晚清商务英语教学源流考镜
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摘要
经过不懈努力，我国商务英语专业已正式进入本科专业目录，商务英语教学由自发最终走向了自觉。但我国商务英语教学史的全面、系统研究至今阙如。学界在对近代英语教学史的研究中，已零星地旁及晚清英语教学中便已出现了的商务英语教学的史实，这些记述虽然在一定程度上弥补了商务英语教学史实方面的空白，具有较高的史料价值，但尚缺乏以近代商务英语教学为专门对象的历史考镜和系统研究。这在一定程度上反映了商务英语学界对近代商务英语教学研究意识的缺失，不利于我国完整的商务英语教学史的构建。鉴于此，本研究本着拂去历史尘埃、逼近历史事实、还复历史原貌的宗旨，对我国晚清商务英语教学的源流进行考察。
本文以晚清社会需求为背景，以晚清商务英语教学为切入点，以晚清商务英语教学发展史及商务英语教材为核心，以晚清商务英语教学不同主体、课程类别及教学法为脉络，既从宏观上勾勒晚清商务英语教学的全貌和发展轨迹，又从微观上聚焦晚清各教学主体进行的商务英语教学，并在上述脉络下探讨晚清商务英语语言的变迁及晚清商务英语教学与近代社会文化变迁的互动，较全面地考察晚清各类商务英语教材的演进、特点及编写依据和体例等，以窥其精微奥义。概言之，本研究首次对晚清商务英语教学进行源流考镜，主要研究问题如下：
第一、晚清商务英语教学是如何演进的？其演进呈现出哪些特点？
这一研究问题可细分为：晚清商务英语教学有哪些主体？各类商务英语教学的开展基于何种动因？各自的课程设置有何特点？各类学校开设的商务英语教学有何作用与不足？采用了哪些教学方法？晚清商务英语课程的属性是什么？晚清商务英语教育中是否有教育规划？表现在哪些方面？
第二、晚清民间非标准商务英语语言是如何起源、发展及消亡的？有何语言属性及社会文化涵义？
第三、晚清商务英语教材是如何演进的？有何特点、编写依据和编写体例？如何评价晚清商务英语教材？
本研究涉及语言学、历史学和教育学等多个相关学术领域，以英语教学研究为主线，借鉴历史学和教育学等相关学科的知识，采取历史文献研究法，钩沉、爬梳、筛选、甄别、整理相关史料，对晚清商务英语教学源流进行考镜，并在此基础上，采取比较分析法、案例分析法和内容分析法，对晚清商务英语教学的各个方面进行分析和评价。本研究主要有以下发现和结论：
首先，关于晚清商务英语教学
第一、晚清商务英语教学主体和教学动因。晚清官办学堂的商务英语教学是在被动开放形势下采取的一种主动意识，教会学校的商务英语教学是一种利益导向下的世俗化与功利化的选择，民间商务英语教学是在一种以需求为导向的非正规教学。这种办学动因的差异性体现了晚清英语人才需求的差异性。
第二、晚清商务英语课程设置及教学。（1）晚清官办学校出现了内容型商务英语课程教学和融商务专业知识于英语语言教学的端倪，其商务语言翻译实践开我国近代西方商学著作汉译之先河和商务经济类书籍汉译之新风。（2）晚清教会学校的商务英语教学从最初以内容为基础的专业英语课程教学发展到语言技能和商务内容型商务英语教学，再发展到商务英语课程的全面拓展，最后到基于近代化职业教育的商务英语教学。（3）晚清民间商务英语教学以英语语言技能和商贸内容为主，具有较强的实用性、职业性和技能性。（4）清末学制改革使官办学堂商务英语教学日趋式微，但也使商务英语的职业教育成为可能。
第三、晚清商务英语教学属性、教学方法及教育规划。（1）晚清商务英语教学从前制度化教育转向制度化教育，存在着正规教学、非正规教学和非正式商务英语学习。（2）存在着技能型和内容型商务英语课程。（3）语法翻译法、古安系列教学法、内容教学法和洋泾浜英语教学法在不同学校得以采用，各具特定的历史时代性、适应性和交际性。（4）晚清商务英语教学在教育主体、课程设置、教材选用与编审等方面体现了一定的教育规划，其教育规划经历了从自发到自觉的过程。
第四、晚清商务英语教学的影响及不足。其影响表现在四个方面：（1）开我国商务英语教学之先河，教学内容具有较强的需求导向性；（2）培养了大批社会急需的商务英语人才，见证并在一定程度上推动了中国近代化进程；（3）是我国复合型外语人才培养模式的最早实践；（4）是晚清社会心态日趋开放的晴雨表和风向标。不足表现在四个方面：（1）官办外语学堂的商务英语教学只是零星地带有些许商务英语教学的性质或成分，并未形成有规模的普遍的现象；（2）教会学校的教学是教会教育传教的一种世俗化和功利化选择；（3）民间商务英语教学具有很强的自发性、盲目性、纯粹工具性动机；（4）基本未深入西学内涵，文化教育意识严重缺失，大多数学习者难以从思想层面引领近代化进程。
其次，关于晚清民间早期商务英语语言
第一、CPE与民间早期商务英语的关系。盛行于我国通商口岸的中国洋泾浜英语（CPE）具有明显的商务英语特点，是一种为口岸商贸服务的英语变体。
第二、民间早期商务英语的演变。（1）广州英语和上海洋泾浜英语分别是广州贸易制度和条约制度时期的中西商贸通用语。（2）CPE逐渐失去了其存在和发展的社会、物质及思想基础，最终退出中西商贸交往的历史舞台。
第三、民间早期商务英语的语言属性。（1）从社会语言学来看，CPE是不同语言集团在商贸往来中产生的贸易混合语，其产生方式有别于传统的语言谱系。（2）从二语习得的视角来看，CPE是一种有限的二语习得，其形成与中介语的石化有相似之处；CPE的演变与发展基本符合中介语理论。
第四、晚清民间早期商务英语的社会文化意义。早期商务英语打上了社会等级的烙印，折射出了早期中西商贸交往的轨迹和中国社会的变迁，反映了口岸城市对外语和对西方文化的认识和态度的变化，反映了晚清社会的工具主义倾向和跨文化交际意识的缺失。
最后，关于晚清商务英语教材
第一、晚清商务英语教材的演进特点：从词汇会话集向写作及会话教材演变，从“汉字注音”向国际音标注音演进，从“词汇型”转向“句字型”，从CPE转向标准英语，从“准商务英语教材”转向专门的商务英语教材，学习方法从机械记忆转向摹仿、推类、循序而进。
第二、晚清商务英语教材的特点、编写依据和体例。（1）特点主要表现在：商务内容多样化，实用性强，便于自修，跨文化交际意识的萌芽，编写者水平较高。（2）对商务英语重要性的认识、对商务英语语言和商务英语学习的认识分别是其编写的实践和理论依据。（3）编写体例：以义类编纂法编写词汇集，以话题型散点式编纂法编写会话教材，以文选型类聚编写法编纂写作教材。
第三、晚清商务英语教材的重要意义：（1）满足了学习商务英语知识和掌握商务英语交际技能的需要；（2）是我国商务英语教材建设的滥觞，反映了晚清商务英语教材建设的启蒙诉求。（3）见证了晚清洋泾浜式商务英语语言的兴衰，实录了中国洋泾浜英语的大量语料；（4）反映了晚清商贸语言接触的历史和文化，是研究晚清中西语言接触和中西商贸文化交流史的重要依据。（5）对民国及以后的商务英语教材建设产生了重要影响。
晚清商务英语教材尚有诸多不足：（1）有些教材内容安排缺乏科学合理的思路；（2）所有教材缺乏语言学理论或外语教学理论的指导，教材内容缺乏深层次处理；（3）教材的用词、句式、风格、语气过于正式；（4）绝大部分教材缺乏助读系统；（5）多数教材较少涉及中西文化差异及跨文化商务交际。
本文对晚清商务英语教学源流的考镜，从宏观上梳理了其脉络和演进历程，勾勒了其发展全貌，从微观上考察了课程、教学法、教育规划、教材等，对晚清商务英语教学的影响与不足进行了评价，试图呈现一幅有血有肉的晚清商务英语教学发展的完整画卷。
After years of unremitting efforts, business English (BE) has formally become anundergraduate major in universities and BE teaching develops from a spontaneousstate to a conscious stage. Nevertheless, no systematic research has ever been made intothe historical development of business English teaching in China. Some historical factsregarding BE teaching in late Qing Dynasty have been mentioned by researchers ofvarious fields in their historical studies of the English teaching in modern China. Whilethe sporadic historical facts, to some extent, fill the gaps of providing some facts aboutthe history of BE teaching, yet no systematic study with the history of BE teaching as theresearch focus has ever been conducted. This reflects to a certain extent the lack of theconsciousness of studying the history of BE teaching, and is disadvantageous to theformation of the intact history of China’s BE teaching. For this reason, this research, withthe main purpose of finding the “real” history from historical ashes by accessing tohistorical facts, studies the origin and evolution of business English teaching in China.
This research, with the social needs of late Qing Dynasty as the research context,with the BE teaching of late Qing Dynasty as the starting point, and with the history ofBE teaching, evolution of business English language and BE materials development oflate Qing Dynasty as the focuses, offers a macro development and a micro study of theBE teaching in late Qing Dynasty, explores the evolution of business English languageand the social and cultural impacts of BE teaching, and studies the evolution,characteristics, principles and styles of BE teaching materials. The main researchquestions addressed are as follows:
1. How did the BE teaching in late Qing Dynasty evolve and what were its mainfeatures?
This research question may be subdivided into the following questions: Whatschools offered BE teaching in late Qing Dynasty? And what were their respectivemotives for offering BE teaching? What features did their respective course designs have?What roles did the BE teaching play and what weaknesses did it have? What teachingapproaches were adopted? What properties did the BE courses have? Was there anyeducation planning in the BE teaching in late Qing Dynasty? If yes, in which ways wasthe education planning reflected?
2. How did the Chinese Pidgin English (CPE) as the business English language mainly for non-governmental business transaction originate and evolve in late QingDynasty? What were its linguistic features and socio-cultural impacts?
3. How did the BE teaching materials evolve in late Qing Dynasty? Whatcharacteristics, principles and styles did the then BE teaching materials have? How canthe business English teaching materials be evaluated?
This research involves linguistics, history and pedagogy. It takes BE teaching as themain research theme with reference to historic and pedagogical research methods. Thedissertation uses historic research method to conduct a textural research of the origin andevolution of BE teaching of late Qing Dynasty, and uses comparative method, case studyand content analysis method to analyze and evaluate the BE teaching and materialsdevelopment of late Qing Dynasty. The research has mainly got the following results.
1. About the evolution and features of BE teaching of late Qing Dynasty
(1) BE teaching schools and their respective motives of late Qing Dynasty. The BEteaching in public schools exhibited an initiative in the forced opening-up context; the BEteaching in the missionary schools was an interests-oriented secular and utilitarian choice;and the BE teaching in private schools was a needs-driven non-formal teaching. Thedifference in the motives of BE teaching reflected the difference of the needs for BEtalents.
(2) BE course design and teaching of late Qing Dynasty.(a) Public schools offeredcontent-based BE courses and English language courses with some business knowledge,and the business translation practice in public schools became the pioneer of translatingwestern business works into Chinese.(b) The BE course design in missionary schoolsevolved from content-based ESP courses to skill-based and content-based BE courseswhich were further expanded and deepened with the development of missionaryschools and were finally developed into modern BE teaching based on professionaleducation.(c) The BE teaching in private schools centered around English languageskills and business and trade knowledge, and was skill-based, vocation-oriented andhence very practical.(d) The educational system reform of late Qing Dynastycontributed to the gradual decline of BE teaching in public schools, and also made theBE vocational education possible.
(3) The BE teaching properties, teaching approaches, and education planning oflate Qing Dynasty.(a) BE teaching evolved from pre-institutional education toinstitutional education, there existing formal and non-formal BE education andinformal BE learning.(b) BE teaching in late Qing Dynasty included skill-based andcontent-based BE courses.(c) Such teaching approaches as Grammar-translation method, Gouin Series Method, content-based instruction (CBI) and the pidgin Englishteaching method were adopted in the BE teaching in late Qing Dynasty and had theirspecific historicity, appropriateness and communication-orientation.(d) The educationplanning in the BE teaching in late Qing Dynasty evolved from spontaneity toconsciousness, and was reflected in the educational administrative organization, coursedesign, and textbook editing, choosing and examining management.
(4) The roles and weaknesses of the BE teaching of late Qing Dynasty. Thehistorical significance:(a) The BE teaching of late Qing Dynasty offering stronglyneeds-oriented skill-based and content-based BE courses pioneered the BE teaching inChina;(b) The BE teaching of late Qing Dynasty cultivated a good number of talentsbadly needed by the then society, and witnessed and accelerated to a certain extent themodernization process;(c) The BE teaching of late Qing Dynasty was the earliestpractice in China to cultivate interdisciplinary talents;(d) The BE teaching of late QingDynasty was a barometer and manifestation of the gradually open social mentality.
However, due to the historical limitations, there were some weaknesses in thethen BE teaching:(a) The BE teaching in public schools was sporadic and occurring atirregular points in time, and didn’t grow into large scale and common phenomenon.(b)The teaching in missionary schools was all the time a secular and utilitarian choice ofits missionary teaching with religious nature.(c) The BE teaching in private schoolswas of strong spontaneity, blindness and pure instrumental motive.(d) Most of the BElearners could only participate in the modernization process on the practice levelrather than lead the modernization process in the sense of ideology and value due tothe lack of teaching of the essence of the western learning and lack of culturalawareness in the BE teaching of late Qing Dynasty.
2. About the business English language of late Qing Dynasty
(1) The relationship between CPE and the early BE. CPE widely used in thecoastal trading ports was closely related to and obviously characteristic of businessEnglish, serving the Sino-western trade and commerce in the trading ports.
(2) The evolution of the early business English.(a) Canton English and ShanghaiPidgin English were the lingua franca for Sino-western trade and commerce in theCanton System and Treaty System respectively.(b) With the gradual disappearing ofthe internal and external conditions contributing to its origin and development, theloss of the social, physical and mental basis of its existence and development resultedin CPE’s attrition and final withdrawal from Sino-western business transaction.
(3) The linguistic property of the early business English.(a) In terms of social linguistics, CPE was a mixed language used in trade transaction between variouslanguage groups, and the way in which CPE came into being differed from thetraditional language family tree.(b) From the perspective of the second languageacquisition, CPE was a limited second language acquisition with its formationsomewhat similar to the fossilization of the interlanguage; the CPE evolution basicallycomplied with the Interlanguage Theory.
(4) The socio-cultural implications of early business English. CPE was markedwith social stigma, witnessed the developments of early Sino-western businesstransaction and the social changes, reflected the changes in the attitudes towardforeign languages and western cultures in the trading ports, and the instrumentalism,deficiency of cross-cultural awareness, and conservative social mentality of the thensociety.
3. About the BE teaching materials of late Qing Dynasty
(1) The evolution of the BE teaching materials of late Qing Dynasty. The evolutionof the early BE teaching materials was characterized by “five changes”, i.e. change frombooks of mainly vocabulary and some conversation in the enlightenment period to BEtextbooks of writing and conversation in the initial development period; from books withthe English pronunciation indicated in Chinese to books with IPA pronunciation; fromword-centered to sentence-centered BE books; from materials in CPE to materials instandard English; from quasi-BE textbooks with some daily English plus some businessEnglish to business-only BE textbooks; and from advocating learning method of rotelearning to the combination of imitating, analogous inference and progressive learning.
(2) The features, basis and styles of BE teaching materials of late Qing Dynasty.(a)BE teaching materials were characterized by the diverse, practical and well-targetedbusiness topics and situations, design of self-instructional textbooks written by versatileauthors, and the initial awareness of cross-cultural communication.(b) Theunderstanding of the importance of BE and the understanding of the nature of businessEnglish and BE learning became respectively the practical and theoretical bases of BEcoursebooks development.(c) BE coursebooks were designed in three ways, i.e.meaning category used for compiling books of BE vocabulary, scattered arrangementused for compiling topic-based BE conversation coursebooks, and categories used forcompiling specimen-based BE writing coursebooks.
(3) Evaluation of BE teaching materials of late Qing Dynasty. The BEcoursebooks of late Qing Dynasty had great significance:(a) The BE coursebooks of lateQing Dynasty met the learner’s needs for learning BE knowledge and mastering BE communicative skills;(b) The BE coursebooks of late Qing Dynasty were the earliest BEmaterials development in China, reflecting the earliest appeal for the early BE materialsdevelopment and indicating the long history of BE teaching and materials development;(c) The BE coursebooks of late Qing Dynasty witnessed the rise and fall of thepidgin-like business English in late Qing Dynasty, and recorded actual CPE data;(d) TheBE coursebooks of late Qing Dynasty reflected the history and culture of businesslanguage contact in late Qing Dynasty, and so became a very important basis for studyingSino-western language contact and the history of Sino-western business cultural exchange;(e) The BE coursebooks of late Qing Dynasty had a great impact on BE coursebooksdevelopment in Republican China (1912-1949) and thereafter.
However, owing to various reasons, there existed many weaknesses in the BEcoursebooks of late Qing Dynasty.(a) Some of the then coursebooks were non-scientificand unreasonable in contents arrangement;(b) All the then coursebooks lacked theguidance of linguistic theories or English language teaching theories, and so no in-depthprocessing was made of the materials included in the BE coursesbooks;(c) The diction,sentences, styles, language and tone of the BE coursebooks were too formal and rigid;(d)Most of the BE coursebooks lacked learning supporting system;(e) The Chinese andwestern cultural differences and cross-cultural business communication were seldomintroduced in most of the BE coursebooks.
This research into the origin and evolution of BE teaching of late Qing Dynastymakes a comprehensive and macro study of the overall development of BE teaching inlate Qing Dynasty, putting the sporadic historical facts together into a complete processand a superb panorama, makes a micro and more focused study of the BE course design,course types, teaching approaches, education planning, and BE teaching materialsdevelopment, etc. of late Qing Dynasty, and makes a brief evaluation of the roles, impactsand socio-cultural implications of BE teaching of late Qing Dynasty, hoping to well fleshout a complete picture of the evolution of BE teaching in late Qing Dynasty.
本文以晚清社会需求为背景，以晚清商务英语教学为切入点，以晚清商务英语教学发展史及商务英语教材为核心，以晚清商务英语教学不同主体、课程类别及教学法为脉络，既从宏观上勾勒晚清商务英语教学的全貌和发展轨迹，又从微观上聚焦晚清各教学主体进行的商务英语教学，并在上述脉络下探讨晚清商务英语语言的变迁及晚清商务英语教学与近代社会文化变迁的互动，较全面地考察晚清各类商务英语教材的演进、特点及编写依据和体例等，以窥其精微奥义。概言之，本研究首次对晚清商务英语教学进行源流考镜，主要研究问题如下：
第一、晚清商务英语教学是如何演进的？其演进呈现出哪些特点？
这一研究问题可细分为：晚清商务英语教学有哪些主体？各类商务英语教学的开展基于何种动因？各自的课程设置有何特点？各类学校开设的商务英语教学有何作用与不足？采用了哪些教学方法？晚清商务英语课程的属性是什么？晚清商务英语教育中是否有教育规划？表现在哪些方面？
第二、晚清民间非标准商务英语语言是如何起源、发展及消亡的？有何语言属性及社会文化涵义？
第三、晚清商务英语教材是如何演进的？有何特点、编写依据和编写体例？如何评价晚清商务英语教材？
本研究涉及语言学、历史学和教育学等多个相关学术领域，以英语教学研究为主线，借鉴历史学和教育学等相关学科的知识，采取历史文献研究法，钩沉、爬梳、筛选、甄别、整理相关史料，对晚清商务英语教学源流进行考镜，并在此基础上，采取比较分析法、案例分析法和内容分析法，对晚清商务英语教学的各个方面进行分析和评价。本研究主要有以下发现和结论：
首先，关于晚清商务英语教学
第一、晚清商务英语教学主体和教学动因。晚清官办学堂的商务英语教学是在被动开放形势下采取的一种主动意识，教会学校的商务英语教学是一种利益导向下的世俗化与功利化的选择，民间商务英语教学是在一种以需求为导向的非正规教学。这种办学动因的差异性体现了晚清英语人才需求的差异性。
第二、晚清商务英语课程设置及教学。（1）晚清官办学校出现了内容型商务英语课程教学和融商务专业知识于英语语言教学的端倪，其商务语言翻译实践开我国近代西方商学著作汉译之先河和商务经济类书籍汉译之新风。（2）晚清教会学校的商务英语教学从最初以内容为基础的专业英语课程教学发展到语言技能和商务内容型商务英语教学，再发展到商务英语课程的全面拓展，最后到基于近代化职业教育的商务英语教学。（3）晚清民间商务英语教学以英语语言技能和商贸内容为主，具有较强的实用性、职业性和技能性。（4）清末学制改革使官办学堂商务英语教学日趋式微，但也使商务英语的职业教育成为可能。
第三、晚清商务英语教学属性、教学方法及教育规划。（1）晚清商务英语教学从前制度化教育转向制度化教育，存在着正规教学、非正规教学和非正式商务英语学习。（2）存在着技能型和内容型商务英语课程。（3）语法翻译法、古安系列教学法、内容教学法和洋泾浜英语教学法在不同学校得以采用，各具特定的历史时代性、适应性和交际性。（4）晚清商务英语教学在教育主体、课程设置、教材选用与编审等方面体现了一定的教育规划，其教育规划经历了从自发到自觉的过程。
第四、晚清商务英语教学的影响及不足。其影响表现在四个方面：（1）开我国商务英语教学之先河，教学内容具有较强的需求导向性；（2）培养了大批社会急需的商务英语人才，见证并在一定程度上推动了中国近代化进程；（3）是我国复合型外语人才培养模式的最早实践；（4）是晚清社会心态日趋开放的晴雨表和风向标。不足表现在四个方面：（1）官办外语学堂的商务英语教学只是零星地带有些许商务英语教学的性质或成分，并未形成有规模的普遍的现象；（2）教会学校的教学是教会教育传教的一种世俗化和功利化选择；（3）民间商务英语教学具有很强的自发性、盲目性、纯粹工具性动机；（4）基本未深入西学内涵，文化教育意识严重缺失，大多数学习者难以从思想层面引领近代化进程。
其次，关于晚清民间早期商务英语语言
第一、CPE与民间早期商务英语的关系。盛行于我国通商口岸的中国洋泾浜英语（CPE）具有明显的商务英语特点，是一种为口岸商贸服务的英语变体。
第二、民间早期商务英语的演变。（1）广州英语和上海洋泾浜英语分别是广州贸易制度和条约制度时期的中西商贸通用语。（2）CPE逐渐失去了其存在和发展的社会、物质及思想基础，最终退出中西商贸交往的历史舞台。
第三、民间早期商务英语的语言属性。（1）从社会语言学来看，CPE是不同语言集团在商贸往来中产生的贸易混合语，其产生方式有别于传统的语言谱系。（2）从二语习得的视角来看，CPE是一种有限的二语习得，其形成与中介语的石化有相似之处；CPE的演变与发展基本符合中介语理论。
第四、晚清民间早期商务英语的社会文化意义。早期商务英语打上了社会等级的烙印，折射出了早期中西商贸交往的轨迹和中国社会的变迁，反映了口岸城市对外语和对西方文化的认识和态度的变化，反映了晚清社会的工具主义倾向和跨文化交际意识的缺失。
最后，关于晚清商务英语教材
第一、晚清商务英语教材的演进特点：从词汇会话集向写作及会话教材演变，从“汉字注音”向国际音标注音演进，从“词汇型”转向“句字型”，从CPE转向标准英语，从“准商务英语教材”转向专门的商务英语教材，学习方法从机械记忆转向摹仿、推类、循序而进。
第二、晚清商务英语教材的特点、编写依据和体例。（1）特点主要表现在：商务内容多样化，实用性强，便于自修，跨文化交际意识的萌芽，编写者水平较高。（2）对商务英语重要性的认识、对商务英语语言和商务英语学习的认识分别是其编写的实践和理论依据。（3）编写体例：以义类编纂法编写词汇集，以话题型散点式编纂法编写会话教材，以文选型类聚编写法编纂写作教材。
第三、晚清商务英语教材的重要意义：（1）满足了学习商务英语知识和掌握商务英语交际技能的需要；（2）是我国商务英语教材建设的滥觞，反映了晚清商务英语教材建设的启蒙诉求。（3）见证了晚清洋泾浜式商务英语语言的兴衰，实录了中国洋泾浜英语的大量语料；（4）反映了晚清商贸语言接触的历史和文化，是研究晚清中西语言接触和中西商贸文化交流史的重要依据。（5）对民国及以后的商务英语教材建设产生了重要影响。
晚清商务英语教材尚有诸多不足：（1）有些教材内容安排缺乏科学合理的思路；（2）所有教材缺乏语言学理论或外语教学理论的指导，教材内容缺乏深层次处理；（3）教材的用词、句式、风格、语气过于正式；（4）绝大部分教材缺乏助读系统；（5）多数教材较少涉及中西文化差异及跨文化商务交际。
本文对晚清商务英语教学源流的考镜，从宏观上梳理了其脉络和演进历程，勾勒了其发展全貌，从微观上考察了课程、教学法、教育规划、教材等，对晚清商务英语教学的影响与不足进行了评价，试图呈现一幅有血有肉的晚清商务英语教学发展的完整画卷。
After years of unremitting efforts, business English (BE) has formally become anundergraduate major in universities and BE teaching develops from a spontaneousstate to a conscious stage. Nevertheless, no systematic research has ever been made intothe historical development of business English teaching in China. Some historical factsregarding BE teaching in late Qing Dynasty have been mentioned by researchers ofvarious fields in their historical studies of the English teaching in modern China. Whilethe sporadic historical facts, to some extent, fill the gaps of providing some facts aboutthe history of BE teaching, yet no systematic study with the history of BE teaching as theresearch focus has ever been conducted. This reflects to a certain extent the lack of theconsciousness of studying the history of BE teaching, and is disadvantageous to theformation of the intact history of China’s BE teaching. For this reason, this research, withthe main purpose of finding the “real” history from historical ashes by accessing tohistorical facts, studies the origin and evolution of business English teaching in China.
This research, with the social needs of late Qing Dynasty as the research context,with the BE teaching of late Qing Dynasty as the starting point, and with the history ofBE teaching, evolution of business English language and BE materials development oflate Qing Dynasty as the focuses, offers a macro development and a micro study of theBE teaching in late Qing Dynasty, explores the evolution of business English languageand the social and cultural impacts of BE teaching, and studies the evolution,characteristics, principles and styles of BE teaching materials. The main researchquestions addressed are as follows:
1. How did the BE teaching in late Qing Dynasty evolve and what were its mainfeatures?
This research question may be subdivided into the following questions: Whatschools offered BE teaching in late Qing Dynasty? And what were their respectivemotives for offering BE teaching? What features did their respective course designs have?What roles did the BE teaching play and what weaknesses did it have? What teachingapproaches were adopted? What properties did the BE courses have? Was there anyeducation planning in the BE teaching in late Qing Dynasty? If yes, in which ways wasthe education planning reflected?
2. How did the Chinese Pidgin English (CPE) as the business English language mainly for non-governmental business transaction originate and evolve in late QingDynasty? What were its linguistic features and socio-cultural impacts?
3. How did the BE teaching materials evolve in late Qing Dynasty? Whatcharacteristics, principles and styles did the then BE teaching materials have? How canthe business English teaching materials be evaluated?
This research involves linguistics, history and pedagogy. It takes BE teaching as themain research theme with reference to historic and pedagogical research methods. Thedissertation uses historic research method to conduct a textural research of the origin andevolution of BE teaching of late Qing Dynasty, and uses comparative method, case studyand content analysis method to analyze and evaluate the BE teaching and materialsdevelopment of late Qing Dynasty. The research has mainly got the following results.
1. About the evolution and features of BE teaching of late Qing Dynasty
(1) BE teaching schools and their respective motives of late Qing Dynasty. The BEteaching in public schools exhibited an initiative in the forced opening-up context; the BEteaching in the missionary schools was an interests-oriented secular and utilitarian choice;and the BE teaching in private schools was a needs-driven non-formal teaching. Thedifference in the motives of BE teaching reflected the difference of the needs for BEtalents.
(2) BE course design and teaching of late Qing Dynasty.(a) Public schools offeredcontent-based BE courses and English language courses with some business knowledge,and the business translation practice in public schools became the pioneer of translatingwestern business works into Chinese.(b) The BE course design in missionary schoolsevolved from content-based ESP courses to skill-based and content-based BE courseswhich were further expanded and deepened with the development of missionaryschools and were finally developed into modern BE teaching based on professionaleducation.(c) The BE teaching in private schools centered around English languageskills and business and trade knowledge, and was skill-based, vocation-oriented andhence very practical.(d) The educational system reform of late Qing Dynastycontributed to the gradual decline of BE teaching in public schools, and also made theBE vocational education possible.
(3) The BE teaching properties, teaching approaches, and education planning oflate Qing Dynasty.(a) BE teaching evolved from pre-institutional education toinstitutional education, there existing formal and non-formal BE education andinformal BE learning.(b) BE teaching in late Qing Dynasty included skill-based andcontent-based BE courses.(c) Such teaching approaches as Grammar-translation method, Gouin Series Method, content-based instruction (CBI) and the pidgin Englishteaching method were adopted in the BE teaching in late Qing Dynasty and had theirspecific historicity, appropriateness and communication-orientation.(d) The educationplanning in the BE teaching in late Qing Dynasty evolved from spontaneity toconsciousness, and was reflected in the educational administrative organization, coursedesign, and textbook editing, choosing and examining management.
(4) The roles and weaknesses of the BE teaching of late Qing Dynasty. Thehistorical significance:(a) The BE teaching of late Qing Dynasty offering stronglyneeds-oriented skill-based and content-based BE courses pioneered the BE teaching inChina;(b) The BE teaching of late Qing Dynasty cultivated a good number of talentsbadly needed by the then society, and witnessed and accelerated to a certain extent themodernization process;(c) The BE teaching of late Qing Dynasty was the earliestpractice in China to cultivate interdisciplinary talents;(d) The BE teaching of late QingDynasty was a barometer and manifestation of the gradually open social mentality.
However, due to the historical limitations, there were some weaknesses in thethen BE teaching:(a) The BE teaching in public schools was sporadic and occurring atirregular points in time, and didn’t grow into large scale and common phenomenon.(b)The teaching in missionary schools was all the time a secular and utilitarian choice ofits missionary teaching with religious nature.(c) The BE teaching in private schoolswas of strong spontaneity, blindness and pure instrumental motive.(d) Most of the BElearners could only participate in the modernization process on the practice levelrather than lead the modernization process in the sense of ideology and value due tothe lack of teaching of the essence of the western learning and lack of culturalawareness in the BE teaching of late Qing Dynasty.
2. About the business English language of late Qing Dynasty
(1) The relationship between CPE and the early BE. CPE widely used in thecoastal trading ports was closely related to and obviously characteristic of businessEnglish, serving the Sino-western trade and commerce in the trading ports.
(2) The evolution of the early business English.(a) Canton English and ShanghaiPidgin English were the lingua franca for Sino-western trade and commerce in theCanton System and Treaty System respectively.(b) With the gradual disappearing ofthe internal and external conditions contributing to its origin and development, theloss of the social, physical and mental basis of its existence and development resultedin CPE’s attrition and final withdrawal from Sino-western business transaction.
(3) The linguistic property of the early business English.(a) In terms of social linguistics, CPE was a mixed language used in trade transaction between variouslanguage groups, and the way in which CPE came into being differed from thetraditional language family tree.(b) From the perspective of the second languageacquisition, CPE was a limited second language acquisition with its formationsomewhat similar to the fossilization of the interlanguage; the CPE evolution basicallycomplied with the Interlanguage Theory.
(4) The socio-cultural implications of early business English. CPE was markedwith social stigma, witnessed the developments of early Sino-western businesstransaction and the social changes, reflected the changes in the attitudes towardforeign languages and western cultures in the trading ports, and the instrumentalism,deficiency of cross-cultural awareness, and conservative social mentality of the thensociety.
3. About the BE teaching materials of late Qing Dynasty
(1) The evolution of the BE teaching materials of late Qing Dynasty. The evolutionof the early BE teaching materials was characterized by “five changes”, i.e. change frombooks of mainly vocabulary and some conversation in the enlightenment period to BEtextbooks of writing and conversation in the initial development period; from books withthe English pronunciation indicated in Chinese to books with IPA pronunciation; fromword-centered to sentence-centered BE books; from materials in CPE to materials instandard English; from quasi-BE textbooks with some daily English plus some businessEnglish to business-only BE textbooks; and from advocating learning method of rotelearning to the combination of imitating, analogous inference and progressive learning.
(2) The features, basis and styles of BE teaching materials of late Qing Dynasty.(a)BE teaching materials were characterized by the diverse, practical and well-targetedbusiness topics and situations, design of self-instructional textbooks written by versatileauthors, and the initial awareness of cross-cultural communication.(b) Theunderstanding of the importance of BE and the understanding of the nature of businessEnglish and BE learning became respectively the practical and theoretical bases of BEcoursebooks development.(c) BE coursebooks were designed in three ways, i.e.meaning category used for compiling books of BE vocabulary, scattered arrangementused for compiling topic-based BE conversation coursebooks, and categories used forcompiling specimen-based BE writing coursebooks.
(3) Evaluation of BE teaching materials of late Qing Dynasty. The BEcoursebooks of late Qing Dynasty had great significance:(a) The BE coursebooks of lateQing Dynasty met the learner’s needs for learning BE knowledge and mastering BE communicative skills;(b) The BE coursebooks of late Qing Dynasty were the earliest BEmaterials development in China, reflecting the earliest appeal for the early BE materialsdevelopment and indicating the long history of BE teaching and materials development;(c) The BE coursebooks of late Qing Dynasty witnessed the rise and fall of thepidgin-like business English in late Qing Dynasty, and recorded actual CPE data;(d) TheBE coursebooks of late Qing Dynasty reflected the history and culture of businesslanguage contact in late Qing Dynasty, and so became a very important basis for studyingSino-western language contact and the history of Sino-western business cultural exchange;(e) The BE coursebooks of late Qing Dynasty had a great impact on BE coursebooksdevelopment in Republican China (1912-1949) and thereafter.
However, owing to various reasons, there existed many weaknesses in the BEcoursebooks of late Qing Dynasty.(a) Some of the then coursebooks were non-scientificand unreasonable in contents arrangement;(b) All the then coursebooks lacked theguidance of linguistic theories or English language teaching theories, and so no in-depthprocessing was made of the materials included in the BE coursesbooks;(c) The diction,sentences, styles, language and tone of the BE coursebooks were too formal and rigid;(d)Most of the BE coursebooks lacked learning supporting system;(e) The Chinese andwestern cultural differences and cross-cultural business communication were seldomintroduced in most of the BE coursebooks.
This research into the origin and evolution of BE teaching of late Qing Dynastymakes a comprehensive and macro study of the overall development of BE teaching inlate Qing Dynasty, putting the sporadic historical facts together into a complete processand a superb panorama, makes a micro and more focused study of the BE course design,course types, teaching approaches, education planning, and BE teaching materialsdevelopment, etc. of late Qing Dynasty, and makes a brief evaluation of the roles, impactsand socio-cultural implications of BE teaching of late Qing Dynasty, hoping to well fleshout a complete picture of the evolution of BE teaching in late Qing Dynasty.
引文
②唐文治：《发邮传部咨文，正课之后拟添设西文补习课》，宣统2年（1910年）。
②《中国丛报》（Chinese Repository）是1832年5月至1851年12月长达20年期间由美国人裨治文（ElijahColemen Bridgman,1801–1861）主编并在广州出版的英文期刊，共20卷，每卷12期，是研究中国近代史的重要资料。
①见Records of the General Conference of the Protestant Missionaries of China [C]．Shanghai: AmericanPresbyterian Minion Press，1890:463.
①见《中西大书院章程》，载光绪九年十一月十五日《申报》第23册（1883年7-12月），上海书店影印，1983年。
①见：朱杰人，严佐之，刘永翔．朱子全书（第6册）·四书章句集注·大学章句．上海：上海古籍出版社；合肥：安徽教育出版社，2002:19.
②《晦庵先生朱文公文集》卷五十二《答姜叔权》
②资料来源：郁土.偶遇《增广英字指南》[N].文汇报，2010-4-20。
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②《中国丛报》（Chinese Repository）是1832年5月至1851年12月长达20年期间由美国人裨治文（ElijahColemen Bridgman,1801–1861）主编并在广州出版的英文期刊，共20卷，每卷12期，是研究中国近代史的重要资料。
①见Records of the General Conference of the Protestant Missionaries of China [C]．Shanghai: AmericanPresbyterian Minion Press，1890:463.
①见《中西大书院章程》，载光绪九年十一月十五日《申报》第23册（1883年7-12月），上海书店影印，1983年。
①见：朱杰人，严佐之，刘永翔．朱子全书（第6册）·四书章句集注·大学章句．上海：上海古籍出版社；合肥：安徽教育出版社，2002:19.
②《晦庵先生朱文公文集》卷五十二《答姜叔权》
②资料来源：郁土.偶遇《增广英字指南》[N].文汇报，2010-4-20。
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