我国劳动力市场中的性别歧视与户籍歧视
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摘要
对歧视的研究已经形成了大量的成果,经济学家使用大量数据、利用计量经济学和统计方法对劳动力市场中的歧视也进行了深入研究。众多文献从不同角度解释了就业歧视存在的原因,并强调：就业歧视最终会导致劳动者、雇主乃至整个社会的福利水平降低,歧视行为对整个社会来说是低效率的。
然而,这些结论只能部分地被劳动力市场中的经验数据所证实。无论是完全竞争条件下,还是由于信息不对称等因素而形成的非完全竞争市场条件下的歧视理论模型,目前还都缺乏足够的实证研究来进行支撑。更为重要的是,目前还没有一个理论很好的回答歧视经济学中的核心问题：既然歧视是没有效率的,为什么在劳动力市场中还会长期存在?
劳动力市场中的歧视类型很多,我国劳动力市场中,性别歧视和户籍歧视是最主要的歧视形式。其中,性别歧视在大学生就业中表现尤为突出,而户籍是导致农民工就业歧视的主要因素。因此本文将研究重点集中于我国劳动力市场中的性别歧视与户籍歧视问题,并再次回答歧视为什么长期存在的问题。强调：基于通过传统因素所形成的歧视以及正式制度对于歧视的固化是导致中国劳动力市场中歧视长期存在的主要原因。
全文共分为七章。第一章导论,主要介绍了本文的写作目的、研究思路、研究方法、基本概念界定、论文框架结构以及本文的创新与不足。
第二章文献综述。先是梳理了早期有关劳动力市场歧视的研究,进而从劳动力市场中歧视的产生原因、社会效应、测度以及治理等方面对劳动力市场歧视研究的新进展进行了综述和评析,然后总结了对我国劳动力市场歧视现象进行研究的成果,最后单独综述了从制度角度研究劳动力市场歧视的为数不多的文献。
第三章概述了劳动力市场中的性别歧视与户籍歧视现象。性别歧视方面,首先从传统因素、现存的法律法规以及人力资本投资、市场机制等方面探讨了性别歧视产生的原因,然后通过一些统计数据说明性别歧视在劳动力市场中存在的严重程度,最后就性别歧视的社会经济效应进行了分析；户籍歧视方面,首先从户籍制度的产生、农民工的形成说明了农民工户籍歧视的由来,接着对户籍歧视的表现以及社会经济效应进行了分析。
第四章对大学生就业中的性别歧视进行了实证研究。采取问卷调查的形式,向山东省若干高校随机发放了800份问卷,计量分析发现：在众多影响大学生就业的因素中,性别是重要因素,这说明性别歧视在大学生就业中普遍存在。
第五章对农民工受到的户籍歧视进行了实证研究。通过对建筑业、家政业等劳动密集型行业的农民工和城市工人进行调查问卷,收集到了相关数据,经过计量分析发现：农民工受到的歧视主要是户籍歧视,即正式制度引起的歧视。
在对大学生就业中的性别歧视和农民工受到的户籍歧视进行实证分析后,第六章试图从内生制度理论的角度给出相应的理论解释,回答“歧视为什么会长期存在”的问题。认为：就业中性别歧视长期存在的主要原因是传统文化。在传统文化基础上形成的差别对待男女就业选择的非正式制度一旦形成之后,将长期发挥作用,由此导致就业选择中性别歧视长期存在。农民工就业歧视则是在城乡分割的大背景下形成并不断被强化的,户籍制度以及由该制度衍生出来的诸如社会保障制度、地方就业政策等正式制度逐渐将户籍歧视正式化、固定化,进而成为歧视中的中国特色。
第七章集中讨论歧视治理问题。尽管对于歧视是否应该被禁止就存在争议,反歧视法的效果也并不是十分清晰,但是反歧视的力度不断在加强也是各国立法的普遍趋势。美国的反歧视法律体系是最为完善的,而我国的反歧视立法不论是在体系还是实施方面都存在着缺陷。根据前文的分析,既然制度是劳动力市场歧视长期存在的重要因素,那么劳动力市场的歧视治理就要从消除不合理的户籍制度入手。性别歧视主要与传统观念有关,就要从推动传统观念转变入手。同时完善已有的反歧视立法,健全执法的环节和部门,强化执法,以最小化歧视带来的社会福利损失。
There have been fruitful research results in the area of discrimination. Based on mass of data, economists have conducted deep study on the discrimination existing in labor market using econometrics and statistical method. These articles exposit the reason why employment discrimination exists from different angles, and point out that employment discrimination will at the end results in the welfare loss of employees, employers, and even the society as a whole, or in another word, the behavior of discrimination is inefficiency to the society.
These results, however, can only be partially confirmed by the empirical data in the labor market. No matter in the perfect competition market, or in the imperfect competition market caused by factors like asymmetric information, there is not enough powerful empirical research to confirm the theoretical model of employment discrimination. More importantly, the core issue in discriminatory economics still has not been solved:why discrimination exists in the labor market for such a long time in spite of its inefficiency?
There are different kinds of discriminatory behavior in labor market, such as discrimination toward gender, household registration, age, race, disease, height and appearance. In China's labor market, discrimination toward gender and household registration dominate other kinds of discrimination. Specifically, GENDERual discrimination mainly exists in the graduate employment market, while household registration is the key factor leading to the discrimination against off-farm workers. As a result, this article will focus on the discrimination toward gender and household registration in China's labor market, and go a further step to explain the reason why discrimination exists for a long time. My conclusion is that, both the discrimination based on traditionally factors and consolidation of formal institution to it, are the main reasons of the long-time existence of discriminatory behavior in the labor market of out country.
This article consists of seven chapters. As a introduction, the first chapter includes the writing objective, research ideas and method, definition of basic concepts, and the structure of this article, as well as the innovation and shortage.
The second chapter, literature review, lists previous research about labor market discrimination, reviews and analyzes the latest study in this area from several aspects such as the very source, social effects, measurement, and regulation, summarizes existing research related to the discrimination behavior in China's labor market, and in a separate part reviews a few of articles which conduct research about labor market discrimination from the angle of institution.
In the third chapter, the writer gives an overview of the discriminatory phenomenon toward gender and household registration in the labor market. For GENDERual discrimination, the writer at first discusses the source of this kind of discrimination from the aspects of traditional factors, current laws and regulations, human capital investment and market mechanism, then exposits the severity and extent of the influence of GENDERual discrimination to the labor market on the basis of statistical data, and finally conducts a rigorous analysis on the social economic effects of GENDERual discrimination. For the discrimination toward household registration, the writer at first explains the cause of this kind of discrimination based on the source of household registration system and off-farm workers, and then analyzes the main performance and social economic effects of discrimination toward household registration.
The fourth chapter is the empirical research about the gender discrimination in the graduate employment market. The writer sent eight hundreds of questionnaire investigations to several universities in Shandong province, and the econometric analysis based on the investigations shows that gender is very important between the factors which influence the employment of the graduate students; moreover, gender discrimination is a prevailing phenomenon in the graduate employment market.
The fifth chapter is the empirical research about the discrimination toward household registration against off-farm workers. The writer collects mass of data through the questionnaire investigation oriented to some labor-intensive industries such as construction and home serving business. The econometric analysis points out that the discrimination against off-farm workers is mainly caused by household registration, i.e. formal institution.
After the empirical study on the two kinds of discrimination respectively against the graduate students and off-farm workers, the sixth chapter attempts to give a theoretical explanation from the angle of endogenous institution theory, and find a reasonable answer to the existence of discrimination. The writer thinks, the main reason of the long-time existence of gender discrimination is that once the informal institution related to the treatment difference to men and women based on tradition was formed, it will exert its effect in a long time, and lead to long-time existence of gender discrimination in the labor market. Discrimination against off-farm workers is gradually strengthened by the ground of urban-rural division. Household registration system and the resulting social security system, regional employment policy and other formal institutions formalize and consolidate this kind of discrimination step by step, and therefore make it be the specific feature in China's labor market.
In the seventh chapter, the writer focuses on the discussion about the regulation of discrimination. Despite of the controversy over "whether discrimination should be forbidden", and the effect of anti-discrimination law is still unclear, there is a general trend in the legislation effort to strengthen the extent of anti-discrimination in lots of countries. America's anti-discrimination law is the most complete version, while there are shortages in both the system and enforcement of the anti-discrimination law in our country. Therefore, in order to regulate the discriminatory behavior toward gender and household registration, the government has to conform to the basic logic behind the theoretical analysis:since institution is an important factor caused the long-time existence of labor market discrimination, the regulation should begin with institution. Based on the transmission of traditional conception, the government has to improve existing anti-discrimination law, develop the law enforcing department and strengthen the law enforcement, to minimize the welfare loss caused by labor market discrimination.
然而,这些结论只能部分地被劳动力市场中的经验数据所证实。无论是完全竞争条件下,还是由于信息不对称等因素而形成的非完全竞争市场条件下的歧视理论模型,目前还都缺乏足够的实证研究来进行支撑。更为重要的是,目前还没有一个理论很好的回答歧视经济学中的核心问题：既然歧视是没有效率的,为什么在劳动力市场中还会长期存在?
劳动力市场中的歧视类型很多,我国劳动力市场中,性别歧视和户籍歧视是最主要的歧视形式。其中,性别歧视在大学生就业中表现尤为突出,而户籍是导致农民工就业歧视的主要因素。因此本文将研究重点集中于我国劳动力市场中的性别歧视与户籍歧视问题,并再次回答歧视为什么长期存在的问题。强调：基于通过传统因素所形成的歧视以及正式制度对于歧视的固化是导致中国劳动力市场中歧视长期存在的主要原因。
全文共分为七章。第一章导论,主要介绍了本文的写作目的、研究思路、研究方法、基本概念界定、论文框架结构以及本文的创新与不足。
第二章文献综述。先是梳理了早期有关劳动力市场歧视的研究,进而从劳动力市场中歧视的产生原因、社会效应、测度以及治理等方面对劳动力市场歧视研究的新进展进行了综述和评析,然后总结了对我国劳动力市场歧视现象进行研究的成果,最后单独综述了从制度角度研究劳动力市场歧视的为数不多的文献。
第三章概述了劳动力市场中的性别歧视与户籍歧视现象。性别歧视方面,首先从传统因素、现存的法律法规以及人力资本投资、市场机制等方面探讨了性别歧视产生的原因,然后通过一些统计数据说明性别歧视在劳动力市场中存在的严重程度,最后就性别歧视的社会经济效应进行了分析；户籍歧视方面,首先从户籍制度的产生、农民工的形成说明了农民工户籍歧视的由来,接着对户籍歧视的表现以及社会经济效应进行了分析。
第四章对大学生就业中的性别歧视进行了实证研究。采取问卷调查的形式,向山东省若干高校随机发放了800份问卷,计量分析发现：在众多影响大学生就业的因素中,性别是重要因素,这说明性别歧视在大学生就业中普遍存在。
第五章对农民工受到的户籍歧视进行了实证研究。通过对建筑业、家政业等劳动密集型行业的农民工和城市工人进行调查问卷,收集到了相关数据,经过计量分析发现：农民工受到的歧视主要是户籍歧视,即正式制度引起的歧视。
在对大学生就业中的性别歧视和农民工受到的户籍歧视进行实证分析后,第六章试图从内生制度理论的角度给出相应的理论解释,回答“歧视为什么会长期存在”的问题。认为：就业中性别歧视长期存在的主要原因是传统文化。在传统文化基础上形成的差别对待男女就业选择的非正式制度一旦形成之后,将长期发挥作用,由此导致就业选择中性别歧视长期存在。农民工就业歧视则是在城乡分割的大背景下形成并不断被强化的,户籍制度以及由该制度衍生出来的诸如社会保障制度、地方就业政策等正式制度逐渐将户籍歧视正式化、固定化,进而成为歧视中的中国特色。
第七章集中讨论歧视治理问题。尽管对于歧视是否应该被禁止就存在争议,反歧视法的效果也并不是十分清晰,但是反歧视的力度不断在加强也是各国立法的普遍趋势。美国的反歧视法律体系是最为完善的,而我国的反歧视立法不论是在体系还是实施方面都存在着缺陷。根据前文的分析,既然制度是劳动力市场歧视长期存在的重要因素,那么劳动力市场的歧视治理就要从消除不合理的户籍制度入手。性别歧视主要与传统观念有关,就要从推动传统观念转变入手。同时完善已有的反歧视立法,健全执法的环节和部门,强化执法,以最小化歧视带来的社会福利损失。
There have been fruitful research results in the area of discrimination. Based on mass of data, economists have conducted deep study on the discrimination existing in labor market using econometrics and statistical method. These articles exposit the reason why employment discrimination exists from different angles, and point out that employment discrimination will at the end results in the welfare loss of employees, employers, and even the society as a whole, or in another word, the behavior of discrimination is inefficiency to the society.
These results, however, can only be partially confirmed by the empirical data in the labor market. No matter in the perfect competition market, or in the imperfect competition market caused by factors like asymmetric information, there is not enough powerful empirical research to confirm the theoretical model of employment discrimination. More importantly, the core issue in discriminatory economics still has not been solved:why discrimination exists in the labor market for such a long time in spite of its inefficiency?
There are different kinds of discriminatory behavior in labor market, such as discrimination toward gender, household registration, age, race, disease, height and appearance. In China's labor market, discrimination toward gender and household registration dominate other kinds of discrimination. Specifically, GENDERual discrimination mainly exists in the graduate employment market, while household registration is the key factor leading to the discrimination against off-farm workers. As a result, this article will focus on the discrimination toward gender and household registration in China's labor market, and go a further step to explain the reason why discrimination exists for a long time. My conclusion is that, both the discrimination based on traditionally factors and consolidation of formal institution to it, are the main reasons of the long-time existence of discriminatory behavior in the labor market of out country.
This article consists of seven chapters. As a introduction, the first chapter includes the writing objective, research ideas and method, definition of basic concepts, and the structure of this article, as well as the innovation and shortage.
The second chapter, literature review, lists previous research about labor market discrimination, reviews and analyzes the latest study in this area from several aspects such as the very source, social effects, measurement, and regulation, summarizes existing research related to the discrimination behavior in China's labor market, and in a separate part reviews a few of articles which conduct research about labor market discrimination from the angle of institution.
In the third chapter, the writer gives an overview of the discriminatory phenomenon toward gender and household registration in the labor market. For GENDERual discrimination, the writer at first discusses the source of this kind of discrimination from the aspects of traditional factors, current laws and regulations, human capital investment and market mechanism, then exposits the severity and extent of the influence of GENDERual discrimination to the labor market on the basis of statistical data, and finally conducts a rigorous analysis on the social economic effects of GENDERual discrimination. For the discrimination toward household registration, the writer at first explains the cause of this kind of discrimination based on the source of household registration system and off-farm workers, and then analyzes the main performance and social economic effects of discrimination toward household registration.
The fourth chapter is the empirical research about the gender discrimination in the graduate employment market. The writer sent eight hundreds of questionnaire investigations to several universities in Shandong province, and the econometric analysis based on the investigations shows that gender is very important between the factors which influence the employment of the graduate students; moreover, gender discrimination is a prevailing phenomenon in the graduate employment market.
The fifth chapter is the empirical research about the discrimination toward household registration against off-farm workers. The writer collects mass of data through the questionnaire investigation oriented to some labor-intensive industries such as construction and home serving business. The econometric analysis points out that the discrimination against off-farm workers is mainly caused by household registration, i.e. formal institution.
After the empirical study on the two kinds of discrimination respectively against the graduate students and off-farm workers, the sixth chapter attempts to give a theoretical explanation from the angle of endogenous institution theory, and find a reasonable answer to the existence of discrimination. The writer thinks, the main reason of the long-time existence of gender discrimination is that once the informal institution related to the treatment difference to men and women based on tradition was formed, it will exert its effect in a long time, and lead to long-time existence of gender discrimination in the labor market. Discrimination against off-farm workers is gradually strengthened by the ground of urban-rural division. Household registration system and the resulting social security system, regional employment policy and other formal institutions formalize and consolidate this kind of discrimination step by step, and therefore make it be the specific feature in China's labor market.
In the seventh chapter, the writer focuses on the discussion about the regulation of discrimination. Despite of the controversy over "whether discrimination should be forbidden", and the effect of anti-discrimination law is still unclear, there is a general trend in the legislation effort to strengthen the extent of anti-discrimination in lots of countries. America's anti-discrimination law is the most complete version, while there are shortages in both the system and enforcement of the anti-discrimination law in our country. Therefore, in order to regulate the discriminatory behavior toward gender and household registration, the government has to conform to the basic logic behind the theoretical analysis:since institution is an important factor caused the long-time existence of labor market discrimination, the regulation should begin with institution. Based on the transmission of traditional conception, the government has to improve existing anti-discrimination law, develop the law enforcing department and strengthen the law enforcement, to minimize the welfare loss caused by labor market discrimination.
引文
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