功能导向的电化学体系建立与碳基复合电极的设计和制备
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摘要
不同电化学体系（电解、电池/电容器、电化学传感器）的发展，都离不开电极材料与电极结构的进步，依据不同电化学体系的特点和功能需求，对相应的电极材料和结构进行导向设计与研究具有重要的意义。本论文基于导电碳黑和纳米尺寸活性物质（电催化剂）构建碳基复合多孔电极，在包括电解KI和O_2合成KIO_3、电解Na_2CO_3-H_2O为NaOH和NaHCO_3、高速充放电电极材料以及葡萄糖无酶传感器等多个应用领域展开电解方式和电极材料方面的创新研究，以实现节能、高效为目标。具体研究内容如下：
（1）绿色、节能和低成本的电解合成碘酸钾技术：已有的电解合成碘酸钾工艺槽电压超过2.0V，且必须使用昂贵的离子膜。本文在对KI电化学氧化及KIO_3电化学还原的电极过程、机理研究基础上，提出通过电解KI和O_2合成KIO_3的原子经济型节能新工艺。研究表明，在以纳米Ag为催化剂的气体扩散多孔氧阴极上，主要发生的是O_2的还原，而产物IO_3~-的还原所占比例不足1%。在单液流无膜电解槽中，在电流密度为150mA cm~(-2)时，槽电压仅为0.7~0.8V，电流效率达到96%，电耗仅为传统电解方法的35~40%。
（2）面向碱溶碳分法的氧还原电解碳酸钠技术：碱溶碳分法是针对我国铝土矿提出的一种先进高效的氧化铝工艺，膜电解碳酸钠是打通整个工艺的关键环节，但是已有膜电解碳酸钠工艺的电解能耗偏高。本文提出阳极析氧-阴极氧还原的电解碳酸钠体系，以工作电位较高的氧阴极替代原有析氢阴极，从而缩小与阳极析氧电位差距，达到降低离子膜电解碳酸钠槽电压目的。首先通过旋转圆盘电极技术进行了Ag-Co_3O_4/C、Co_3O_4/C、Ag/C催化剂的氧还原反应动力学研究；对相应的气体扩散多孔氧阴极进行了电极性能表征与测试，结果表明Ag/C电极最佳；以Ag/C为阴极，RuO_2/Ti为阳极进行碳酸钠的电解实验，结果表明在电流密度为100mA cm~(-2)时，槽电压为1.52±0.09V，相对于传统电解方式（槽电压为2.53±0.11V）节电达到40%。
（3）面向碱溶碳分法的氢阳极电解碳酸钠技术：在前述研究基础上提出更高效节电的氢阳极电解碳酸钠技术。论文对Pt/C、Pd/C氢气氧化催化剂及相应的三相气体扩散多孔电极进行了结构表征和性能测试，结果表明Pt-Pd/C氢阳极在碳酸钠电解体系中表现最优性能。小规模电解槽实验结果表明在100mA cm~(-2)的电流密度下槽电压为0.86V，相对于常规-析氢析氧电解和氧阴极电解（分别为2.53V和1.52V）有显著降低。氢阳极电解方式即使在200mA cm~(-2)的电流密度下槽压也仅为1.32V，表明所建立的氢阳极电解方式在提高时空产率和降低槽电压方面具有显著的优势。
（4）高速充放电性能的Ni(OH)_2/C纳米复合多孔电极：采用新工艺制备了Nano-Ni(OH)_2/C多孔复合电极：将浸渍有硝酸镍的高比表面积超导电炭黑(BP1000)压制成型后热处理得到载有前驱体的复合碳片，再通过碱液处理使Ni(OH)_2原位沉淀而得。TEM、SEM、XRD表征结果表明，活性物质Ni(OH)_2没有阻隔开导电碳网络，而是均匀负载在导电网络碳基底上。上述结构保证了该电极的高速充放电性能，循环伏安法和计时电位法测试结果表明在电极活性物质负载密度约6mg cm~(-2)、电流密度为40mA cm~(-2)的充-放电测试中，其充、放电时间分别为272s和261s，单位面积电量分别达到10.9和10.4C cm~(-2)；放电流密度达到1000mA cm~(-2)(放电倍率高达498C，质量放电电流密度163A g~(-1))时，容量保持率达到40mA cm~(-2)时的81.5%。
（5）基于Ni(OH)_2NiOOH快速电化学转化的宽线性范围无酶葡萄糖传感器：通过原位沉积和电化学处理将Ni(OH)_2原位负载于纳米导电碳基底上制成Ni(OH)_2NPs/纳米复合电极，该电极可用作无酶葡萄糖传感器。研究表明提高介质中OH-浓度有助于提高Ni(OH)_2NiOOH转化速率以及对葡萄糖浓度的线性响应范围。采用逐个周期改变葡萄糖浓度的循环伏安法快速研究了该电极在不同电位区间内电催化葡萄糖氧化的控制步骤、灵敏度和线性相关性。在优化的测试条件下(0.28V vs. SCE，7M KOH)，该电极对葡萄糖浓度的检测线性范围为1×10~(-6)–1.5×10~(-2)M，相关系数达到0.9999，检测灵敏度为1004.6μA mM~(-1)cm~(-2)。
The development of electrochemical systems (electrolysis,batteries/super capacitor, electrochemical sensor) is greatly depended onthe advance in electrode material and electrode structure. It is importantto carry functional directed design and investigation for these differentelectrochemical systems. Based on the composite electrodes withnano-sized electro-catalysts on conductive carbon, several energy-savingand high efficient electrolysis methods or electrode materials in followingfields were studied.1) Electrolytic synthesis KIO_3from KI and O_2.2)Electrolysis of Na_2CO_3-H_2O to produce NaOH and NaHCO_3.3) Ultrafastcharge and discharge rate of electrode materials for battery orsuper-capacitor.4) Non-enzymatic electrochemical sensor for glucosedetection. The main work and results of this dissertation are as follows:
(1) Green, energy-saving and low-cost method of electrolyticsynthesis KIO_3: The traditional electrolytic synthesis of KIO_3is limitedby the high cell voltage and high cost of ion exchange membrane. Baseon the investigation on the mechanism and electrode process of electro-oxidation of I-and electro-reduction of IO_3~-, an atom economyand energy-saving process for synthesis KIO_3by electrolysis KI and O_2isproposed in this thesis. Oxygen reduction reaction is the mainelectrochemical reaction while the electrochemical reduction of IO_3~-isnegligible on Ag catalyst-Oxygen consumption cathode, so we adopt asimple membraneless and single liquid flow electrolytic cell in theproposed method. The cell voltage is only0.7~0.8V at the current densityof150mA cm~(-2), and the current efficiency achieves96%. Thecorresponding electricity consumption is only35~40%as compared totraditional method.
(2) Energy-saving electrolysis of sodium carbonate with oxygenreduction cathode for alkaline digestion-carbonation precipitation processof alumina production：The method of alkaline digestion-carbonationprecipitation is an efficient and advance technology for production ofalumina. The membrane electrolysis of sodium carbonate is the keyprocess in this technology but its high electricity consumption hashindered its industrialization. This thesis investigated the electrolysis ofsodium carbonate with oxygen evolution on anode and oxygen reductionon cathode. By replacing the traditional hydrogen evolution cathode withoxygen reduction cathode that work at high potential, the potential gapbetween anode and cathode is reduced and the corresponding cell voltageof electrolysis sodium carbonate is decreased. The ORR catalyst including Ag-Co_3O_4/C, Co_3O_4/C and Ag/C was prepared by simplemethod that contains impregnation step and thermal decomposition step.The kinetic parameter of the ORR of the prepared catalysts wasinvestigated through rotation disk electrode (RDE) system. The oxygendiffusion cathode was prepared, characterized and then used forelectrolysis of sodium carbonate； The constant current electrolysisindicates that the cell voltage of Ag nanoparticles catalyzed ORCelectrolysis of Na_2CO_3is as low as1.52V and the correspondingelectrical energy consumption is saved up to39.8%as compared to HECelectrolysis at the same current density of100mA cm~(-2).
(3) Energy-saving electrolysis of sodium carbonate with hydrogenoxidation anode： In order to decrease electricity consumption ofelectrolysis Na_2CO_3-H_2O to produce NaOH and NaHCO_3as much aspossible, the electrolysis method using hydrogen oxidation anode andhydrogen evolution cathode was established. The hydrogen oxidationelectro-catalyst and the hydrogen diffusion anode was prepared,characterized and then used for electrolysis of sodium carbonate with theoptimization of the experimental conditions. The cell voltage of andhydrogen anode electrolysis at100mA cm~(-2)is only0.86V, while thetraditional hydrogen evolution cathode-oxygen evolution anodeelectrolysis and oxygen reduction cathode electrolysis is2.53and1.52V,respectively. What’s more, the cell voltage of the hydrogen anode electrolysis is only1.32V at200mA cm~(-2). These results demonstrate thatthe hydrogen anode takes the obvious advantages of improving thespace-time yield and decreasing the electricity consumption.
(4) The Ni(OH)_2/C nanocomposite electrode with ultrafastcharge-discharge rate：Conductive carbon black with high specific surfacearea was dipped with nickel nitrate solution and then rolled into electrodeplate directly. The in-situ precipitation in KOH solution was used toloading the Ni(OH)_2inside the porous electrode. The results of XRD,SEM and TEM indicated that the porous conductive carbon substrate wasnot separate by Ni(OH)_2and the Ni(OH)_2is evenly distributed onelectrode. The ultrafast charge-discharge properties of the preparednanocomposite electrode were investigated by cyclic voltammetry andchronopotentiometry. The results indicated that the charge-discharge timeis only272-261s at40mA cm~(-2)even when the active material loading isas high as6mg cm~(-2), and the corresponding electricity quantity exceed10C cm~(-2), respectively. The capacity achieves2688F g~(-1)even at dischargecurrent density as high as200mA cm~(-2)(32.6A g~(-1)). its capacity keeps81.5%at super high discharge current density of1000mA cm~(-2)(498C)as that of40mA cm~(-2). The prepared electrode shows excellent ultrafastcharge-discharge rate and high capacity.
(5) Non-enzymatic glucose sensor with extended linearity based onfast conversion of Ni(OH)_2NiOOH and concentrated OH-： The Ni(OH)_2nanoparticles modified carbon (Ni(OH)_2/C) composite electrodeelectrode was prepared by in-situ precipitation of Ni(OH)_2on carbon andthen treated by cyclic voltammetry. Fast conversion of redox couple(Ni(OH)_2/NiOOH: NiII/NiIII) is established on the prepared electrodecoupling with concentrated COH-electrolyte. Continuous cyclicvoltammetry method with increasing the concentration of glucose on eachcycle step by step was employed to quickly determine linear range andappropriate potential for glucose detection in0.1,1and7M KOHelectrolyte. The amperometric measurement under the optimizedcondition (0.28V vs. SCE in7M KOH) indicates the Ni(OH)_2/Ccomposite electrode holds a sensitivity of1004.6A mM~(-1)cm~(-2)in thewide linear range of1×10~(-6)-1.5×10~(-2)M (R=0.9999). These performancesshow that the Ni(OH)_2/C nanocomposite electrode in concentrated KOHis a promising platform as glucose sensor.
（1）绿色、节能和低成本的电解合成碘酸钾技术：已有的电解合成碘酸钾工艺槽电压超过2.0V，且必须使用昂贵的离子膜。本文在对KI电化学氧化及KIO_3电化学还原的电极过程、机理研究基础上，提出通过电解KI和O_2合成KIO_3的原子经济型节能新工艺。研究表明，在以纳米Ag为催化剂的气体扩散多孔氧阴极上，主要发生的是O_2的还原，而产物IO_3~-的还原所占比例不足1%。在单液流无膜电解槽中，在电流密度为150mA cm~(-2)时，槽电压仅为0.7~0.8V，电流效率达到96%，电耗仅为传统电解方法的35~40%。
（2）面向碱溶碳分法的氧还原电解碳酸钠技术：碱溶碳分法是针对我国铝土矿提出的一种先进高效的氧化铝工艺，膜电解碳酸钠是打通整个工艺的关键环节，但是已有膜电解碳酸钠工艺的电解能耗偏高。本文提出阳极析氧-阴极氧还原的电解碳酸钠体系，以工作电位较高的氧阴极替代原有析氢阴极，从而缩小与阳极析氧电位差距，达到降低离子膜电解碳酸钠槽电压目的。首先通过旋转圆盘电极技术进行了Ag-Co_3O_4/C、Co_3O_4/C、Ag/C催化剂的氧还原反应动力学研究；对相应的气体扩散多孔氧阴极进行了电极性能表征与测试，结果表明Ag/C电极最佳；以Ag/C为阴极，RuO_2/Ti为阳极进行碳酸钠的电解实验，结果表明在电流密度为100mA cm~(-2)时，槽电压为1.52±0.09V，相对于传统电解方式（槽电压为2.53±0.11V）节电达到40%。
（3）面向碱溶碳分法的氢阳极电解碳酸钠技术：在前述研究基础上提出更高效节电的氢阳极电解碳酸钠技术。论文对Pt/C、Pd/C氢气氧化催化剂及相应的三相气体扩散多孔电极进行了结构表征和性能测试，结果表明Pt-Pd/C氢阳极在碳酸钠电解体系中表现最优性能。小规模电解槽实验结果表明在100mA cm~(-2)的电流密度下槽电压为0.86V，相对于常规-析氢析氧电解和氧阴极电解（分别为2.53V和1.52V）有显著降低。氢阳极电解方式即使在200mA cm~(-2)的电流密度下槽压也仅为1.32V，表明所建立的氢阳极电解方式在提高时空产率和降低槽电压方面具有显著的优势。
（4）高速充放电性能的Ni(OH)_2/C纳米复合多孔电极：采用新工艺制备了Nano-Ni(OH)_2/C多孔复合电极：将浸渍有硝酸镍的高比表面积超导电炭黑(BP1000)压制成型后热处理得到载有前驱体的复合碳片，再通过碱液处理使Ni(OH)_2原位沉淀而得。TEM、SEM、XRD表征结果表明，活性物质Ni(OH)_2没有阻隔开导电碳网络，而是均匀负载在导电网络碳基底上。上述结构保证了该电极的高速充放电性能，循环伏安法和计时电位法测试结果表明在电极活性物质负载密度约6mg cm~(-2)、电流密度为40mA cm~(-2)的充-放电测试中，其充、放电时间分别为272s和261s，单位面积电量分别达到10.9和10.4C cm~(-2)；放电流密度达到1000mA cm~(-2)(放电倍率高达498C，质量放电电流密度163A g~(-1))时，容量保持率达到40mA cm~(-2)时的81.5%。
（5）基于Ni(OH)_2NiOOH快速电化学转化的宽线性范围无酶葡萄糖传感器：通过原位沉积和电化学处理将Ni(OH)_2原位负载于纳米导电碳基底上制成Ni(OH)_2NPs/纳米复合电极，该电极可用作无酶葡萄糖传感器。研究表明提高介质中OH-浓度有助于提高Ni(OH)_2NiOOH转化速率以及对葡萄糖浓度的线性响应范围。采用逐个周期改变葡萄糖浓度的循环伏安法快速研究了该电极在不同电位区间内电催化葡萄糖氧化的控制步骤、灵敏度和线性相关性。在优化的测试条件下(0.28V vs. SCE，7M KOH)，该电极对葡萄糖浓度的检测线性范围为1×10~(-6)–1.5×10~(-2)M，相关系数达到0.9999，检测灵敏度为1004.6μA mM~(-1)cm~(-2)。
The development of electrochemical systems (electrolysis,batteries/super capacitor, electrochemical sensor) is greatly depended onthe advance in electrode material and electrode structure. It is importantto carry functional directed design and investigation for these differentelectrochemical systems. Based on the composite electrodes withnano-sized electro-catalysts on conductive carbon, several energy-savingand high efficient electrolysis methods or electrode materials in followingfields were studied.1) Electrolytic synthesis KIO_3from KI and O_2.2)Electrolysis of Na_2CO_3-H_2O to produce NaOH and NaHCO_3.3) Ultrafastcharge and discharge rate of electrode materials for battery orsuper-capacitor.4) Non-enzymatic electrochemical sensor for glucosedetection. The main work and results of this dissertation are as follows:
(1) Green, energy-saving and low-cost method of electrolyticsynthesis KIO_3: The traditional electrolytic synthesis of KIO_3is limitedby the high cell voltage and high cost of ion exchange membrane. Baseon the investigation on the mechanism and electrode process of electro-oxidation of I-and electro-reduction of IO_3~-, an atom economyand energy-saving process for synthesis KIO_3by electrolysis KI and O_2isproposed in this thesis. Oxygen reduction reaction is the mainelectrochemical reaction while the electrochemical reduction of IO_3~-isnegligible on Ag catalyst-Oxygen consumption cathode, so we adopt asimple membraneless and single liquid flow electrolytic cell in theproposed method. The cell voltage is only0.7~0.8V at the current densityof150mA cm~(-2), and the current efficiency achieves96%. Thecorresponding electricity consumption is only35~40%as compared totraditional method.
(2) Energy-saving electrolysis of sodium carbonate with oxygenreduction cathode for alkaline digestion-carbonation precipitation processof alumina production：The method of alkaline digestion-carbonationprecipitation is an efficient and advance technology for production ofalumina. The membrane electrolysis of sodium carbonate is the keyprocess in this technology but its high electricity consumption hashindered its industrialization. This thesis investigated the electrolysis ofsodium carbonate with oxygen evolution on anode and oxygen reductionon cathode. By replacing the traditional hydrogen evolution cathode withoxygen reduction cathode that work at high potential, the potential gapbetween anode and cathode is reduced and the corresponding cell voltageof electrolysis sodium carbonate is decreased. The ORR catalyst including Ag-Co_3O_4/C, Co_3O_4/C and Ag/C was prepared by simplemethod that contains impregnation step and thermal decomposition step.The kinetic parameter of the ORR of the prepared catalysts wasinvestigated through rotation disk electrode (RDE) system. The oxygendiffusion cathode was prepared, characterized and then used forelectrolysis of sodium carbonate； The constant current electrolysisindicates that the cell voltage of Ag nanoparticles catalyzed ORCelectrolysis of Na_2CO_3is as low as1.52V and the correspondingelectrical energy consumption is saved up to39.8%as compared to HECelectrolysis at the same current density of100mA cm~(-2).
(3) Energy-saving electrolysis of sodium carbonate with hydrogenoxidation anode： In order to decrease electricity consumption ofelectrolysis Na_2CO_3-H_2O to produce NaOH and NaHCO_3as much aspossible, the electrolysis method using hydrogen oxidation anode andhydrogen evolution cathode was established. The hydrogen oxidationelectro-catalyst and the hydrogen diffusion anode was prepared,characterized and then used for electrolysis of sodium carbonate with theoptimization of the experimental conditions. The cell voltage of andhydrogen anode electrolysis at100mA cm~(-2)is only0.86V, while thetraditional hydrogen evolution cathode-oxygen evolution anodeelectrolysis and oxygen reduction cathode electrolysis is2.53and1.52V,respectively. What’s more, the cell voltage of the hydrogen anode electrolysis is only1.32V at200mA cm~(-2). These results demonstrate thatthe hydrogen anode takes the obvious advantages of improving thespace-time yield and decreasing the electricity consumption.
(4) The Ni(OH)_2/C nanocomposite electrode with ultrafastcharge-discharge rate：Conductive carbon black with high specific surfacearea was dipped with nickel nitrate solution and then rolled into electrodeplate directly. The in-situ precipitation in KOH solution was used toloading the Ni(OH)_2inside the porous electrode. The results of XRD,SEM and TEM indicated that the porous conductive carbon substrate wasnot separate by Ni(OH)_2and the Ni(OH)_2is evenly distributed onelectrode. The ultrafast charge-discharge properties of the preparednanocomposite electrode were investigated by cyclic voltammetry andchronopotentiometry. The results indicated that the charge-discharge timeis only272-261s at40mA cm~(-2)even when the active material loading isas high as6mg cm~(-2), and the corresponding electricity quantity exceed10C cm~(-2), respectively. The capacity achieves2688F g~(-1)even at dischargecurrent density as high as200mA cm~(-2)(32.6A g~(-1)). its capacity keeps81.5%at super high discharge current density of1000mA cm~(-2)(498C)as that of40mA cm~(-2). The prepared electrode shows excellent ultrafastcharge-discharge rate and high capacity.
(5) Non-enzymatic glucose sensor with extended linearity based onfast conversion of Ni(OH)_2NiOOH and concentrated OH-： The Ni(OH)_2nanoparticles modified carbon (Ni(OH)_2/C) composite electrodeelectrode was prepared by in-situ precipitation of Ni(OH)_2on carbon andthen treated by cyclic voltammetry. Fast conversion of redox couple(Ni(OH)_2/NiOOH: NiII/NiIII) is established on the prepared electrodecoupling with concentrated COH-electrolyte. Continuous cyclicvoltammetry method with increasing the concentration of glucose on eachcycle step by step was employed to quickly determine linear range andappropriate potential for glucose detection in0.1,1and7M KOHelectrolyte. The amperometric measurement under the optimizedcondition (0.28V vs. SCE in7M KOH) indicates the Ni(OH)_2/Ccomposite electrode holds a sensitivity of1004.6A mM~(-1)cm~(-2)in thewide linear range of1×10~(-6)-1.5×10~(-2)M (R=0.9999). These performancesshow that the Ni(OH)_2/C nanocomposite electrode in concentrated KOHis a promising platform as glucose sensor.
引文
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