语义刻板印象认知神经机制
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摘要
刻板印象是社会认知研究中最为重要的研究课题之一。它是人们对于某一社会群体形成的牢固而稳定的信念,这一信念通常指向群体的稳定特质,并以语义图式的形式存储于长时记忆系统内。作为一种典型的社会性思维过程,它认知特点突出表现为对社会群体的自动分类和群体范畴化表征。随着社会认知神经科学的崛起,当前刻板印象的相关研究已逐渐深入至认知神经机制的探索。现有fMRI研究发现,大脑多个皮质区域参与到了刻板印象的加工,涉及注意系统、语义表征系统、执行控制系统以及边缘系统等多个神经功能系统。而在加工过程上,刻板印象激活引发的注意过程、语义加工过程以及抑制控制过程可以通过一定ERP成分显示出来。
鉴于已有研究发现刻板印象激活的连续加工过程同注意系统和语义系统最为密切,因此本研究采用ERP和fMRI技术,以性别刻板印象为语义内容样本,通过两个研究共四个实验分别探讨了语义刻板印象激活的过程机制。其中研究—主要考察语义刻板印象激活在注意加工阶段的表现,着重检验了语义刻板印象激活与注意系统以及中枢工作记忆系统的相互影响。而研究二着重考察语义刻板印象激活与语义表征系统的相互联系。其中,由于已有研究理论认为不同的意识和注意状态会对刻板印象语义表征的长时记忆基础产生影响,因此研究二又将意识状态纳为自变量,分离了外显和内隐两类语义刻板印象,并进一步探索了它们各自的语义表征机制及其神经基础。
实验1采用ERP技术,以注意线索任务变式诱发返回抑制,通过考察语义刻板印象在返回抑制下的自动激活过程,检验了语义刻板印象与后部注意系统的相互联系。该实验任务以性别特质词为线索刺激,性别范畴词为目标刺激,要求被试忽略线索和目标语义仅对目标空间位置做出判断。行为结果发现,语义刻板印象对线索化条件下的注意返回抑制产生了显著调制作用,表现为女性刻板特质诱发的语义冲突干扰了返回抑制。而反映在ERP过程上,该现象显著体现为后部注意系统诱发的N230波幅变异效应。而且该效应仅出现在代表返回抑制的线索化条件下,而非线索化条件下却未出现。以上实验结果表明,特定任务下语义刻板印象激活同样会诱发注意偏向,但此效应受注意等因素制约,显示语义刻板印象自动激活的有条件性。
实验2采用ERP技术,以双任务快速视觉刺激序列呈现范式诱发代表中枢工作记忆资源瓶颈的注意瞬脱,通过考察语义刻板印象在注意瞬脱下的激活过程,检验了刻板印象激活与中枢工作记忆系统的相互联系。该实验任务以性别人名为T1,性别特质词为T2,要求被试分别在代表注意瞬脱的短延迟lag2条件和代表非注意瞬脱的长延迟lag6条件下报告T1和T2属性。行为结果发现,刻板印象和注意瞬脱在任务中被同时激活,但二者并未存有显著交互作用。而ERP过程上,刻板印象的激活效应首先体现为前部N2和N400的波幅分离效应,显示语义刻板印象能够诱发注意偏向并影响晚期语义编码。而对于P3波幅的分析显示,尽管实验任务成功诱发了语义刻板印象与注意瞬脱,但二者在中枢加工阶段并无显著交互作用,显示语义刻板印象的加工呈现高度自动化的特性,其激活过程并不依赖于中枢工作记忆资源。
实验3以性别人名和特质词为实验语义材料,采用经典外在情感西蒙任务和语义启动任务分别诱发内隐和外显两种语义刻板印象,通过分析二者ERP过程上的差异,探索了不同意识状态下的刻板印象激活过程,并检验了多重记忆系统理论有关内隐和外显语义刻板印象机制不同的模型假设。行为结果发现,两种任务分别成功诱发了内隐和外显刻板印象；但ERP结果却发现两类刻板印象的加工机制存在明显差异。具体而言,外在情感西蒙任务下的内隐刻板印象发生在语义加工晚期,主要体现为头皮中前部分布的晚期特质评估成分LPPa上的波幅变异效应。而语义启动任务诱发的外显刻板印象则可能存在两阶段加工。其中第一阶段出现在早期注意编码阶段,反映为前语义冲突鉴别成分N2上的波幅分离效应；而阶段二则出现在晚期语义评估阶段,体现为头皮中后部分布的特质评估成分LPPb上的波幅变异效应。虽然两种刻板印象的晚期语义加工效应存在LPPa和LPPb头皮分布上的显著不同,但二者差异波均主要分布于头皮前部,显示内隐和外显两种刻板印象可能存有认知加工的共性,二者的产生可能都与大脑前部皮层的加工有关。
实验4则在实验3基础上采用fMRI技术对内隐和外显两类语义刻板印象展开进一步探索,分析两类刻板印象的神经皮质基础。实验结果发现,内隐和外显刻板印象的加工存在神经皮质基础的不同。单独分析显示,内隐刻板印象的激活和抑制加工均主要依赖于额叶皮质和扣带回的参与；而外显刻板印象的激活虽然也依赖于额叶皮质,但其抑制过程却主要依赖于颞顶连接区以及小脑的参与。而对内隐和外显刻板一致性的直接比较显示,相对外显刻板印象,内隐刻板印象更依赖于外侧前额皮层与内侧颞叶所构成的内隐的语义观念启动系统。相反,相对内隐刻板印象,外显刻板印象则似乎更依赖于背外侧前额皮层与辅助运动区为代表的镜像系统以及脑岛代表的意识系统。
综上所述,本研究发现：(1)语义刻板印象的认知过程极为灵活,它表征加工可能是分布式的。特定条件下语义刻板印象可以影响早期注意编码以诱发注意偏向,也可以影响中枢系统的评估加工和晚期的语义加工。(2)语义刻板印象的激活可以影响工作记忆系统对于信息的在线搜索和巩固,但却并不依赖于中枢工作记忆资源。(3)而在表征机制上,刻板印象至少存在内隐和外显两套不同的语义储存机制,且这两套表征机制均与前额皮层密切相关。这种灵活的认知神经机制可能正是刻板印象能够成为社会信息中的“启发式格式塔”的关键所在。
As one of the most important topics in the social cognition research, stereotype refers to stabilizing beliefs toward certain groups. The characteristic of this psychological phenomenon significant reveal as an automatic social thinking as well as a social categorization function to social groups. With the emergence of the social cognitive neuroscience approach, the current stereotype and stereotyping research has deepened on their neural mechanisms. Recent research indicates that many brain regions are involved in the stereotyping processes, including attention system, sematic processing system, executive control system, and limbic system. Moreover, these attention, sematic and inhibition processes could be revealed by certain event-related potentials (ERPs).
Basing on the social cognitive neuroscience research frame, the current study utilized ERP and fMRI techniques to explore the neural mechanisms of the sematic stereotype through two parts with a total of four experiments. Since previous research has showed that the stereotyoe activation mainly associated with the attention system and sematic system, we primarily inspected the processes of sematic stereotype in attentional and sematic processing. In the first part (including Experiment1and Experiment2), we inspected the attentional processes of sematic stereotype, and explored its association with the posterior attention net (PAN) and working memory of the attention system, In the second part (including Experiment3and Experiment4), we inspected the sematic processes of the sematic stereotype representation. Because previous research has revealed that the conscious and attention could moderate the long-term memory bases of the stereotype, in this part we conduct the conscious and attention as independent variable and explore the different neural bases of the implicit and explicit sematic stereotypes.
The intention of the Experiment1was to investigate the association between the automatic stereotype activation and posterior attention net (PAN). In this experiment, a modified attentional cueing task was used to evoke the stereotype activation and the inhibition of return (IOR), and ERPs were used to identify their association. In this task, gender traits were used as priming cue. and the gender labels were used as target. In each trial, participants were asked to give response to the cue's spatial location (right/left) but ignore the sematic information. The result found that the sematic stereotypes still affect the IOR, and this effect significantly revealed as the female stereotypical inconsistent semantics modified the attention shift processing of the IOR. Moreover, all those effect were showed by a posterior N2effect. However, this effect only appeared at the valid cue condition. Since the IOR was mainly processed by PAN, this experiment demonstrated that the sematic stereotypes could interact with the attentional process of the PAN. First, it could affect the IOR and evoke the attentional bias under given condition. But in other hand, this sematic stereotype activation in IOR situation might be still modulated by attention process.
The intention of the Experiment2was to inspect the association between the automatic stereotype activation and the working memory system. In this experiment, a modified dual-target rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) task was used to evoke the stereotype activation and the attentional blink (AB), and ERPs were used to identify their association. In this task, gender labels were used as T1, gender traits were used as T2, and names of fruit were employed as interference stimulus. In each trial, participants were asked to recognize the T1and T2in the rapid visual stream and then report them after the presentation. The behavioural result of this experiment showed significant main effects of stereotype and AB, as well as a significant interaction between them. While the ERP result further indicated that the stereotype process could be reflected on N2, P3and N400. and its interaction with AB happened on the working memory process indexed by P3stage. Considering the AB reflect a temporary lack of working memory consolidation in late attentional process, above results indicated that the automatic stereotype could impact the working memory process in late attentional process but do not rely on the working memory resource.
The intention of the Experiment3was to exam the difference neural mechanism between the implicit and explicit stereotype by ERP technique, In this experiment, gender names and traits were used as stimuli, and an implicit Extrinsic Affective Simon Task (EAST) and an explicit sematic priming task were employed to evoke the implicit and explicit stereotypes respectively. Through comparing their neural processes reflected by ERPs. their different mechanisms were revealed. The results of experiment3found that the implicit and explicit stereotypes indeed have different mechanisms in processing. The implicit stereotype evoked in EAST appeared at late sematic processing stage, and mainly revealed as the separation effect on the trait evaluation component LPPa which appeared at the frontal-centre of the scalp. In contrast, the explicit stereotype evoked by the sematic priming task may have two processing stage, respectively revealed as the per-lexical processing indexed by frontal N2and the late trait evaluation processing indexed by posterior LPPb component. Although those two LPP effect have different scalp distributions, their difference waves were both located at the fontal scalp. This result indicated that the prefrontal cortex may involve both in the implicit and explicit stereotyping process, revealing a similarity between them.
The intention of the Experiment4was to explore the different neural bases of the implicit and explicit stereotypes basing on the results of the experiment3. In this experiment, fMRI technique was employed and tasks in experiment3were modified to suit for the MRI scanning. The results of the experiment4showed that the implicit and explicit stereotypes indeed have different neural cortex bases. The separate analysis on the EAST indicated that the rostral anterior cingulate (rACC) and superior frontal gyri (SFG) were engaged in the processing of the implicit stereotype activation, while the inferior frontal gyri (IFG) and ventral anterior cingulate (vACC) engaged in the stereotype inhibition processes. For the separate analysis on sematic priming task, however, SFG and IFG were engaged in explicit stereotype activation, but cerebellum and inferior parietal were engaged in explicit stereotype inhibition processes. Finally, the direct task comparison revealed that the implicit stereotyping processes were much more rely on the implicit sematic conceptual priming system, while the explicit stereotyping processing may be much more depend on the explicit sematic conceptual system and the motivation system.
The conclusions of the whole study could be sum up as following:(1) the processes of the sematic stereotype are complex but flexible, and distributed neural networks or systems might contribute to its different facets. In different condition, the activation of the sematic stereotype could affect the attentional coding and evoke attentional bias, also could impact the late evaluation and sematic perception processes. (2) The sematic stereotyping could impact the on-line searching process of the working memory system, but do not depend on its limited resource.(3) The sematic stereotype has at least two representation systems; one is the implicit representation system and the other is the explicit representation system. Those two systems have different neural bases, but both of them associate with the prefrontal cortex. These flexible representation systems might be the important reason account for the "enlighten gestalt" role of sematic stereotype in the social perceptions.
鉴于已有研究发现刻板印象激活的连续加工过程同注意系统和语义系统最为密切,因此本研究采用ERP和fMRI技术,以性别刻板印象为语义内容样本,通过两个研究共四个实验分别探讨了语义刻板印象激活的过程机制。其中研究—主要考察语义刻板印象激活在注意加工阶段的表现,着重检验了语义刻板印象激活与注意系统以及中枢工作记忆系统的相互影响。而研究二着重考察语义刻板印象激活与语义表征系统的相互联系。其中,由于已有研究理论认为不同的意识和注意状态会对刻板印象语义表征的长时记忆基础产生影响,因此研究二又将意识状态纳为自变量,分离了外显和内隐两类语义刻板印象,并进一步探索了它们各自的语义表征机制及其神经基础。
实验1采用ERP技术,以注意线索任务变式诱发返回抑制,通过考察语义刻板印象在返回抑制下的自动激活过程,检验了语义刻板印象与后部注意系统的相互联系。该实验任务以性别特质词为线索刺激,性别范畴词为目标刺激,要求被试忽略线索和目标语义仅对目标空间位置做出判断。行为结果发现,语义刻板印象对线索化条件下的注意返回抑制产生了显著调制作用,表现为女性刻板特质诱发的语义冲突干扰了返回抑制。而反映在ERP过程上,该现象显著体现为后部注意系统诱发的N230波幅变异效应。而且该效应仅出现在代表返回抑制的线索化条件下,而非线索化条件下却未出现。以上实验结果表明,特定任务下语义刻板印象激活同样会诱发注意偏向,但此效应受注意等因素制约,显示语义刻板印象自动激活的有条件性。
实验2采用ERP技术,以双任务快速视觉刺激序列呈现范式诱发代表中枢工作记忆资源瓶颈的注意瞬脱,通过考察语义刻板印象在注意瞬脱下的激活过程,检验了刻板印象激活与中枢工作记忆系统的相互联系。该实验任务以性别人名为T1,性别特质词为T2,要求被试分别在代表注意瞬脱的短延迟lag2条件和代表非注意瞬脱的长延迟lag6条件下报告T1和T2属性。行为结果发现,刻板印象和注意瞬脱在任务中被同时激活,但二者并未存有显著交互作用。而ERP过程上,刻板印象的激活效应首先体现为前部N2和N400的波幅分离效应,显示语义刻板印象能够诱发注意偏向并影响晚期语义编码。而对于P3波幅的分析显示,尽管实验任务成功诱发了语义刻板印象与注意瞬脱,但二者在中枢加工阶段并无显著交互作用,显示语义刻板印象的加工呈现高度自动化的特性,其激活过程并不依赖于中枢工作记忆资源。
实验3以性别人名和特质词为实验语义材料,采用经典外在情感西蒙任务和语义启动任务分别诱发内隐和外显两种语义刻板印象,通过分析二者ERP过程上的差异,探索了不同意识状态下的刻板印象激活过程,并检验了多重记忆系统理论有关内隐和外显语义刻板印象机制不同的模型假设。行为结果发现,两种任务分别成功诱发了内隐和外显刻板印象；但ERP结果却发现两类刻板印象的加工机制存在明显差异。具体而言,外在情感西蒙任务下的内隐刻板印象发生在语义加工晚期,主要体现为头皮中前部分布的晚期特质评估成分LPPa上的波幅变异效应。而语义启动任务诱发的外显刻板印象则可能存在两阶段加工。其中第一阶段出现在早期注意编码阶段,反映为前语义冲突鉴别成分N2上的波幅分离效应；而阶段二则出现在晚期语义评估阶段,体现为头皮中后部分布的特质评估成分LPPb上的波幅变异效应。虽然两种刻板印象的晚期语义加工效应存在LPPa和LPPb头皮分布上的显著不同,但二者差异波均主要分布于头皮前部,显示内隐和外显两种刻板印象可能存有认知加工的共性,二者的产生可能都与大脑前部皮层的加工有关。
实验4则在实验3基础上采用fMRI技术对内隐和外显两类语义刻板印象展开进一步探索,分析两类刻板印象的神经皮质基础。实验结果发现,内隐和外显刻板印象的加工存在神经皮质基础的不同。单独分析显示,内隐刻板印象的激活和抑制加工均主要依赖于额叶皮质和扣带回的参与；而外显刻板印象的激活虽然也依赖于额叶皮质,但其抑制过程却主要依赖于颞顶连接区以及小脑的参与。而对内隐和外显刻板一致性的直接比较显示,相对外显刻板印象,内隐刻板印象更依赖于外侧前额皮层与内侧颞叶所构成的内隐的语义观念启动系统。相反,相对内隐刻板印象,外显刻板印象则似乎更依赖于背外侧前额皮层与辅助运动区为代表的镜像系统以及脑岛代表的意识系统。
综上所述,本研究发现：(1)语义刻板印象的认知过程极为灵活,它表征加工可能是分布式的。特定条件下语义刻板印象可以影响早期注意编码以诱发注意偏向,也可以影响中枢系统的评估加工和晚期的语义加工。(2)语义刻板印象的激活可以影响工作记忆系统对于信息的在线搜索和巩固,但却并不依赖于中枢工作记忆资源。(3)而在表征机制上,刻板印象至少存在内隐和外显两套不同的语义储存机制,且这两套表征机制均与前额皮层密切相关。这种灵活的认知神经机制可能正是刻板印象能够成为社会信息中的“启发式格式塔”的关键所在。
As one of the most important topics in the social cognition research, stereotype refers to stabilizing beliefs toward certain groups. The characteristic of this psychological phenomenon significant reveal as an automatic social thinking as well as a social categorization function to social groups. With the emergence of the social cognitive neuroscience approach, the current stereotype and stereotyping research has deepened on their neural mechanisms. Recent research indicates that many brain regions are involved in the stereotyping processes, including attention system, sematic processing system, executive control system, and limbic system. Moreover, these attention, sematic and inhibition processes could be revealed by certain event-related potentials (ERPs).
Basing on the social cognitive neuroscience research frame, the current study utilized ERP and fMRI techniques to explore the neural mechanisms of the sematic stereotype through two parts with a total of four experiments. Since previous research has showed that the stereotyoe activation mainly associated with the attention system and sematic system, we primarily inspected the processes of sematic stereotype in attentional and sematic processing. In the first part (including Experiment1and Experiment2), we inspected the attentional processes of sematic stereotype, and explored its association with the posterior attention net (PAN) and working memory of the attention system, In the second part (including Experiment3and Experiment4), we inspected the sematic processes of the sematic stereotype representation. Because previous research has revealed that the conscious and attention could moderate the long-term memory bases of the stereotype, in this part we conduct the conscious and attention as independent variable and explore the different neural bases of the implicit and explicit sematic stereotypes.
The intention of the Experiment1was to investigate the association between the automatic stereotype activation and posterior attention net (PAN). In this experiment, a modified attentional cueing task was used to evoke the stereotype activation and the inhibition of return (IOR), and ERPs were used to identify their association. In this task, gender traits were used as priming cue. and the gender labels were used as target. In each trial, participants were asked to give response to the cue's spatial location (right/left) but ignore the sematic information. The result found that the sematic stereotypes still affect the IOR, and this effect significantly revealed as the female stereotypical inconsistent semantics modified the attention shift processing of the IOR. Moreover, all those effect were showed by a posterior N2effect. However, this effect only appeared at the valid cue condition. Since the IOR was mainly processed by PAN, this experiment demonstrated that the sematic stereotypes could interact with the attentional process of the PAN. First, it could affect the IOR and evoke the attentional bias under given condition. But in other hand, this sematic stereotype activation in IOR situation might be still modulated by attention process.
The intention of the Experiment2was to inspect the association between the automatic stereotype activation and the working memory system. In this experiment, a modified dual-target rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) task was used to evoke the stereotype activation and the attentional blink (AB), and ERPs were used to identify their association. In this task, gender labels were used as T1, gender traits were used as T2, and names of fruit were employed as interference stimulus. In each trial, participants were asked to recognize the T1and T2in the rapid visual stream and then report them after the presentation. The behavioural result of this experiment showed significant main effects of stereotype and AB, as well as a significant interaction between them. While the ERP result further indicated that the stereotype process could be reflected on N2, P3and N400. and its interaction with AB happened on the working memory process indexed by P3stage. Considering the AB reflect a temporary lack of working memory consolidation in late attentional process, above results indicated that the automatic stereotype could impact the working memory process in late attentional process but do not rely on the working memory resource.
The intention of the Experiment3was to exam the difference neural mechanism between the implicit and explicit stereotype by ERP technique, In this experiment, gender names and traits were used as stimuli, and an implicit Extrinsic Affective Simon Task (EAST) and an explicit sematic priming task were employed to evoke the implicit and explicit stereotypes respectively. Through comparing their neural processes reflected by ERPs. their different mechanisms were revealed. The results of experiment3found that the implicit and explicit stereotypes indeed have different mechanisms in processing. The implicit stereotype evoked in EAST appeared at late sematic processing stage, and mainly revealed as the separation effect on the trait evaluation component LPPa which appeared at the frontal-centre of the scalp. In contrast, the explicit stereotype evoked by the sematic priming task may have two processing stage, respectively revealed as the per-lexical processing indexed by frontal N2and the late trait evaluation processing indexed by posterior LPPb component. Although those two LPP effect have different scalp distributions, their difference waves were both located at the fontal scalp. This result indicated that the prefrontal cortex may involve both in the implicit and explicit stereotyping process, revealing a similarity between them.
The intention of the Experiment4was to explore the different neural bases of the implicit and explicit stereotypes basing on the results of the experiment3. In this experiment, fMRI technique was employed and tasks in experiment3were modified to suit for the MRI scanning. The results of the experiment4showed that the implicit and explicit stereotypes indeed have different neural cortex bases. The separate analysis on the EAST indicated that the rostral anterior cingulate (rACC) and superior frontal gyri (SFG) were engaged in the processing of the implicit stereotype activation, while the inferior frontal gyri (IFG) and ventral anterior cingulate (vACC) engaged in the stereotype inhibition processes. For the separate analysis on sematic priming task, however, SFG and IFG were engaged in explicit stereotype activation, but cerebellum and inferior parietal were engaged in explicit stereotype inhibition processes. Finally, the direct task comparison revealed that the implicit stereotyping processes were much more rely on the implicit sematic conceptual priming system, while the explicit stereotyping processing may be much more depend on the explicit sematic conceptual system and the motivation system.
The conclusions of the whole study could be sum up as following:(1) the processes of the sematic stereotype are complex but flexible, and distributed neural networks or systems might contribute to its different facets. In different condition, the activation of the sematic stereotype could affect the attentional coding and evoke attentional bias, also could impact the late evaluation and sematic perception processes. (2) The sematic stereotyping could impact the on-line searching process of the working memory system, but do not depend on its limited resource.(3) The sematic stereotype has at least two representation systems; one is the implicit representation system and the other is the explicit representation system. Those two systems have different neural bases, but both of them associate with the prefrontal cortex. These flexible representation systems might be the important reason account for the "enlighten gestalt" role of sematic stereotype in the social perceptions.
引文
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贾磊,罗俊龙,肖宵,张庆林.(2010).刻板印象的认知神经机制.心理科学进展,8(12),1909-1918.
连淑芳.(2003).刻板印象的自动过程研究新进展.心理群学26(1),41-44.
卢永彪.(2007).大学生性别：职业刻板医学的ERP研究.湖南：湖南师范大学.
阮小林,张庆林,杜秀敏,崔茜.(2009).刻板印象威胁效应研究回顾与展望.心理科学进展,17(4),836-844.
王沛,杨亚平,赵仑.(2010).刻板印象的激活效应：行为和ERPs证据.心理学报,42(5),607-617.
王沛,张国礼.(2008).刻板印象的心理表征：范畴还是样例?——来自ERP的证据.心理科学,31(2),340-345.
张明,王凌云.(2009).注意瞬脱的瓶颈理论.心理群学进展,17(1),7-16.
Adolphs, R. (2003). Cognitive neuroscience of human social behaviour. Nature Reviews Neuroscience,4(3),165-178.
Amir, N., Elias, J., Klumpp, H., & Przeworski, A. (2003). Attentional bias to threat in social phobia: facilitated processing of threat or difficulty disengaging attention from threat? Behaviour Research and Therapy,47(11),1325-1335.
Amodio, D. M. (2008). The social neuroscience of intergroup relations. European Review of Social Psychology,19(1),1-54.
Amodio, D. M., Devine, P. G., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2008). Individual differences in the regulation of intergroup bias:the role of conflict monitoring and neural signals for control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,94(1),60-74.
Amodio, D. M., Harmon-Jones, E., Devine, P. G., Curtin, J. J., Hartley, S. L., & Covert, A. E. (2004). Neural Signals for the Detection of Unintentional Race Bias. Psychological Science,15(2), 88-93.
Amunts, K., Kedo, O., Kindler, M., Pieperhoff, P., Mohlberg, H., Shah, N. J., et al. (2005). Cytoarchitectonic mapping of the human amygdala, hippocampal region and entorhinal cortex:intersubject variability and probability maps. Anatomy and embryology,210(5-6), 343-352.
Aron, A. R., Robbins, T. W., & Poldrack, R. A. (2004). Inhibition and the right inferior frontal cortex. Trends in Cognitive Sciences,8(4),170-177.
Aronson, E., Wilson, T., & Akert, R. (2006). Social Psychology (English language adaptation edition). Beijing:Pearson Education Asia Ltd and China Light Industry Press.
Baetens, K., der Cruyssen, L. V., Achtziger, A., Vandekerckhove, M., & Van Overwalle, F. (2011). N400 and LPP in spontaneous trait inferences. Brain Research,1418(0),83-92.
Bartholow, B. D., & Amodio, D. M. (2009). Brain Potentials in Social Psychological research, In E. Harmon-Jones & J. S. Beer (Eds.), Methods in social neuroscience (pp.198-232). New York: Guilford Press.
Bartholow, B. D., Dickter, C. L., & Sestir, M. A. (2006). Stereotype activation and control of race bias:cognitive control of inhibition and its impairment by alcohol. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,90(2),272-287.
Bartholow, B. D., Fabiani, M., Gratton, G., & Bettencourt, B. A. (2001). A Psychophysiological Examination of Cognitive Processing of and Affective Responses to Social Expectancy Violations. Psychological Science,12(3),197-204.
Bartholow, B. D., Pearson, M. A., Gratton, G., & Fabiani, M. (2003). Effects of alcohol on person perception:A social cognitive neuroscience approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,85(4),627-638.
Blair, I. V. (2002). The Malleability of Automatic Stereotypes and Prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Review,6(3),242-261.
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