaire reflects the generality.
In a word, we find that children's TOM is significantly related to many aspects in parent-child interaction. Thought this study, we know parent-child interaction is one of the social origin of the difference of children's TOM, parents can improve their children's TOM by changing their participative style, emotion communication, mental state utterances, non-mental state utterances and mother's parenting style.
共有53名3-5岁儿童和他们的母亲完成了所有的实验。研究的程序包括亲子游戏拍摄、儿童心理理论任务和母亲教养方式问卷调查。对亲子游戏的参与方式、情感交流、心理状态术语使用、非心理状态术语使用和母亲教养方式进行编码。研究结果如下：
(1)控制了年龄因素后，儿童的亲子游戏参与方式中的主动参与和建议游戏两种方式与儿童心理理论发展之间存在显著的相关；而对于母亲来说，指导游戏的参与方式和儿童心理理论发展存在显著相关。
(2)控制了年龄因素之后，儿童情感交流方面的分享积极情感和心理理论发展之间存在显著相关。而母亲这方面的指标和儿童心理理论发展没有显著相关。
(3)控制了年龄因素后，儿童心理理论发展和儿童心理状态术语使用存在显著相关；同样地，儿童心理理论发展和母亲心理状态术语使用也存在显著相关。
(4)控制了年龄因素后，儿童心理理论发展和母亲及儿童非心理状态术语的使用都存在显著相关。但是当控制了母亲和儿童的心理状态术语使用总数后，显著相关不存在，这或许表明：非心理状态术语的使用是以心理状态术语的使用为中介而对儿童心理理论发展产生影响。
(5)母亲教养方式问卷的结果表明，控制了年龄因素后，母亲的严厉惩罚和儿童心理理论发展之间存在显著相关；而通过亲子互动观察得到的结果表明，控制了年龄因素后，母亲的情感温暖理解和儿童心理理论发展之间存在显著相关。两个结果不一致，可能是因为亲子游戏具有特殊性和情境性，所以结果和通过问卷得来的一般情况有差异。
总之，通过观察亲子游戏，我们发现亲子互动的许多方面和儿童心理理论发展都有密切的关系。这给我们启示：亲子互动差异是儿童心理理论发展差异产生的社会根源之一，父母可以通过改变亲子游戏的参与方式、情感交流、心理状态术语的使用、非心理状态术语的使用和教养方式等方面来促进儿童心理理论的发展。
Theory of mind (TOM) and parent-child interaction are two hot issues in the research field of development psychology. This study tries to explore the relationship between TOM and parent-child interaction through an observation of parent-child play. One aim is to explore the social origin of the difference of children's TOM, the other is to provide some advice for parents to facilitate their children's TOM effectively in their families.
Fifty-three 3-5-year-olds children and their mothers are involved in this study. Children are asked to finish four TOM tasks and mothers fill in parenting style questionnaire separately. Children and their parents take part in the parent-child play together and their interactions are videorecorded. Parent-child play is coded for 5 aspects: participative style, emotion communication, mental state utterances, non-mental state utterances and mother's parenting style. The results indicate that:
(1) After control of age, children's TOM is significantly related to their initiatively joining play, suggesting play of participative style and mother's teaching play.
(2) After control of age, there is a positive correlation between children's TOM and their sharing positive affect. Yet we don't find the same result between children's TOM and their mothers' sharing positive affect.
(3) After control of age, children's TOM is significantly related to the use of their mental state utterances and their mothers'.
(4) After control of age, children's TOM is significantly related to the non-mental state utterances on specific categories , such as links to the life and the sum of the non-mental state utterances. But controlling of the sum of the mental state utterances, this relation is not existed. It possible that the non-mental state utterances affect the development of children's TOM indirectly, for example through mental state utterances.
(5) The result of mothers' parenting style questionnaire indicates that children's TOM is significantly related to mothers' severe punishing after control of age. The result of observation shows a positive correlation between children's TOM and mothers' warmth and understanding. We think that the difference is due to parent-child play is a special situation whereas questionnaire reflects the generality.
In a word, we find that children's TOM is significantly related to many aspects in parent-child interaction. Thought this study, we know parent-child interaction is one of the social origin of the difference of children's TOM, parents can improve their children's TOM by changing their participative style, emotion communication, mental state utterances, non-mental state utterances and mother's parenting style.
引文
陈陈．家庭教养方式研究进程透视．南京师大学报(社会科学版)．2002，(6)：95～109
陈满琪，李春．儿童心理理论研究现状与发展趋势．江西教育学院学报(社会科学)．2003，24(2)：23～26
陈英和，姚端维，郭向和．儿童心理理论的发展及其影响因素的研究进展．心理发展与教育．2001，(3)：56～59接27
邓赐平，桑标，缪小春．程式知识与幼儿心理理论的发展关系．心理学报．2002，34(6)：596～603
邓赐平，桑标，缪小春．幼儿心理理论发展的一般认知基础——不同心理理论任务表现的特异性与一致性．心理科学．2002，25(5)：531～534
邓赐平，桑标．不同任务情境对幼儿心理理论表现的影响．心理科学．2003，26(2)：272～275
邓赐平．幼儿心理理论表现的任务特异性分析．心理发展与教育．2003，(3)：23～28
管益杰．关于家庭因素与儿童问题行为关系的初步探讨．山东师大学报(社会科学版)．1998，(6)：70～73
郭力平，张晔．试论儿童装扮游戏与心理理论的关系．心理科学．2002，25(2)：228～230
侯静，陈会昌，王争艳，李苗．亲子互动研究及其进展．心理科学进展．2002，．10(2)：185～191
焦青．孤独症儿童心理推测能力的影响因素的研究．中国特殊教育．2000，(3)：37～39
李燕燕，桑标．影响儿童心理理论发展的家庭因素．心理科学．2003，26(6)：1108～1109
刘吉林．认知发展研究的新领域：儿童“心理理论”研究．山东教育科研．2002，(1)：44～49
刘明，邓赐平，桑标．幼儿心理理论与社会行为发展关系的初步研究．心理发展与教育．2002，(2)：39～43
莫书亮，苏彦捷．心理理论和语言能力的关系．心理发展与教育．2002，(2)：85～91
隋晓爽，苏彦捷．对心理理论两成分认知模型的验证．心理学报．2003，35(1)：56～62
王桂琴，方格，毕鸿燕，杨小冬．儿童心理理论的研究进展．心理学动态．2001，
9(2)：129～135
王江洋．学前儿童心理理论与抑制性控制关系研究进展．辽宁师范大学学报(社会科学版)．2003，26(1)：38～42
王美芳，陈会昌．错误信念理解后儿童心理理论的发展．心理发展与教育．2001，(2)：45～49
王益文，林崇德，张文新．外表真实区别、表征变化和错误信念的任务分析．心理科学．2003，26(3)：390～392
王益文，张文新．3～6岁儿童“心理理论”的发展．心理发展与教育．2002，(1)：11～15
夏利民．家庭教养方式与儿童社会化研究概述．山东师大学报(社会科学版)．1994，(5)：64～67
张丽华．父母的教养方式与儿童社会化发展研究综述．辽宁师范大学学报(社科版)．1997，(3)：19～22
赵红梅，苏彦捷．心理理论与同伴接纳．应用心理学．2003，9(2)：51～55
Alexandra L Cutting & Judy Dunn. Theory of Mind, Emotion Understanding, Language, and Family Background: Individual Differences and Interrelation. Child Development. 1999,70(4):853～865
Badeenes LV, Estevan Rac & Bcete F. J. G.. Theory of Mind and Peer Rejection at School. Social Developmnet. 2000,9(3):271～283
Baron-Cohen, S., A. M. Leslie & U. Frith. "Does the Autistic Child Have aTheory of Mind?" Cogniton. 1985, (21):37～46
Carlson S. M. & Moses L. J. Individual Differences inlnhibitory Control and Children's Theory of Mind. Child Development. 2001, (72):1032～1053
Carlson S. M., Moses L. J. & Hix H. R. The Role of Inhibitory Processes in Young Children's Difficulties with Deception and False Belief. Child Development.1998, (69):672～691
Charlie Lewis, Norman H. Freeman, Chrystalla Kyriakidou, Katerina maridaki-Kassotaki & Damon M. Berridge. Social Influences on False Belief Access: Specific Sibling Influences or General Apprenticeship? Child Development. 1996, (67):2930～2947
Claire Hughes & Andrew Graham. Measuring Excutive Functions in Childhood: Problems and Solutions. Child and Adolesent Mental Health. 2002, 7(3):131～142
Claire Hughes. Overview Executive Functions and Development: Emerging Themes. Infant and Child Development. 2002, (11) :201～209
Dunn J., J. Brown, C. Slomkowski, C. Tesla & L.Youngblade. Young Children's
Understanding of other People's Feelings and Beliefs: Individual Difference and their Antecedents. Child Development. (62), 1352～1366
Hogrefe, G. J., Wimmer, H. & Perner J. A Developmental Lag in Attribution of Epistemic States. Child Development. 1986, (57):567～582
Jane R. Brown and Judy Dunn. Talk with Your Sibling? Developmental Changes in Early Family Conversations about Feelings. Child Development. 1992, (63):336～349
Janet Wilde Astington. The Future of Theory-of-mind Research: Understanding Motivational States, the Role of Language, and Real-World Consequences. Child Development. 2001,(72):685～687
Jenkins J.M. & Astington, J. W. Cognition Factors and FamilyStructure as Sociated with Theory of Mind Development in Young Children. Development Psychology. 1996,32(1): 70～78
Jennifer M. Jenkins & Janet Wilde Astington. Cognitive Factors and Family Associated with Theory of Mind Development in Young Children. Development psychology. 1996, 32(1):70～78
Jo Ann M. Farver & Supra Wimbarti. Indonesian Children's Play with Their Mothers and Older Siblings. Cbild Development. 1995,(66):1493～1503
Josef Perner and Ted Ruffman & Susan R. Leekam. Theory of Mind Is Contagious: You Catch It from Your Sibs. Child Development. 1994,(65):1228～1238
Judy Dunn, Jane Brown, Cheryl Slomkowski, Caroline Tesla & Lise Youngblade. Young Children's Understanding of Other People's Feelings and Beliefs: Individual Difference and Their Antecedents. Child Development. 1991, (62):1352～1366
Judy Dunn, Jane Brown, Lynn Beardsall. Family Talk About Feeling States and Children's Later Understanding of Others' Emotions. Development psychology. 1991, 27(3):448～455
Katherine C. Pears & Louis J. Moses. Demographics, Parenting, and Theory of Mind in Preschool Children. Social Development. 2003, 12(1):1～20
Leslie, A. M. Prentense and Representation: the Origins of "Theory of Mind" Psychological Review. 1987, (94):412～426
Lise M.Youngblade & Judy Dunn. Individual Difference In Young Children's Pretend Play with Mother and Sibling: Links to Relationships and Understanding of Other People's Feelings and Beliefs. Child Development. 1995,(66):1472～1492
Louis J. Moses. Excutive Accounts of Theory-of-mind Development. Child Development. 2001, 72(3):688～690
Mark A. Sabbagh, Maureen A. Callanan. Metarepresentation in Action: 3-,4-, and
5-year-olds Developing Theories of Mind in Parent ～ Child Conversations. Development psychology. 1998, 34(3):491～502
Melissa K.Wlech-Ross. Mother-child Participation in Conversation About the Past: Relationships to Preschoolers' Theory of Mind. Development psychology. 1997, 33(4):618～629
Nina Howe, Harriet Petrakos & Christinga M. Rinaldi. "All the Sheep are Dead. He Murdered Them": Sibling Pretense, Negotion, Internal State Language, and Relationship Quality. Child Development. 1998, 69(1):182～191
Nina Howe. Sibling-directed Internal State Language, Perspective taking, and Affective Behavio. 1991, (62):1503～1512
Nina Howe, Christina M. Rinaldi, Melissa Jennings & Harriet Petrakos. "No! The Iambs can Stay Out Because They Got Cozies": Constructive and Destructive Sibling Conflict, Pretend Play, and Social Understanding. Child Development. 2002, (73):1460～1473
Penelope G. Vinden. Parenting Attitudes and Children's Understanding of Mind: A Comparison of Korean American and Anglo-American Families. Cognitive Development. 2001, 16(3): 793～809
Stephanie M. Carlson & Louis J. Moses. Individual Differences in Inhibitory Control and Children's Theory of Mind. Child Development. 2001, 72(4):1032～1053
Perner J., Lang B. & Kloo D. Theory of Mind and Self-control: more than a Common Problem of Inhibition. Child Development. 2002, (73):752～767
Perner J., Ruffman.T & Leekman, S. R. Theory of Mind is Contagious: You Catch it from your Sibs. Child Development. 1994, (65):1228～1238
Premack D. & Woodruff G.. Does the Chimpanzee Have a Theory of Mind ? Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 1978, (1):515～526
Slaughter V, Dennis M J, Pritchard M. Theory of Mind and Peer Acceptance in Preschool Children. British journal of Developmental Psychology. 2002, 20(4): 545～564
Stephanie M. Carlson, Louis J. Moses & Casey Bretona. How Specific is the Relation between Executive Function and Theory of Mind? Contributions of Inhibitory Control and Working Memory. Infant and Child Development. 2002, (11):73-92
Taylor M., B. S. Cartwright & S M. Carlson. A Developmental Investigation of Children's Imaginary Companions. Developmental Psychology. 1993, (29):276～285
Ted Ruffman, Lance Slade & Elena Crowe. The Relation between Children's and Mothers' Mental State Language and Theory-of-Mind Understanding. Child
Development. 2002, (73):734～751
Watson A C, Nixon C L, Willson A, etal. Social Interaction Skills and Theory in Young Children. Developmental Psychology, 1999, 35(2):386～391
Wellman H. M., Cross D.& Watson J. Meta-analysis of Theory of Mind Development: the Truth about False Belief. Child Development. 2001,72:655～684
Yougblde, L. M. & J. Dunn. Individual Differnces in Young Children's Pretend Play with Mother and Sibling: Links to Relationships and Understanding of other People's Feelings and Beliefs. Child Development. 1995, (66):1472～1492
陈满琪，李春．儿童心理理论研究现状与发展趋势．江西教育学院学报(社会科学)．2003，24(2)：23～26
陈英和，姚端维，郭向和．儿童心理理论的发展及其影响因素的研究进展．心理发展与教育．2001，(3)：56～59接27
邓赐平，桑标，缪小春．程式知识与幼儿心理理论的发展关系．心理学报．2002，34(6)：596～603
邓赐平，桑标，缪小春．幼儿心理理论发展的一般认知基础——不同心理理论任务表现的特异性与一致性．心理科学．2002，25(5)：531～534
邓赐平，桑标．不同任务情境对幼儿心理理论表现的影响．心理科学．2003，26(2)：272～275
邓赐平．幼儿心理理论表现的任务特异性分析．心理发展与教育．2003，(3)：23～28
管益杰．关于家庭因素与儿童问题行为关系的初步探讨．山东师大学报(社会科学版)．1998，(6)：70～73
郭力平，张晔．试论儿童装扮游戏与心理理论的关系．心理科学．2002，25(2)：228～230
侯静，陈会昌，王争艳，李苗．亲子互动研究及其进展．心理科学进展．2002，．10(2)：185～191
焦青．孤独症儿童心理推测能力的影响因素的研究．中国特殊教育．2000，(3)：37～39
李燕燕，桑标．影响儿童心理理论发展的家庭因素．心理科学．2003，26(6)：1108～1109
刘吉林．认知发展研究的新领域：儿童“心理理论”研究．山东教育科研．2002，(1)：44～49
刘明，邓赐平，桑标．幼儿心理理论与社会行为发展关系的初步研究．心理发展与教育．2002，(2)：39～43
莫书亮，苏彦捷．心理理论和语言能力的关系．心理发展与教育．2002，(2)：85～91
隋晓爽，苏彦捷．对心理理论两成分认知模型的验证．心理学报．2003，35(1)：56～62
王桂琴，方格，毕鸿燕，杨小冬．儿童心理理论的研究进展．心理学动态．2001，
9(2)：129～135
王江洋．学前儿童心理理论与抑制性控制关系研究进展．辽宁师范大学学报(社会科学版)．2003，26(1)：38～42
王美芳，陈会昌．错误信念理解后儿童心理理论的发展．心理发展与教育．2001，(2)：45～49
王益文，林崇德，张文新．外表真实区别、表征变化和错误信念的任务分析．心理科学．2003，26(3)：390～392
王益文，张文新．3～6岁儿童“心理理论”的发展．心理发展与教育．2002，(1)：11～15
夏利民．家庭教养方式与儿童社会化研究概述．山东师大学报(社会科学版)．1994，(5)：64～67
张丽华．父母的教养方式与儿童社会化发展研究综述．辽宁师范大学学报(社科版)．1997，(3)：19～22
赵红梅，苏彦捷．心理理论与同伴接纳．应用心理学．2003，9(2)：51～55
Alexandra L Cutting & Judy Dunn. Theory of Mind, Emotion Understanding, Language, and Family Background: Individual Differences and Interrelation. Child Development. 1999,70(4):853～865
Badeenes LV, Estevan Rac & Bcete F. J. G.. Theory of Mind and Peer Rejection at School. Social Developmnet. 2000,9(3):271～283
Baron-Cohen, S., A. M. Leslie & U. Frith. "Does the Autistic Child Have aTheory of Mind?" Cogniton. 1985, (21):37～46
Carlson S. M. & Moses L. J. Individual Differences inlnhibitory Control and Children's Theory of Mind. Child Development. 2001, (72):1032～1053
Carlson S. M., Moses L. J. & Hix H. R. The Role of Inhibitory Processes in Young Children's Difficulties with Deception and False Belief. Child Development.1998, (69):672～691
Charlie Lewis, Norman H. Freeman, Chrystalla Kyriakidou, Katerina maridaki-Kassotaki & Damon M. Berridge. Social Influences on False Belief Access: Specific Sibling Influences or General Apprenticeship? Child Development. 1996, (67):2930～2947
Claire Hughes & Andrew Graham. Measuring Excutive Functions in Childhood: Problems and Solutions. Child and Adolesent Mental Health. 2002, 7(3):131～142
Claire Hughes. Overview Executive Functions and Development: Emerging Themes. Infant and Child Development. 2002, (11) :201～209
Dunn J., J. Brown, C. Slomkowski, C. Tesla & L.Youngblade. Young Children's
Understanding of other People's Feelings and Beliefs: Individual Difference and their Antecedents. Child Development. (62), 1352～1366
Hogrefe, G. J., Wimmer, H. & Perner J. A Developmental Lag in Attribution of Epistemic States. Child Development. 1986, (57):567～582
Jane R. Brown and Judy Dunn. Talk with Your Sibling? Developmental Changes in Early Family Conversations about Feelings. Child Development. 1992, (63):336～349
Janet Wilde Astington. The Future of Theory-of-mind Research: Understanding Motivational States, the Role of Language, and Real-World Consequences. Child Development. 2001,(72):685～687
Jenkins J.M. & Astington, J. W. Cognition Factors and FamilyStructure as Sociated with Theory of Mind Development in Young Children. Development Psychology. 1996,32(1): 70～78
Jennifer M. Jenkins & Janet Wilde Astington. Cognitive Factors and Family Associated with Theory of Mind Development in Young Children. Development psychology. 1996, 32(1):70～78
Jo Ann M. Farver & Supra Wimbarti. Indonesian Children's Play with Their Mothers and Older Siblings. Cbild Development. 1995,(66):1493～1503
Josef Perner and Ted Ruffman & Susan R. Leekam. Theory of Mind Is Contagious: You Catch It from Your Sibs. Child Development. 1994,(65):1228～1238
Judy Dunn, Jane Brown, Cheryl Slomkowski, Caroline Tesla & Lise Youngblade. Young Children's Understanding of Other People's Feelings and Beliefs: Individual Difference and Their Antecedents. Child Development. 1991, (62):1352～1366
Judy Dunn, Jane Brown, Lynn Beardsall. Family Talk About Feeling States and Children's Later Understanding of Others' Emotions. Development psychology. 1991, 27(3):448～455
Katherine C. Pears & Louis J. Moses. Demographics, Parenting, and Theory of Mind in Preschool Children. Social Development. 2003, 12(1):1～20
Leslie, A. M. Prentense and Representation: the Origins of "Theory of Mind" Psychological Review. 1987, (94):412～426
Lise M.Youngblade & Judy Dunn. Individual Difference In Young Children's Pretend Play with Mother and Sibling: Links to Relationships and Understanding of Other People's Feelings and Beliefs. Child Development. 1995,(66):1472～1492
Louis J. Moses. Excutive Accounts of Theory-of-mind Development. Child Development. 2001, 72(3):688～690
Mark A. Sabbagh, Maureen A. Callanan. Metarepresentation in Action: 3-,4-, and
5-year-olds Developing Theories of Mind in Parent ～ Child Conversations. Development psychology. 1998, 34(3):491～502
Melissa K.Wlech-Ross. Mother-child Participation in Conversation About the Past: Relationships to Preschoolers' Theory of Mind. Development psychology. 1997, 33(4):618～629
Nina Howe, Harriet Petrakos & Christinga M. Rinaldi. "All the Sheep are Dead. He Murdered Them": Sibling Pretense, Negotion, Internal State Language, and Relationship Quality. Child Development. 1998, 69(1):182～191
Nina Howe. Sibling-directed Internal State Language, Perspective taking, and Affective Behavio. 1991, (62):1503～1512
Nina Howe, Christina M. Rinaldi, Melissa Jennings & Harriet Petrakos. "No! The Iambs can Stay Out Because They Got Cozies": Constructive and Destructive Sibling Conflict, Pretend Play, and Social Understanding. Child Development. 2002, (73):1460～1473
Penelope G. Vinden. Parenting Attitudes and Children's Understanding of Mind: A Comparison of Korean American and Anglo-American Families. Cognitive Development. 2001, 16(3): 793～809
Stephanie M. Carlson & Louis J. Moses. Individual Differences in Inhibitory Control and Children's Theory of Mind. Child Development. 2001, 72(4):1032～1053
Perner J., Lang B. & Kloo D. Theory of Mind and Self-control: more than a Common Problem of Inhibition. Child Development. 2002, (73):752～767
Perner J., Ruffman.T & Leekman, S. R. Theory of Mind is Contagious: You Catch it from your Sibs. Child Development. 1994, (65):1228～1238
Premack D. & Woodruff G.. Does the Chimpanzee Have a Theory of Mind ? Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 1978, (1):515～526
Slaughter V, Dennis M J, Pritchard M. Theory of Mind and Peer Acceptance in Preschool Children. British journal of Developmental Psychology. 2002, 20(4): 545～564
Stephanie M. Carlson, Louis J. Moses & Casey Bretona. How Specific is the Relation between Executive Function and Theory of Mind? Contributions of Inhibitory Control and Working Memory. Infant and Child Development. 2002, (11):73-92
Taylor M., B. S. Cartwright & S M. Carlson. A Developmental Investigation of Children's Imaginary Companions. Developmental Psychology. 1993, (29):276～285
Ted Ruffman, Lance Slade & Elena Crowe. The Relation between Children's and Mothers' Mental State Language and Theory-of-Mind Understanding. Child
Development. 2002, (73):734～751
Watson A C, Nixon C L, Willson A, etal. Social Interaction Skills and Theory in Young Children. Developmental Psychology, 1999, 35(2):386～391
Wellman H. M., Cross D.& Watson J. Meta-analysis of Theory of Mind Development: the Truth about False Belief. Child Development. 2001,72:655～684
Yougblde, L. M. & J. Dunn. Individual Differnces in Young Children's Pretend Play with Mother and Sibling: Links to Relationships and Understanding of other People's Feelings and Beliefs. Child Development. 1995, (66):1472～1492