饮用水源地水华人体健康风险评价
|
摘要
饮用水源地的水华事件已成为威胁饮用水源安全和暴露人体健康的环境污染问题。合理地评价水华具有的人体健康风险,是开展饮用水源地水华应急管理的基础。开展饮用水源地水华健康风险评价,需要以保护人体健康为目的,以水华水体急性暴露的健康风险大小为研究对象,采用污染物健康风险评价模型,评价水华污染水体具有的人体健康风险大小
饮用水源地水华的危害识别结果表明,饮用水源地受水华污染时,水体中主要污染物为MCs和DBPs。MCs作为一类肝毒素,主要作用于人体的肝细胞和肝巨噬细胞,最终导致人体患肝病。DBPs主要表现为致癌性和生殖毒性。采用水体中污染物急性暴露安全阈值(浓度)的计算方法,确定了MCs和DBPs的急性暴露安全阈值(浓度)。MC-LR、三氯甲烷、一溴二氯甲烷、三溴甲烷、二氯乙酸、三氯乙酸经饮用水暴露的急性暴露安全(阈值)浓度,分别为0.004、18、0.25、0.2、2、0.13、0.5mg/L。
氯化过程中MC-LR和DBPs污染特征的结果表明,原水氯化后水体中MC-LR浓度范围为0.11-3.89μg/L。不同水质指标与氯化后水体巾MC-LR的线性相关性结果表明：MC-LR浓度与水体Chl-a、TP和NH3-N呈线性正相关,线性相关系数分别为0.85、0.75和0.81。MC-LR浓度与N/P成线性负相关性,R2=0.73。原水中不同有机质组分的树脂分离结果表明：原水中溶解性有机质以疏水酸性物质为主。氯化后水体检出的主要DBPs为：三氯甲烷、一溴二氯甲烷、二溴一氯甲烷、三溴甲烷、一氯乙酸、二氯乙酸和三氯乙酸,其生成量的范围分别为：1.85-52.5、1.31-183、1.32-194、0.19-15.8、0.22-118、0.15-85.3和1.05-28.4μg/L。原水水质指标与DBPs生成量之间的线性相关性表明：HAAs与水体Chl-a浓度相关性最高(R2=0.75),与DOC浓度、NH3-N及1n(藻密度)的相关性次之,与TN和TP的相关性较差。THMs的生成量与水体中DOC浓度相关性最高(R2=0.87),与水体N/P的相关性最差(R2=0.27)。
按照污染物暴露量计算模型,确定了不同人群的日均暴露量。当水体Chl-a浓度范围为21.40-195.6μg/L时,成人对MC-LR、THMs、HAAs的日均暴露剂量分别为：3.14×10-6～1.11×10-4、2.04×10-4～1.17×10-2、7.94×10-5～3.81×10-3μg/kg·day;儿童对MC-LR、THMs、HAAs的日均暴露剂量分别为：1.10×10-5～3.89×10-4、7.15×10-4～4.44×10-2、2.78×10-4～1.33×10-2μg/kg·day。采用污染物急性健康风险表征方法,表征了不同水华污染水体的健康风险,结果表明：当水体中Chl-a浓度范围属于21.4-195.6μg/L时,水华非致癌风险值随Chl-a浓度的增加,呈逐渐上升的趋势,健康风险值介于0.17-4.39之间。水华致癌风险级别介于1.26×10-5-9.25×10-4/a之间。界定了3个不同的水华健康风险级别,当水体中Chl-a浓度低于80μg/L时,为无风险级；介于80-120μg/L时,为低风险级；高于120μg/L时,为高风险级。
饮用水源地水华健康风险评价不仅采用健康风险评价的手段,指导饮用水源地管理的一个新尝试,也是污染物急性人体健康风险评价的初步探索,具有一定的理论创新性和应用价值。
Algal blooms occurred in drinking water source is a threat to drinking water source safety and human health in China. It is the precondition of algae bloom emergency management to assess the human health risk reasonably. In order to protect human health, the risk of acute exposure to algae bloom water was evaluated by health risk assessment chemical model.
The human health hazard chemicals are mainly Microcystins (MCs) and Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) in algae bloom polluted water. MCs are one kind of hepatic toxin, act on liver cells and liver macrophages, leading to human liver disease. The health hazards of DBPs are carcinogenicity and reproductive toxicity. Based on the method of acute exposure safety threshold, the acute safety thresholds of MCs and DBPs were calculated. The safety threshold of MC-LR, chloroform, Bromodichloromethane, bromoform, dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid are0.004,18,0.25,0.2,2,0.13,0.5mg/L, respectively.
The pollution characteristics of MCs and DBPs in chlorination were investigated. The MC-LR concentration is0.11-3.89μg/L in chloride water. Linear correlation analysis of water quality index and MC-LR concentration were conducted. The correlation of MC-LR and Chl-a, TP, NH3-N are positive, R2are0.85,0.81and0.75, respectively. The correlation of MC-LR with N/P is negative correlation. By the Resin adsorption method, the DOM fractions were characterized. The results show that HIS is the mainly fraction in raw water. chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochlomethane, bromoform chloroactic acid, dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid are detected in chloride water. Other DBPs species are observed some time. The vary concentration range of chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochlomethane, bromoform, chloroactic acid, dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid are:1.85～52.5,1.31～183.25,1.32～194.35,0.19～15.83,0.22～118.6,0.15-85.3and1.05～28.46μg/L, respectively. The correlation analysis between water quality index and DBPs yields shows that HAAs is highly correlated with the concentration of Chl-a (R2=0.75), but the linear correlation with TN and TP correlation is lower. THMs is correlated with the highest concentration of DOC (R2=0.87), and the correlation with N/P is the worst (R2=0.27).
The average daily exposure dosage of different chemical was calculated. As the Chl-a concentration in the range of21.4～195.6μg/L, the average daily dosage of adult to MC-LR, THMs, HAAs were3.14×10-6～1.11×10-4、2.04×10～4-1.17×10-2、7.94×10-5-3.81×10-3μg/kg·day, respectively. The average daily dosage of children to MC-LR, THMs, HAAs were:1.10×10-5-3.89×104、7.15×10-4～4.44×10-22.78×10-4-1.33×10-2μg/kg·day. The health risk of algae bloom was characterized. As the Chl-a concentration is during21.4～195.6μg/L, with the increased of Chl-a concentration, the non-cancer risk is increased frequently, the health risk value is during0.17-4.39. The cancer risk of different algae polluted water is between1.26×10-5～9.25×10-4/a. The human health risk covers three different risk levels:no risk level, low risk level and high risk level. When Chl-a concentration is below80μg/L, the water belongs to no risk level. When it is between80～120μg/L, the water belongs to low risk level. When it is beyond120μg/L, the water belongs to high risk level.
Algae bloom health risk assessment is only a new attempt by using health risk assessment method to guide drinking water source management but also a preliminary research in acute human risk assessment of chemical. This research has certain theoretical innovation and application value.
饮用水源地水华的危害识别结果表明,饮用水源地受水华污染时,水体中主要污染物为MCs和DBPs。MCs作为一类肝毒素,主要作用于人体的肝细胞和肝巨噬细胞,最终导致人体患肝病。DBPs主要表现为致癌性和生殖毒性。采用水体中污染物急性暴露安全阈值(浓度)的计算方法,确定了MCs和DBPs的急性暴露安全阈值(浓度)。MC-LR、三氯甲烷、一溴二氯甲烷、三溴甲烷、二氯乙酸、三氯乙酸经饮用水暴露的急性暴露安全(阈值)浓度,分别为0.004、18、0.25、0.2、2、0.13、0.5mg/L。
氯化过程中MC-LR和DBPs污染特征的结果表明,原水氯化后水体中MC-LR浓度范围为0.11-3.89μg/L。不同水质指标与氯化后水体巾MC-LR的线性相关性结果表明：MC-LR浓度与水体Chl-a、TP和NH3-N呈线性正相关,线性相关系数分别为0.85、0.75和0.81。MC-LR浓度与N/P成线性负相关性,R2=0.73。原水中不同有机质组分的树脂分离结果表明：原水中溶解性有机质以疏水酸性物质为主。氯化后水体检出的主要DBPs为：三氯甲烷、一溴二氯甲烷、二溴一氯甲烷、三溴甲烷、一氯乙酸、二氯乙酸和三氯乙酸,其生成量的范围分别为：1.85-52.5、1.31-183、1.32-194、0.19-15.8、0.22-118、0.15-85.3和1.05-28.4μg/L。原水水质指标与DBPs生成量之间的线性相关性表明：HAAs与水体Chl-a浓度相关性最高(R2=0.75),与DOC浓度、NH3-N及1n(藻密度)的相关性次之,与TN和TP的相关性较差。THMs的生成量与水体中DOC浓度相关性最高(R2=0.87),与水体N/P的相关性最差(R2=0.27)。
按照污染物暴露量计算模型,确定了不同人群的日均暴露量。当水体Chl-a浓度范围为21.40-195.6μg/L时,成人对MC-LR、THMs、HAAs的日均暴露剂量分别为：3.14×10-6～1.11×10-4、2.04×10-4～1.17×10-2、7.94×10-5～3.81×10-3μg/kg·day;儿童对MC-LR、THMs、HAAs的日均暴露剂量分别为：1.10×10-5～3.89×10-4、7.15×10-4～4.44×10-2、2.78×10-4～1.33×10-2μg/kg·day。采用污染物急性健康风险表征方法,表征了不同水华污染水体的健康风险,结果表明：当水体中Chl-a浓度范围属于21.4-195.6μg/L时,水华非致癌风险值随Chl-a浓度的增加,呈逐渐上升的趋势,健康风险值介于0.17-4.39之间。水华致癌风险级别介于1.26×10-5-9.25×10-4/a之间。界定了3个不同的水华健康风险级别,当水体中Chl-a浓度低于80μg/L时,为无风险级；介于80-120μg/L时,为低风险级；高于120μg/L时,为高风险级。
饮用水源地水华健康风险评价不仅采用健康风险评价的手段,指导饮用水源地管理的一个新尝试,也是污染物急性人体健康风险评价的初步探索,具有一定的理论创新性和应用价值。
Algal blooms occurred in drinking water source is a threat to drinking water source safety and human health in China. It is the precondition of algae bloom emergency management to assess the human health risk reasonably. In order to protect human health, the risk of acute exposure to algae bloom water was evaluated by health risk assessment chemical model.
The human health hazard chemicals are mainly Microcystins (MCs) and Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) in algae bloom polluted water. MCs are one kind of hepatic toxin, act on liver cells and liver macrophages, leading to human liver disease. The health hazards of DBPs are carcinogenicity and reproductive toxicity. Based on the method of acute exposure safety threshold, the acute safety thresholds of MCs and DBPs were calculated. The safety threshold of MC-LR, chloroform, Bromodichloromethane, bromoform, dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid are0.004,18,0.25,0.2,2,0.13,0.5mg/L, respectively.
The pollution characteristics of MCs and DBPs in chlorination were investigated. The MC-LR concentration is0.11-3.89μg/L in chloride water. Linear correlation analysis of water quality index and MC-LR concentration were conducted. The correlation of MC-LR and Chl-a, TP, NH3-N are positive, R2are0.85,0.81and0.75, respectively. The correlation of MC-LR with N/P is negative correlation. By the Resin adsorption method, the DOM fractions were characterized. The results show that HIS is the mainly fraction in raw water. chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochlomethane, bromoform chloroactic acid, dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid are detected in chloride water. Other DBPs species are observed some time. The vary concentration range of chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochlomethane, bromoform, chloroactic acid, dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid are:1.85～52.5,1.31～183.25,1.32～194.35,0.19～15.83,0.22～118.6,0.15-85.3and1.05～28.46μg/L, respectively. The correlation analysis between water quality index and DBPs yields shows that HAAs is highly correlated with the concentration of Chl-a (R2=0.75), but the linear correlation with TN and TP correlation is lower. THMs is correlated with the highest concentration of DOC (R2=0.87), and the correlation with N/P is the worst (R2=0.27).
The average daily exposure dosage of different chemical was calculated. As the Chl-a concentration in the range of21.4～195.6μg/L, the average daily dosage of adult to MC-LR, THMs, HAAs were3.14×10-6～1.11×10-4、2.04×10～4-1.17×10-2、7.94×10-5-3.81×10-3μg/kg·day, respectively. The average daily dosage of children to MC-LR, THMs, HAAs were:1.10×10-5-3.89×104、7.15×10-4～4.44×10-22.78×10-4-1.33×10-2μg/kg·day. The health risk of algae bloom was characterized. As the Chl-a concentration is during21.4～195.6μg/L, with the increased of Chl-a concentration, the non-cancer risk is increased frequently, the health risk value is during0.17-4.39. The cancer risk of different algae polluted water is between1.26×10-5～9.25×10-4/a. The human health risk covers three different risk levels:no risk level, low risk level and high risk level. When Chl-a concentration is below80μg/L, the water belongs to no risk level. When it is between80～120μg/L, the water belongs to low risk level. When it is beyond120μg/L, the water belongs to high risk level.
Algae bloom health risk assessment is only a new attempt by using health risk assessment method to guide drinking water source management but also a preliminary research in acute human risk assessment of chemical. This research has certain theoretical innovation and application value.
引文
[1]于云江,张颖,车飞,等.环境污染的健康风险评价及其应用[J].环境与职业医学,2011,28(5)：309-314.
[2]曾光明,卓利,钟政林,等.水环境健康风险评价模型[J].水科学进展,1998,9(3)：212-217.
[3]Carmichael W W.Liver failure and human deaths at a haemodialysis center in Brazil: microcystins as a major contributing factor[J].Harmful Algae News,1996,15:11-13.
[4]秦伯强,王小冬,汤祥明,等.太湖富营养化与蓝藻水华引起的饮用水危机-原因与对策[J].地球科学进展,2007,22(9)：896-906.
[5]殷福才,张之源.巢湖富营养化研究进展[J].湖泊科学,2003,15(4)：377-384.
[6]柘元蒙.滇池富营养化现状、趋势及其综合防治对策[J].云南环境科学,2002,21(1)：35-38.
[7]韩涛,彭文启,李怀恩,等.洱海水体富营养化的演变及其研究进展[J].中国水利水电科学研究院学报,2005,3(1)：71-73.
[8]王崇.基于细胞和群落特征的湖泊水华预警因子研究[D].上海：上海交通大学博士论文,2010.
[9]鄂学礼,凌波.饮水污染对健康的影响[J].中国卫生工程学,2006,5(1)：3-5.
[10]隋少峰,孔凡玲,罗启芳.饮用水源水藻类繁殖的危害及处理[J].中国卫生工程学,2005,4(1)：46-49.
[11]Howard A. Problem cyanobacterial blooms:explanation and simulation modeling [J].Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers,1994,19(2):213-224.
[12]Reynolds C S, Callow J A. Cyanobacterial water-blooms[M]. Advances in botanical research. London:Academic Press,1987:67-143.
[13]孔繁翔,高光.大型浅水富营养化湖泊中蓝藻水华形成机理的思考[J].生态学报,2005,25(3)：589-595.
[14]Sellner K G, Doucette G J, Kirkpatrick G J.Harmful algal blooms:causes, impacts and detection[J]. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology,2003,30(7):383-406.
[15]Jewett E B, Lopez C B, Dortch Q, et al.National Assessment of Efforts to Predict and Respond to Harmful Algal Blooms in U. S. Waters Interim Report [R].Washington, DC: Interagency Working Group on Harmful Algal Blooms,2007.
[16]周名江.藻类暴发重点事件回顾[J].水工业市场,2008(8)：12-13.
[17]王崇,孔海南,王欣泽,等.有害藻华预警预测技术研究进展[J].应用生态学报,2009,20(11)：2813-2817.
[18]纪荣平,李先宁,吕锡武.太湖梅梁湾水源水中微囊藻毒素浓度的变化[J].环境监测管理与技术,2007,19(3)：20-22.
[19]纪荣平,吕锡武,李先宁,等.人工介质对水源水中藻类去除特性研究[J].环境科学,2007,28(1)：75-79.
[20]刘聚涛,杨永生,高俊峰,等.太湖蓝藻水华分级及其时空变化[J].长江流域资源与环境,2011,20(2)：156-160.
[21]National Research Council (NRC).Risk assessment in the Federal Government:managing the process[M]. Washington, DC:National Academy Press,1983:51-85.
[22]U.S.Environmental Protection Agency. EPA/630/R-00/004 Guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment[S]. Washington DC:1986.
[23]U.S.Environmental Protection Agency. EPA/630/R-98/003 Guidelines for mutagenicity risk assessment[S].Washington DC:1986.
[24]U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA/630/R-98/002 Guidelines for the health risk assessment of chemical mixtures[S]. Washington DC:1986.
[25]U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA/630/R-96/009 Guidelines for reproductive toxicity risk assessment[S].Washington DC:1996.
[26]U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA/540/1-89/002 Risk assessment guidance for superfund, volume (1):human health evaluation manual (part A)[S].Washington DC:1989.
[27]胡二邦.环境风险评价实用技术和方法[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社,2000：1-56.
[28]黄奕龙,王仰麟,谭启宇,等.城市饮用水源地水环境健康风险评价及风险管理[J].地学前缘,2006,13(3)：162-167.
[29]倪彬,王洪波,李旭东,等.湖泊饮用水源地水环境健康风险评价[J].环境科学研究,2010,23(1)：74-79.
[30]许川,舒为群,罗财红,等.三峡库区水环境多环芳烃和邻苯二甲酸酯类有机污染物健康风险评价[J].环境科学研究,2007,20(5)：57-60.
[31]孙树青,胡国华,王勇泽,等.湘江干流水环境健康风险评价[J].安全与环境学报,2006,6(2)：12-15.
[32]王伟琴.饮用水源水中微囊藻毒素的遗传毒性与健康风险评价[D].杭州：浙江大学硕士学 位论文,2010
[33]朱惠刚,施玮,吴静.水体藻类污染与健康[J].2000,18(1)：13-16.
[34]Judy A, Westrick D C, Fawell, J K, et al.The toxicity of cyanobacterial toxins in the mouse[J].Human Experimental Toxicology,1999,18(3):162-167.
[35]Werner J F. Toxicity of the cyanobacterial cylic heptapeptide toxins microcystin-LR and -RR in early life-stage of the African clawed frog[J]. Aquatic toxicology,2000,49:189-198.
[36]余国忠,刘军,王占生.藻细胞特性对净水工艺的影响研究[J].环境科学研究,2000,13(6)：56-59
[37]候翠荣.高藻高有机污染水源水处理技术研究[D].济南：山东大学博士论文,2008.
[38]左金龙.饮用水处理技术现状评价及技术集成研究[D].哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学博士论文,2007.
[39]Hart J, Fawell J k, Croll B.The fate of both intra and extracellular toxins during drinking water treatment J]. Water Supply,1998,16(1/2):611-616.
[40]Hall T, Hart J, Croll B, et al.Laboratory-scale investigation of algal toxin removal by water treatment[J].Journal of the chartered institution of water and environmental management,2000,14(2):143-149.
[41]Peterson H G, Hrudey S E, Cantin I A, et al.Physiological toxicity, cell membrane damage and the release of dissolved organic carbon and geosmin by Aphanizomenon flos-aquae after exposure to water treatment chemicals[J].Water Research,1995,29(6):1515-1523.
[42]吴和岩,郑力行,苏瑾,等.上海市供水系统微囊藻毒素LR含量调查[J].卫生研究,2005,(2)：152-154.
[43]Nicholson B C, Rositano J, Burch M D.Destruction of cyanobacterial peptide hepatotoxins by chlorine and chloramine[J]. Water Research,1994,28(6):1297-1303.
[44]Chorus I, Bartram J.Toxic cyanobacteria in water. E&FN SPon. London UK,1999.
[45]Lam A K Y, Prepas E E, Spink D, et al. Chemical control of hepatotoxic phytoplankton blooms:Implications for human health[J]. Water Research,1995,29(8):1845-1845.
[46]Yoo R S, Carmichael W W, Hoehn R C, et al. Cyanobacterial (Blue-Green Algal Toxins):A resource guide[R].Denver CO:American water works association research Foundation,1995.
[47]Codd G A.Cyanobacterial toxins, the perception of water quality and the prioritization of eutrophication control [J].Ecological Engineering,2000,16,51-60.
[48]Falconer I R.Algal toxins and human health, Handbook of Environmental Chemical[M]. Berlin,Springer-Verlag,1998:53-82.
[49]Anderson W B, Slawson R M, Mayfield C I. A review of drinking water associated endotoxin, including potential routes of human exposure[J]. Canada Journal of Microbiology,2002,48:567-587.
[50]施玮,蒋颂辉,朱惠刚.中国饮用水源水中藻类卫生标准的研究[J].卫生研究,2003,32(2)：97-99.
[51]王立宁,方晶云,马军.化学预氧化对藻类细胞结构的影响及其强化混凝除藻[J].东南大学学报(自然科学版),2005,35(S1)：182-185.
[52]黄湫淇,詹平.微囊藻毒素的细胞毒性及机制研究状况[J].预防医学情报杂志,2005,21(3)：304-306.
[53]Tsuji K, Setsuda S,Watanuki T, et al.Microcystin levels during 1992-1995 for Lakes Sagami and Tsukui-Japan[J]. Journal of Natural Toxins,1996,4(4):189-94.
[54]Harada K, Murata H, Qiang Z, et al.Mass spectrometric screening method for microcystins in cyanobacteria[J].Toxicon,1996,34:701-710.
[55]Jones G J, Orr P T.Release and degradation of microcystin following algicide treatment of a Microcystins aeruginos bloom in a recreational lake, as determined by HPLC and protein phosphatase inhibition assay [J].Water Research,1994,28:871-876
[56]唐承佳.太湖贡湖湾水源地微囊藻毒索和含硫衍生污染物研究[D].上海：华东师范大学,2010.
[57]张维吴,徐小清,丘昌强.水环境中微囊藻毒素研究进展[J].环境科学研究,2001,14(2)：57-61.
[58]金丽娜,张维昊,郑利,等.滇池水环境中微囊藻毒素的生物降解[J].中国环境科学,2002,22(2)：189-192.
[59]Feitz A J,Waite T D, Jones C J, et al.Photocatalytic degradation of the blue-green algal toxin microcystin-LR in a natural organic-aqueous matrix[J],Environmental Science & Technology. 1999,33:243-249.
[60]Duy T N, Lam P K S, Shaw G R.Toxicology and risk assessment of fresh water cyanobacterial (blue-green Algae) toxins in water[J].Reviews of Environmental Contamination & Toxicology,2000,163:113-186.
[61]Welker M, Steinberg C.Hepatoxic cyanobacteria in the shallow lake Muggelsee[J].Hydrobiologia,1999,408:263-268.
[62]Foremme H.Occurrence of (cyanobacteria) toxins-microcystins and anatoxin-a in Berlin water bodies with implications to human health and regulations[J]. Environmental Toxicology,2000,15(2):120-130.
[63]Hirooka E Y.Survey of microcystins in water between 1995 avid 1996 in Parana, Brazil using ELISA[J].Natural Toxins,1999,7(3):103-109.
[64]Lee T H.First report of microcystins in Taiwan[J].Toxiconlogy,1998,36(2):247-25.
[65]张维昊.滇池微囊藻毒素的环境化学行为研究[D].武汉：中国科学院水生生物研究所博士论文,2001.
[66]穆丽娜,陈传炜,俞顺章,等.太湖水体微囊藻毒素含量调查及其处理方法研究[J].中国公共卫生,2000,16(19)：803-804.
[67]陈艳,俞顺章,林玉娣,等.太湖流域水中微囊藻毒素含量调查[J].中国公共卫生,2002,18(12)：1455-1456.
[68]张志红,赵金明,蒋颂辉,等.淀山湖夏秋季微囊藻毒素-LR和类毒素-A分布状况及其影响因素[J].卫生研究,2003,32(4)：316-31.
[69]冯小刚.环境中微囊藻毒素的检测、提纯及其紫外光助催化降解的研究[D].南京：东南大学博士论文,2006.
[70]徐海滨,孙明,隋海霞,等.江西部阳湖微囊藻毒素污染及其在鱼体内的动态研究[J].卫生研究,2003,32(3)：192-194.
[71]Codd C A. Bell S C. Kaya K. et al. Cyanobacterial toxins, exposure routes and human health[J].European Journal of Phycology,1999,34:405-415.
[72]Williams D E, Craig M, Dawe S C, et al.14C-labeled microcystin-LR administered to Atlantic salmon via intraperitoneal injection provides in vivo evidence for covalent binding of microcystin-LR in salmon livers[J].Toxicology,1997,35:985-989.
[73]Bury N R, Newlands A D, Eddy F B, et al.In vivo and vitro intestinal transport of 3H-microcystin-LR, a cyanobacterial toxin, in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)[J].Aquatic Toxicology,1998,42:139-148.
[74]Amorim A, Vasconcelos V.Dynamics of microcystins in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis[J].Toxicology,1999,37:1041-1052.
[75]Fischer W J, Dietrich D R. Pathological and biochemical characterization of microcystin-induced hepatopancreas and kidney damage in carp (Cyprinus carpio)[J].Pharmacology & Toxicology.2000,164:73-81.
[76]Falconer I R.Tumor promotion and liver injury caused by oral consumption of cyanobacteria[J].Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality,1991,6:177-184.
[77]卫国荣,张占英,连民,等.微囊藻毒素LR对SD孕鼠胎盘的损伤作用[J].中国公共卫生,2002,18(8)：921-922.
[78]陈华,孙昌盛,胡志坚,等.饮水微囊藻毒素在大鼠肝癌发生期间对细胞增殖与凋亡的影响[J].癌变畸变突变,2002,14(4)：214-217.
[79]Ueno Y, Nagata S, Tsutsumi T, et al.Detection of microcystins, a blue-green algal hepatotoxin, in drinking water sampled in Haimen and Fusui, endemic areas of primary liver cancer in China, by highly sensitive immunoassay[J].Carcinogenesis,1996,17:1317-1321.
[80]Carmichael W W. Health effects of toxin-producing cyanobacteria[J].Human and Ecological Risk Assessment,2001,7(5):1393-1407.
[81]Zhou L, Yu H, Chen K.Relationship between microcystin in drinking water and colorectal cancer[J]. Biomedical and Environmental Science,2002,15(2):166-171.
[82]Hindman S, Favero M, Carson L, et al. Pyrogenic reactions during heinodialysis caused by extramural endotoxin[J].Lancet,1975,2:732-734.
[83]Gorham P R, Carmichael W W.Hazards of freshwater blue-greens(cyanobacteria) [M]. Oxford, Cambridge University Press,1988:403-431.
[84]Falconer I R.Toxic cyanobacterial bloom problem in Australia waters risks a impacts on human health[J].Phycologia,2001,40(3):228-233.
[85]Codd G A.Cyanobacterial toxins, the perception of water quality and the prioritization of eutrophication control[J]. Ecological Engineering,2000,16:51-60.
[86]Codd G A, Morrison L R, Metcalf J S.Cyanobacterial toxins:risk management for health protection[J]. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology,2004,203(3):264-272.
[87]Dietrich D. Ioeger S.Guidance values for microcystins in water and cyanobacterial supplement-products (blue green algal supplements):a reasonable or misguided approach?[J]. Pharmacology & Toxicology,2004,203(3):273-289.
[88]Azevedo S M, Carmichael W W, Jochimsen E M. et al.Human intoxication by microcystins during renal dialysis treatment in Caruaru-Brazil[J].Toxicology,2002,181:441-446.
[89]朱光灿.饮用水中微囊藻毒素降解机理与去除技术研究[D].南京：东南大学博士论文,2003.
[90]赵玉丽,李杏放.饮用水消毒副产物：化学特征与毒性[J].环境化学,2011,30(1)：20-33.
[91]Krasner S W, Weinberg H S, Richardson S D, et al.Occurrence of anew generation of disinfection by-products[J].Environmental Science & Technology,2006,40(23):7175-7185.
[92]Weisel C P, Kim H, Haltmeier P, et al.Exposure estimates to disinfection by-products of chlorinated drinking water[J].Environmental Health Perspective,1999,107(2):103-110.
[93]Malliarou E, Collins C, Graham N, et al.Haloacetic acids in drinking water in the United Kingdom[J]. Water Research,2005,39(12):2722-2730.
[94]Egorov A I, Tereschenko A A, Altshul L M, et al. Exposures to drinking water chlorination by-products in a Russian city[J].International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health,2003,206(6):539-551.
[95]Zhou H, Zhang X J, Wang Z S.Occurrence of haloacetic acids in drinking water in certain cities of China[J].Biomedical and Environmental Sciences,2004,17:299-308.
[96]勇建,牟世芬,林爱武,等.北京市饮用水中溴酸盐、卤代乙酸及高氯酸盐研究[J].环境科学,2004,25(2)：51-55.
[97]魏建荣,王振刚,郭新彪,等.生活饮用水中消毒副产物的分布水平[J].环境与健康杂志,2004,21(1)：33-37.
[98]Meier J R, Blazak W F, Knohl R B.Mutagenic and clastogenic properties of 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone:a potent bacterial mutagen in drinking water[J].Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis,1987,10(4):411-424.
[99]鲁文清,刘爱林.饮用水消毒副产物研究进展[J].癌变畸变突变,2007,19(3)：181-183.
[100]Smeds A,Vartiainen T, Maki P J, et al.Concentrations of Ames mutagenic chlorohydroxyfuranones and related compounds in drinking waters[J].Environmental Science & Technology,1997,31 (4):1033-039.
[101]Morimoto K, Koizumi A.Trihalomethanes induce sister chromatid exchanges in human lymphocytes in vitro and mouse bone marrow cells in vivo[J].Environmental Research,1983, 32(1):72-79.
[102]Fujie K, Aoki T.Acute and subacute cyto-gentic effect of the trichalmethanes on rat hone marrow cells is vivo[J].Mutation Research,1990,242:111-118.
[103]Gottlieb M S, Carr J K. Case control cancer mortality study and chlorination of drinking water in Louisiana[J].Environmental Health Perspect,1982,46:169-177.
[104]Bull R J, Sanchez I M, Nelson M A, et al.Liver tumor induction in B6C3F1 mice by dichloroacetate and trichloroacetate[J].Toxicology,1990,63(3):341-359.
[105]DeAngelo A B, Daniel F B, Stober J A, et al.The carcinogenicity of dichloroacetic acid in the male B6C3F1 mouse[J].Fundamental and Applied Toxicology,1991,16(2):337-347.
[106]Dodds L, King W, Woolcott C, et al. Trihalomethanes in public water supplies and adverse birth outcomes[J]. Epidemiology,1999,3:233-237.
[107]Hunter E S, Rogers E H, Schmid J E, et al. Comparative effects of haloacetic acids in whole embryo culture[J].Teratology,1996,54:57-64.
[108]Robertson P K J, Lawton L A, Munch B, et al.Destruction of cyanobacterial toxins by semicoductor photocatalysis[J].Chemical Communications,1997,4:393-394.
[109]刘文君,贺北平,曹莉莉.饮用水中消毒副产物卤乙酸(HAAs)测定方法研究[J],给水排水,2004,30(8)：38-41
[110]伍海辉.预氯化消毒副产物生成特性和去除机理研究[D].上海：同济大学博士论文,2006.
[111]郑丙辉,罗锦洪,付青,等.基于人体健康风险的水污染事件污染物安全阈值研究[J].环境科学,2012,33(2)：337-341.
[112]US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA).Guidelines for authors of EPA office of water health advisories for drinking water contaminants[R].Washington D C:US EPA,1989:24-30.
[113]US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA).Guidelines for authors of EPA office of water health advisories for drinking water contaminants[M].Boca Raton:Lewis Publishers,1993:165-173.
[114]罗锦洪,郑丙辉,付青,等.基于人体健康风险的水污染事件遗传性致癌物安全浓度研究[J].环境科学,2012,33(2)：342-345.
[115]US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA).Guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment[R]. Washingtion DC:Office of Health and Environmental Assessment,2005:88-129.
[116]Bos P M J, Baars B J, Van R M T M. Risk assessment of peak exposure to genotoxic carcinogens:a pragmatic approach[J].Toxicology Letters,2004,151(1):43-50.
[117]李丽娜.上海市多介质环境中持久性毒害污染物的健康风险评价[D].上海：华东师范大 学博士论文,2007.
[118]Fawell J K, James C P, James H A. Toxins from Blue-Green Algae:Toxicological Assessment of Microcystin-LR and a Method for its Determination in Water[J].Foundation for Water Research, Marlow, England,1993.
[119]Yoshida T Y, Makita S. Acute oral toxicity of microcystin-LR, a cyanobacterial hepatotoxin in mice[J] Journal of Natural Toxins,1997,5:91-95.
[120]Ito E, Kondo F, Harada K L. Hepatic necrosis in aged mice by oral administration of microcystin-LR[J].Toxicon,1997,35(2):231-239.
[121]Heinze R.Toxicity of the cyanobacterial toxin microcystin-LR to rats after 28 days intake with the drinking water[J].Environmental Toxicology,1999.14(1):57-60.
[122]Falconer I R, Burch M D, Steffensen D A, et al. Toxicity of the blue-green alga (cyanobacterium) Microcystis aeruginosa in drinking water to growing pigs, as an animal model for human injury and risk assessment[J].Environmental Toxicology,1994,9,131-139.
[123]Pilotto L S, Douglas R M, Burch M D, et al. Health effects of exposure to cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) during recreational water-related activities[J].Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health.1997,21(6):562-566.
[124]Pilotto L S, Klewer E V, Davies R D, et al. Cyanobacterial (blue-green algae) contamination in drinking water and perinatal outcomes[J].Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health.1999,23(2):154-158.
[125]Fleming L E, Rivero C, Burns J,et al.Blue green algal (cyanobacterial) toxins, surface drinking water and liver cancer in Florida[J].Harmful Algae,2002,1(2):157-168.
[126]Wang W Y, Ye B X, Yang L S, et al. Risk assessment on disinfection by-products of drinking water of different water sources and disinfection processes[J].Environment International,2007,33:219-225.
[127]American Public Health Association (APHA).Standard Methods for the examination of water and wastewater [M].Washington DC:American public health association,1998:355-378.
[128]Panyapinyopol B, Marhaba T F, Kanokkantapong V, et al.Characterization of precursors to trihalomethanes formation in Bangkok source water[J].Journal of Hazard Material, 2005,B 120:229-236.
[129]Leenheer J A. Comprehensive approach to preparative isolation and fractionation of dissolved organic carbon from natural waters and wastewaters[J].Environmental Science & Technology,1981,15(5):578-587.
[130]Huang W J, Yeh H H.The effect of organic characteristics and bromide on disinfection by-products formation by chlorination[J].Journal of Environmental Science and Health, 1997,A32:2311-2336.
[131]Wang L S, Hu H Y, Wang C. Effect of Ammonia nitrogen and dissolved Organic Matter fraction on the genotoxicity of wastewater effluent during chlorine disinfection[J].Environmental Science & Technology,2007,41:160-165.
[132]孙伟华.蓝藻暴发期水源水污染物征及饮用水安全保障技术研究[D].上海：上海师范大学硕士论文,2009.
[133]Zheng L, Xie Y, Li Y L, et al. Variation of intracellular and extracellular Microcystins in a shallow, hypereutrophic subtropical Chinese Lake with dense cyanobacterial blooms[J].Bulletin Environmental Contamination Toxicology,2004,73:698-706.
[134]Marhaba T F, Van D. The variation of mass and disinfection by-product formation potential of dissolved organic matter fractions along a conventional surface water treatment plant[J].Journal of hazard materal,2000,74(3):133-147.
[135]Nikolaou A D, Lekkas T D. The role of natural organic matter during formation of chlorination by-product:a review[J].Acta hydrochimica et hydrobiological,2001,29(2-3),63-77.
[140]Donohue J M, Lipscomb J C. Health advisory values for drinking water contaminants and the methodology for determining acute exposure values[J].Science of The Total Environment,2002,288(1-2):43-49.
[141]田裘学.健康风险评价的基本内容与方法[J].1997,10(4)：32-36.
[142]毛小荃,刘阳生.国内外环境风险评价研究进展[J].应用基础与工程科学学报,2003,11(3)：266-273.
[143]潘自强.环境危害评价[M].北京：原子能出版社,1991,1-50.
[144]高继军,张力平,黄圣彪,等.北京市饮用水源水重金属污染物健康风险的初步评价[J].2004,25(2)：47-50.
[145]Paustenbach D J, Finley B L, Long T F. The eritical role of house dust in understanding the hazards posed by contaminated soil [J]. International Journal of Toxicology,1997,16:339-362.
[146]王永杰,贾东红,孟庆宝,等.健康风险评价中的不确定性分析[J].环境工程,2003,21(6)：66-69.
[2]曾光明,卓利,钟政林,等.水环境健康风险评价模型[J].水科学进展,1998,9(3)：212-217.
[3]Carmichael W W.Liver failure and human deaths at a haemodialysis center in Brazil: microcystins as a major contributing factor[J].Harmful Algae News,1996,15:11-13.
[4]秦伯强,王小冬,汤祥明,等.太湖富营养化与蓝藻水华引起的饮用水危机-原因与对策[J].地球科学进展,2007,22(9)：896-906.
[5]殷福才,张之源.巢湖富营养化研究进展[J].湖泊科学,2003,15(4)：377-384.
[6]柘元蒙.滇池富营养化现状、趋势及其综合防治对策[J].云南环境科学,2002,21(1)：35-38.
[7]韩涛,彭文启,李怀恩,等.洱海水体富营养化的演变及其研究进展[J].中国水利水电科学研究院学报,2005,3(1)：71-73.
[8]王崇.基于细胞和群落特征的湖泊水华预警因子研究[D].上海：上海交通大学博士论文,2010.
[9]鄂学礼,凌波.饮水污染对健康的影响[J].中国卫生工程学,2006,5(1)：3-5.
[10]隋少峰,孔凡玲,罗启芳.饮用水源水藻类繁殖的危害及处理[J].中国卫生工程学,2005,4(1)：46-49.
[11]Howard A. Problem cyanobacterial blooms:explanation and simulation modeling [J].Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers,1994,19(2):213-224.
[12]Reynolds C S, Callow J A. Cyanobacterial water-blooms[M]. Advances in botanical research. London:Academic Press,1987:67-143.
[13]孔繁翔,高光.大型浅水富营养化湖泊中蓝藻水华形成机理的思考[J].生态学报,2005,25(3)：589-595.
[14]Sellner K G, Doucette G J, Kirkpatrick G J.Harmful algal blooms:causes, impacts and detection[J]. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology,2003,30(7):383-406.
[15]Jewett E B, Lopez C B, Dortch Q, et al.National Assessment of Efforts to Predict and Respond to Harmful Algal Blooms in U. S. Waters Interim Report [R].Washington, DC: Interagency Working Group on Harmful Algal Blooms,2007.
[16]周名江.藻类暴发重点事件回顾[J].水工业市场,2008(8)：12-13.
[17]王崇,孔海南,王欣泽,等.有害藻华预警预测技术研究进展[J].应用生态学报,2009,20(11)：2813-2817.
[18]纪荣平,李先宁,吕锡武.太湖梅梁湾水源水中微囊藻毒素浓度的变化[J].环境监测管理与技术,2007,19(3)：20-22.
[19]纪荣平,吕锡武,李先宁,等.人工介质对水源水中藻类去除特性研究[J].环境科学,2007,28(1)：75-79.
[20]刘聚涛,杨永生,高俊峰,等.太湖蓝藻水华分级及其时空变化[J].长江流域资源与环境,2011,20(2)：156-160.
[21]National Research Council (NRC).Risk assessment in the Federal Government:managing the process[M]. Washington, DC:National Academy Press,1983:51-85.
[22]U.S.Environmental Protection Agency. EPA/630/R-00/004 Guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment[S]. Washington DC:1986.
[23]U.S.Environmental Protection Agency. EPA/630/R-98/003 Guidelines for mutagenicity risk assessment[S].Washington DC:1986.
[24]U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA/630/R-98/002 Guidelines for the health risk assessment of chemical mixtures[S]. Washington DC:1986.
[25]U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA/630/R-96/009 Guidelines for reproductive toxicity risk assessment[S].Washington DC:1996.
[26]U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA/540/1-89/002 Risk assessment guidance for superfund, volume (1):human health evaluation manual (part A)[S].Washington DC:1989.
[27]胡二邦.环境风险评价实用技术和方法[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社,2000：1-56.
[28]黄奕龙,王仰麟,谭启宇,等.城市饮用水源地水环境健康风险评价及风险管理[J].地学前缘,2006,13(3)：162-167.
[29]倪彬,王洪波,李旭东,等.湖泊饮用水源地水环境健康风险评价[J].环境科学研究,2010,23(1)：74-79.
[30]许川,舒为群,罗财红,等.三峡库区水环境多环芳烃和邻苯二甲酸酯类有机污染物健康风险评价[J].环境科学研究,2007,20(5)：57-60.
[31]孙树青,胡国华,王勇泽,等.湘江干流水环境健康风险评价[J].安全与环境学报,2006,6(2)：12-15.
[32]王伟琴.饮用水源水中微囊藻毒素的遗传毒性与健康风险评价[D].杭州：浙江大学硕士学 位论文,2010
[33]朱惠刚,施玮,吴静.水体藻类污染与健康[J].2000,18(1)：13-16.
[34]Judy A, Westrick D C, Fawell, J K, et al.The toxicity of cyanobacterial toxins in the mouse[J].Human Experimental Toxicology,1999,18(3):162-167.
[35]Werner J F. Toxicity of the cyanobacterial cylic heptapeptide toxins microcystin-LR and -RR in early life-stage of the African clawed frog[J]. Aquatic toxicology,2000,49:189-198.
[36]余国忠,刘军,王占生.藻细胞特性对净水工艺的影响研究[J].环境科学研究,2000,13(6)：56-59
[37]候翠荣.高藻高有机污染水源水处理技术研究[D].济南：山东大学博士论文,2008.
[38]左金龙.饮用水处理技术现状评价及技术集成研究[D].哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学博士论文,2007.
[39]Hart J, Fawell J k, Croll B.The fate of both intra and extracellular toxins during drinking water treatment J]. Water Supply,1998,16(1/2):611-616.
[40]Hall T, Hart J, Croll B, et al.Laboratory-scale investigation of algal toxin removal by water treatment[J].Journal of the chartered institution of water and environmental management,2000,14(2):143-149.
[41]Peterson H G, Hrudey S E, Cantin I A, et al.Physiological toxicity, cell membrane damage and the release of dissolved organic carbon and geosmin by Aphanizomenon flos-aquae after exposure to water treatment chemicals[J].Water Research,1995,29(6):1515-1523.
[42]吴和岩,郑力行,苏瑾,等.上海市供水系统微囊藻毒素LR含量调查[J].卫生研究,2005,(2)：152-154.
[43]Nicholson B C, Rositano J, Burch M D.Destruction of cyanobacterial peptide hepatotoxins by chlorine and chloramine[J]. Water Research,1994,28(6):1297-1303.
[44]Chorus I, Bartram J.Toxic cyanobacteria in water. E&FN SPon. London UK,1999.
[45]Lam A K Y, Prepas E E, Spink D, et al. Chemical control of hepatotoxic phytoplankton blooms:Implications for human health[J]. Water Research,1995,29(8):1845-1845.
[46]Yoo R S, Carmichael W W, Hoehn R C, et al. Cyanobacterial (Blue-Green Algal Toxins):A resource guide[R].Denver CO:American water works association research Foundation,1995.
[47]Codd G A.Cyanobacterial toxins, the perception of water quality and the prioritization of eutrophication control [J].Ecological Engineering,2000,16,51-60.
[48]Falconer I R.Algal toxins and human health, Handbook of Environmental Chemical[M]. Berlin,Springer-Verlag,1998:53-82.
[49]Anderson W B, Slawson R M, Mayfield C I. A review of drinking water associated endotoxin, including potential routes of human exposure[J]. Canada Journal of Microbiology,2002,48:567-587.
[50]施玮,蒋颂辉,朱惠刚.中国饮用水源水中藻类卫生标准的研究[J].卫生研究,2003,32(2)：97-99.
[51]王立宁,方晶云,马军.化学预氧化对藻类细胞结构的影响及其强化混凝除藻[J].东南大学学报(自然科学版),2005,35(S1)：182-185.
[52]黄湫淇,詹平.微囊藻毒素的细胞毒性及机制研究状况[J].预防医学情报杂志,2005,21(3)：304-306.
[53]Tsuji K, Setsuda S,Watanuki T, et al.Microcystin levels during 1992-1995 for Lakes Sagami and Tsukui-Japan[J]. Journal of Natural Toxins,1996,4(4):189-94.
[54]Harada K, Murata H, Qiang Z, et al.Mass spectrometric screening method for microcystins in cyanobacteria[J].Toxicon,1996,34:701-710.
[55]Jones G J, Orr P T.Release and degradation of microcystin following algicide treatment of a Microcystins aeruginos bloom in a recreational lake, as determined by HPLC and protein phosphatase inhibition assay [J].Water Research,1994,28:871-876
[56]唐承佳.太湖贡湖湾水源地微囊藻毒索和含硫衍生污染物研究[D].上海：华东师范大学,2010.
[57]张维吴,徐小清,丘昌强.水环境中微囊藻毒素研究进展[J].环境科学研究,2001,14(2)：57-61.
[58]金丽娜,张维昊,郑利,等.滇池水环境中微囊藻毒素的生物降解[J].中国环境科学,2002,22(2)：189-192.
[59]Feitz A J,Waite T D, Jones C J, et al.Photocatalytic degradation of the blue-green algal toxin microcystin-LR in a natural organic-aqueous matrix[J],Environmental Science & Technology. 1999,33:243-249.
[60]Duy T N, Lam P K S, Shaw G R.Toxicology and risk assessment of fresh water cyanobacterial (blue-green Algae) toxins in water[J].Reviews of Environmental Contamination & Toxicology,2000,163:113-186.
[61]Welker M, Steinberg C.Hepatoxic cyanobacteria in the shallow lake Muggelsee[J].Hydrobiologia,1999,408:263-268.
[62]Foremme H.Occurrence of (cyanobacteria) toxins-microcystins and anatoxin-a in Berlin water bodies with implications to human health and regulations[J]. Environmental Toxicology,2000,15(2):120-130.
[63]Hirooka E Y.Survey of microcystins in water between 1995 avid 1996 in Parana, Brazil using ELISA[J].Natural Toxins,1999,7(3):103-109.
[64]Lee T H.First report of microcystins in Taiwan[J].Toxiconlogy,1998,36(2):247-25.
[65]张维昊.滇池微囊藻毒素的环境化学行为研究[D].武汉：中国科学院水生生物研究所博士论文,2001.
[66]穆丽娜,陈传炜,俞顺章,等.太湖水体微囊藻毒素含量调查及其处理方法研究[J].中国公共卫生,2000,16(19)：803-804.
[67]陈艳,俞顺章,林玉娣,等.太湖流域水中微囊藻毒素含量调查[J].中国公共卫生,2002,18(12)：1455-1456.
[68]张志红,赵金明,蒋颂辉,等.淀山湖夏秋季微囊藻毒素-LR和类毒素-A分布状况及其影响因素[J].卫生研究,2003,32(4)：316-31.
[69]冯小刚.环境中微囊藻毒素的检测、提纯及其紫外光助催化降解的研究[D].南京：东南大学博士论文,2006.
[70]徐海滨,孙明,隋海霞,等.江西部阳湖微囊藻毒素污染及其在鱼体内的动态研究[J].卫生研究,2003,32(3)：192-194.
[71]Codd C A. Bell S C. Kaya K. et al. Cyanobacterial toxins, exposure routes and human health[J].European Journal of Phycology,1999,34:405-415.
[72]Williams D E, Craig M, Dawe S C, et al.14C-labeled microcystin-LR administered to Atlantic salmon via intraperitoneal injection provides in vivo evidence for covalent binding of microcystin-LR in salmon livers[J].Toxicology,1997,35:985-989.
[73]Bury N R, Newlands A D, Eddy F B, et al.In vivo and vitro intestinal transport of 3H-microcystin-LR, a cyanobacterial toxin, in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)[J].Aquatic Toxicology,1998,42:139-148.
[74]Amorim A, Vasconcelos V.Dynamics of microcystins in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis[J].Toxicology,1999,37:1041-1052.
[75]Fischer W J, Dietrich D R. Pathological and biochemical characterization of microcystin-induced hepatopancreas and kidney damage in carp (Cyprinus carpio)[J].Pharmacology & Toxicology.2000,164:73-81.
[76]Falconer I R.Tumor promotion and liver injury caused by oral consumption of cyanobacteria[J].Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality,1991,6:177-184.
[77]卫国荣,张占英,连民,等.微囊藻毒素LR对SD孕鼠胎盘的损伤作用[J].中国公共卫生,2002,18(8)：921-922.
[78]陈华,孙昌盛,胡志坚,等.饮水微囊藻毒素在大鼠肝癌发生期间对细胞增殖与凋亡的影响[J].癌变畸变突变,2002,14(4)：214-217.
[79]Ueno Y, Nagata S, Tsutsumi T, et al.Detection of microcystins, a blue-green algal hepatotoxin, in drinking water sampled in Haimen and Fusui, endemic areas of primary liver cancer in China, by highly sensitive immunoassay[J].Carcinogenesis,1996,17:1317-1321.
[80]Carmichael W W. Health effects of toxin-producing cyanobacteria[J].Human and Ecological Risk Assessment,2001,7(5):1393-1407.
[81]Zhou L, Yu H, Chen K.Relationship between microcystin in drinking water and colorectal cancer[J]. Biomedical and Environmental Science,2002,15(2):166-171.
[82]Hindman S, Favero M, Carson L, et al. Pyrogenic reactions during heinodialysis caused by extramural endotoxin[J].Lancet,1975,2:732-734.
[83]Gorham P R, Carmichael W W.Hazards of freshwater blue-greens(cyanobacteria) [M]. Oxford, Cambridge University Press,1988:403-431.
[84]Falconer I R.Toxic cyanobacterial bloom problem in Australia waters risks a impacts on human health[J].Phycologia,2001,40(3):228-233.
[85]Codd G A.Cyanobacterial toxins, the perception of water quality and the prioritization of eutrophication control[J]. Ecological Engineering,2000,16:51-60.
[86]Codd G A, Morrison L R, Metcalf J S.Cyanobacterial toxins:risk management for health protection[J]. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology,2004,203(3):264-272.
[87]Dietrich D. Ioeger S.Guidance values for microcystins in water and cyanobacterial supplement-products (blue green algal supplements):a reasonable or misguided approach?[J]. Pharmacology & Toxicology,2004,203(3):273-289.
[88]Azevedo S M, Carmichael W W, Jochimsen E M. et al.Human intoxication by microcystins during renal dialysis treatment in Caruaru-Brazil[J].Toxicology,2002,181:441-446.
[89]朱光灿.饮用水中微囊藻毒素降解机理与去除技术研究[D].南京：东南大学博士论文,2003.
[90]赵玉丽,李杏放.饮用水消毒副产物：化学特征与毒性[J].环境化学,2011,30(1)：20-33.
[91]Krasner S W, Weinberg H S, Richardson S D, et al.Occurrence of anew generation of disinfection by-products[J].Environmental Science & Technology,2006,40(23):7175-7185.
[92]Weisel C P, Kim H, Haltmeier P, et al.Exposure estimates to disinfection by-products of chlorinated drinking water[J].Environmental Health Perspective,1999,107(2):103-110.
[93]Malliarou E, Collins C, Graham N, et al.Haloacetic acids in drinking water in the United Kingdom[J]. Water Research,2005,39(12):2722-2730.
[94]Egorov A I, Tereschenko A A, Altshul L M, et al. Exposures to drinking water chlorination by-products in a Russian city[J].International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health,2003,206(6):539-551.
[95]Zhou H, Zhang X J, Wang Z S.Occurrence of haloacetic acids in drinking water in certain cities of China[J].Biomedical and Environmental Sciences,2004,17:299-308.
[96]勇建,牟世芬,林爱武,等.北京市饮用水中溴酸盐、卤代乙酸及高氯酸盐研究[J].环境科学,2004,25(2)：51-55.
[97]魏建荣,王振刚,郭新彪,等.生活饮用水中消毒副产物的分布水平[J].环境与健康杂志,2004,21(1)：33-37.
[98]Meier J R, Blazak W F, Knohl R B.Mutagenic and clastogenic properties of 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone:a potent bacterial mutagen in drinking water[J].Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis,1987,10(4):411-424.
[99]鲁文清,刘爱林.饮用水消毒副产物研究进展[J].癌变畸变突变,2007,19(3)：181-183.
[100]Smeds A,Vartiainen T, Maki P J, et al.Concentrations of Ames mutagenic chlorohydroxyfuranones and related compounds in drinking waters[J].Environmental Science & Technology,1997,31 (4):1033-039.
[101]Morimoto K, Koizumi A.Trihalomethanes induce sister chromatid exchanges in human lymphocytes in vitro and mouse bone marrow cells in vivo[J].Environmental Research,1983, 32(1):72-79.
[102]Fujie K, Aoki T.Acute and subacute cyto-gentic effect of the trichalmethanes on rat hone marrow cells is vivo[J].Mutation Research,1990,242:111-118.
[103]Gottlieb M S, Carr J K. Case control cancer mortality study and chlorination of drinking water in Louisiana[J].Environmental Health Perspect,1982,46:169-177.
[104]Bull R J, Sanchez I M, Nelson M A, et al.Liver tumor induction in B6C3F1 mice by dichloroacetate and trichloroacetate[J].Toxicology,1990,63(3):341-359.
[105]DeAngelo A B, Daniel F B, Stober J A, et al.The carcinogenicity of dichloroacetic acid in the male B6C3F1 mouse[J].Fundamental and Applied Toxicology,1991,16(2):337-347.
[106]Dodds L, King W, Woolcott C, et al. Trihalomethanes in public water supplies and adverse birth outcomes[J]. Epidemiology,1999,3:233-237.
[107]Hunter E S, Rogers E H, Schmid J E, et al. Comparative effects of haloacetic acids in whole embryo culture[J].Teratology,1996,54:57-64.
[108]Robertson P K J, Lawton L A, Munch B, et al.Destruction of cyanobacterial toxins by semicoductor photocatalysis[J].Chemical Communications,1997,4:393-394.
[109]刘文君,贺北平,曹莉莉.饮用水中消毒副产物卤乙酸(HAAs)测定方法研究[J],给水排水,2004,30(8)：38-41
[110]伍海辉.预氯化消毒副产物生成特性和去除机理研究[D].上海：同济大学博士论文,2006.
[111]郑丙辉,罗锦洪,付青,等.基于人体健康风险的水污染事件污染物安全阈值研究[J].环境科学,2012,33(2)：337-341.
[112]US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA).Guidelines for authors of EPA office of water health advisories for drinking water contaminants[R].Washington D C:US EPA,1989:24-30.
[113]US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA).Guidelines for authors of EPA office of water health advisories for drinking water contaminants[M].Boca Raton:Lewis Publishers,1993:165-173.
[114]罗锦洪,郑丙辉,付青,等.基于人体健康风险的水污染事件遗传性致癌物安全浓度研究[J].环境科学,2012,33(2)：342-345.
[115]US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA).Guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment[R]. Washingtion DC:Office of Health and Environmental Assessment,2005:88-129.
[116]Bos P M J, Baars B J, Van R M T M. Risk assessment of peak exposure to genotoxic carcinogens:a pragmatic approach[J].Toxicology Letters,2004,151(1):43-50.
[117]李丽娜.上海市多介质环境中持久性毒害污染物的健康风险评价[D].上海：华东师范大 学博士论文,2007.
[118]Fawell J K, James C P, James H A. Toxins from Blue-Green Algae:Toxicological Assessment of Microcystin-LR and a Method for its Determination in Water[J].Foundation for Water Research, Marlow, England,1993.
[119]Yoshida T Y, Makita S. Acute oral toxicity of microcystin-LR, a cyanobacterial hepatotoxin in mice[J] Journal of Natural Toxins,1997,5:91-95.
[120]Ito E, Kondo F, Harada K L. Hepatic necrosis in aged mice by oral administration of microcystin-LR[J].Toxicon,1997,35(2):231-239.
[121]Heinze R.Toxicity of the cyanobacterial toxin microcystin-LR to rats after 28 days intake with the drinking water[J].Environmental Toxicology,1999.14(1):57-60.
[122]Falconer I R, Burch M D, Steffensen D A, et al. Toxicity of the blue-green alga (cyanobacterium) Microcystis aeruginosa in drinking water to growing pigs, as an animal model for human injury and risk assessment[J].Environmental Toxicology,1994,9,131-139.
[123]Pilotto L S, Douglas R M, Burch M D, et al. Health effects of exposure to cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) during recreational water-related activities[J].Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health.1997,21(6):562-566.
[124]Pilotto L S, Klewer E V, Davies R D, et al. Cyanobacterial (blue-green algae) contamination in drinking water and perinatal outcomes[J].Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health.1999,23(2):154-158.
[125]Fleming L E, Rivero C, Burns J,et al.Blue green algal (cyanobacterial) toxins, surface drinking water and liver cancer in Florida[J].Harmful Algae,2002,1(2):157-168.
[126]Wang W Y, Ye B X, Yang L S, et al. Risk assessment on disinfection by-products of drinking water of different water sources and disinfection processes[J].Environment International,2007,33:219-225.
[127]American Public Health Association (APHA).Standard Methods for the examination of water and wastewater [M].Washington DC:American public health association,1998:355-378.
[128]Panyapinyopol B, Marhaba T F, Kanokkantapong V, et al.Characterization of precursors to trihalomethanes formation in Bangkok source water[J].Journal of Hazard Material, 2005,B 120:229-236.
[129]Leenheer J A. Comprehensive approach to preparative isolation and fractionation of dissolved organic carbon from natural waters and wastewaters[J].Environmental Science & Technology,1981,15(5):578-587.
[130]Huang W J, Yeh H H.The effect of organic characteristics and bromide on disinfection by-products formation by chlorination[J].Journal of Environmental Science and Health, 1997,A32:2311-2336.
[131]Wang L S, Hu H Y, Wang C. Effect of Ammonia nitrogen and dissolved Organic Matter fraction on the genotoxicity of wastewater effluent during chlorine disinfection[J].Environmental Science & Technology,2007,41:160-165.
[132]孙伟华.蓝藻暴发期水源水污染物征及饮用水安全保障技术研究[D].上海：上海师范大学硕士论文,2009.
[133]Zheng L, Xie Y, Li Y L, et al. Variation of intracellular and extracellular Microcystins in a shallow, hypereutrophic subtropical Chinese Lake with dense cyanobacterial blooms[J].Bulletin Environmental Contamination Toxicology,2004,73:698-706.
[134]Marhaba T F, Van D. The variation of mass and disinfection by-product formation potential of dissolved organic matter fractions along a conventional surface water treatment plant[J].Journal of hazard materal,2000,74(3):133-147.
[135]Nikolaou A D, Lekkas T D. The role of natural organic matter during formation of chlorination by-product:a review[J].Acta hydrochimica et hydrobiological,2001,29(2-3),63-77.
[140]Donohue J M, Lipscomb J C. Health advisory values for drinking water contaminants and the methodology for determining acute exposure values[J].Science of The Total Environment,2002,288(1-2):43-49.
[141]田裘学.健康风险评价的基本内容与方法[J].1997,10(4)：32-36.
[142]毛小荃,刘阳生.国内外环境风险评价研究进展[J].应用基础与工程科学学报,2003,11(3)：266-273.
[143]潘自强.环境危害评价[M].北京：原子能出版社,1991,1-50.
[144]高继军,张力平,黄圣彪,等.北京市饮用水源水重金属污染物健康风险的初步评价[J].2004,25(2)：47-50.
[145]Paustenbach D J, Finley B L, Long T F. The eritical role of house dust in understanding the hazards posed by contaminated soil [J]. International Journal of Toxicology,1997,16:339-362.
[146]王永杰,贾东红,孟庆宝,等.健康风险评价中的不确定性分析[J].环境工程,2003,21(6)：66-69.