近代以来中国对外经济开放史研究
摘要
历史恰似一条割不断的时间链条，今天的发展只能建立在昨天的基础上。自晚清以来，中国的对外经济开放实际上是一个绵延不绝的体系。鸦片战争后，中国开始了被动、屈辱的对外经济开放进程。1978年开始的对外经济开放，成为中国走向繁荣富强的伟大转折点，具有划时代的历史意义。对外经济开放历时170多年，我国从封闭半封闭国家演变成全方位开放的国家。对外经济开放是总结历史经验的必然选择，是社会化大生产和经济全球化的客观要求，是建立和完善社会主义市场经济机制的客观需要，是社会主义国家吸收一切人类文明成果，赢得与资本主义国家比较优势的重要途径。回顾中国对外经济开放的伟大历程，总结中国对外开放的历史经验，探索新形势下扩大和优化对外经济开放的思路和对策，对于进一步提升我国对外经济开放水平，完善我国开放型经济体系，形成参与国际合作与竞争的新优势，具有非常重要的意义。
第1章是绪论。首先阐述了本文的研究背景及意义，并在此基础上，对国内外的有关对外经济开放研究现状进行了回顾，进而对论文的研究方法、内容安排及可能的创新之处进行了简单概括。第2章至第3章研究晚清对外经济开放。第4章至第7章研究中华民国时期的对外经济开放。第8章至第10章研究中华人民共和国的对外经济开放。第11章分析对外经济开放的特征、制约因素和经验教训，对中国从1840年到2010年的对外经济开放进行高度概括和提炼，对于中国进一步扩大和深化对外经济开放有着重要的参考价值。最后部分是结论，总结全文并对中国对外经济开放的未来研究方向做出展望。
在对中国对外经济开放进行全景式勾勒和概括后，得出以下主要结论：
（1）坚持实行对外经济开放是一个国家抓住重大战略机遇的关键。清政府因为历史眼光的局限性，错失重大历史机遇，失去人民的支持和信任，只能黯然淡出历史舞台。1978年实行的对外经济开放，以邓小平同志为核心的党中央，紧紧抓住世界产业转移的重大历史机遇，中国的发展得到全党和全国人民的衷心拥护，也赢得全世界人民的尊敬和赞叹。
（2）中国对外经济开放的特征是：从被动屈辱到主动可控；从任人宰割到实现双赢；从学习西方到中国特色；从漠视华侨到重视华侨；从闭关锁国到融入世界。
（3）中国对外经济开放的制约因素包括国际环境、国内环境、文化氛围、军事因素、技术因素、法律因素等等。
（4）中国对外经济开放的经验教训：对外经济开放要持之以恒；对外经济开放要稳中求进；对外经济开放要防范风险；对外经济开放要内外兼顾；对外经济开放要精心设计。
（5）对外经济开放必须与国内改革同步。如果只有对外开放，没有对内改革，对外开放既难以深入，也不可能持久。清政府向欧美派出留学生的时候，他们的如意算盘是：留学生只学习国外的先进技术，不学习西方的制度和文化，结果当留学生开始剪辫子、穿西装时，清政府认为留学生政治上已经不可靠，将留学生全部撤回。清政府甚至对百日维新运动镇压，拒绝进行改革，开历史的倒车，最终被历史无情淘汰。1978年开始的对外开放，具有留学经历的改革开放的总设计师邓小平指出：既要改革也要开放。可以说，对外开放带来了中国经济大发展大繁荣，如果没有国内的配套经济和政治改革，是难以保持30多年高速增长。
（6）对外经济开放要注重技术学习和制度学习的协调发展。技术的长远发展必须有一定社会的经济、政治、文化、法律制度作为根本保障。南京国民政府和清政府一样喜欢学习西方发达国家的技术，过分注重技术的模仿，惰于学习西方发达国家的制度。南京国民政府虽然建立了西方的宪政制度，但是本质上还是独裁统治，而这注定南京国民政府逃脱不了最终失败的命运。中国1978年开始的对外经济开放，既有技术层面的学习，也有经济、政治、文化制度方面的学习。在对外经济开放过程中，中国从社会主义计划经济过渡到社会主义市场经济，中国在2001年加入世界贸易组织。可以说，保证了中国对外经济开放又好又快发展。
（7）对外经济开放实际上就是制度安排和制度变迁的历史。中国通过对外经济开放，通过制度安排和制度设计，学习和引进世界上先进的经济制度和经济结构。就中国来说，都是开放在前，改革在后。改革的内容和方向，往往取决于中央政府对外经济开放的领域和路径设计。通过对外开放，中国逐步从自给自足为特征的自然经济向分工合作为特征的商品经济和市场经济过渡，从农业大国向工业大国不断迈进，中国制造誉满全球。通过对外经济开放，中国真正摆脱了贫穷落后，避免了落后挨打的悲剧。实际上，对外经济开放过程中，也是中国工业化不断发展的过程。时代在发展，社会在变迁，生产力的发展要求生产关系不断调整与之相适应。中国在改变，世界也在改变，中国对外经济开放也必然需要扩大和深化。以传统制造加工业为主体的经济结构，客观上存在着这样那样的问题，西方国家一直在对其不断调整和优化。对中国来说，粗放型和资源密集型为特征的经济发展方式已经难以持续，转变经济发展方式刻不容缓。就中国来说，要不断加强和改善党的领导，保持经济又好又快发展，切实转变经济发展方式，调整优化经济结构，提高对外经济开放水平，更好实施“走出去”战略，积极主动创造参与国际经济合作和竞争新优势。
本文力图在以下4个方面进行创新：
（1）对1840—2010年这170年的对外经济开放历史和进程进行全景式描述和概括。根据时间顺序，把对外经济开放分为清朝、北洋政府、南京国民政府、中华人民共和国四个重要阶段。对这170年对外经济开放进程和历史进行概括，为学术界研究中国对外经济开放提供有益的探索。
（2）对清朝、北洋政府、南京国民政府、中华人民共和国每个阶段的对外经济开放对国家经济发展的作用进行客观评价。对外开放的研究，当前最重要的是梳理基本历程，要从整体上作出客观准确的评价既需要研究时间更需要新的研究视角。
（3）对1840—2010年这170年的对外经济开放的特征、制约因素和经验教训进行研究总结，为中国进一步扩大和深化对外经济开放提供政策建议。
（4）对中国向外国派遣留学生进行概括和总结。全文对留学生派出的类别、留学生如何管理服务、留学生学习专业、留学生本身面临的问题和挑战等进行分析研究，对如何进一步吸引更多留学生回国服务提供建议。
History is like an unbroken chain of time, today’s development can only beestablished on the basis of yesterday. Since the late Qing Dynasty,China’s opening upis actually an unbroken system. After the Opium War,China began a passive andhumiliating process of opening up. In170years since China’s economic opening up tothe outside world, China has turned from a closed or semi closed country to an allsided open country,this is a significant historical turning point. Opening up is theinevitable choice of summing up historical experience,Opening up the large scalesocialized production and the objective requirements of economic globalization,Opening up is the establishment and perfection of socialist market economymechanism and the objective needs of the socialist countries absorption of all humancivilization including capitalist countries to win an important way of comparativeadvantage. it is if great significance to recall the great process of China’s economicopening up, to sum up the historical experience of China’s opening up, and to explorethe new ideas and strategies of expanding and optimizing China’s opening up,concerning the enhancing of China’s opening up to the outside world, perfecting ofChina’s opening type economic system, and the forming of new advantages inparticipating in international cooperation and competition.
Chapter1is introduction. First, this study describes the background andsignificance, and on this basis, the relevant domestic and international researches ofopening up are reviewed,and then on the research method,content,arrangement andpossible innovations briefly summarized. Chapter2to Chapter3research the lateQing opening up. Chapter4to Chapter7research the Republic of China’s opening upperiod. Chapter8to Chapter10research the PRC’s opening up.“Going out”is a majorchallenge facing.China’s opening up, and how to “go out” is one of China,s openingup weaknesses. Chapter11is to analyze the laws,characteristics, constraints andlessons of China’s opening up from1840to2010, to summarize,refine and sublimateChina’s opening up,which has important reference value for China to further expandand deepen its opening up. where summary is made, while making prospects for thefuture research directions of China’s opening up to the outside world.
After sketching China’s opening up,we draw the following conclusions:
(1) Adhere to the implementation of opening up is the key for countries to seize major strategic opportunity. Qing Dynasty missed opportunity because of thelimitations of history, Qing Dynasty had resigned out the stage of history because ofloss of people’s support and trust. China have adhere to the implementation ofopening up since1978, the CPC Central Committee headed by Comrade DengXiaoping, firmly grasp the world’s great historical opportunity for industry transfer,China’s development has been won the support of the people from whole Party and thewholehearted, also won the respect and admiration of people around the world.
(2) The characteristics of China’s opening up is: From passive and humiliationto active control; from slaughter by west countries to achieve win-win situation; Fromstudy West to form Chinese characteristics; From neglect overseas Chinese to attachimportance to overseas Chinese from; from closed-door policy to the integration intothe world.
(3) There are several constraints China’s opening up, including internationalenvironment and domestic environment, culture, military factors, technical factors,legal factors, and so on.
(4) There are several lessons for China’s opening up: Opening up must persevere;progress of opening up must maintain stability; Opening up must prevent thepotential risk; Opening up must develop both domestic market and international;Opening up must be designed carefully.
(5) Opening up and domestic reform must be synchronized. Without domesticreform further opening up is difficult and can not be sustained. Qing government sentstudents to Europe and American, they ordered students only learn advancedtechnology, not learn the system and culture, when the students began to cut braidsand wearing Western style clothes, the Qing government thank those students is nolonger politics reliable and the withdraw students. Qing government even suppressedthe Hundred Days Reform movement, refused to carry out reforms, turn the clockback, eventually the history eliminated ruthlessly Qing government. The opening upfrom1978, Deng Xiaoping who has studied abroad is chief architect of the reform andopening up,he pointed out: we must also adhere to reform and opening up. opening upleading to China’s economic development and prosperity.It is difficult to maintainover30years of rapid growth for China without domestic supporting economic andpolitical reforms.
(6)During process of opening up,we must handling relations betweentechnological learning and system learning. Long-term technology development musthave a certain social and economic, political, cultural, legal system as the fundamental guarantee. Nanjing National Government and the Qing governmentstudied Western developed countries like the same technology, too much focus ontechnology imitation, lazy to learn the system of Western countries. Nanjing NationalGovernment has established the Western constitutional system, but the essence is stillauthoritarian rule, which doomed the Nanjing national government can not escape theultimate defeat. China’s opening up from1978focus on not only learning thetechnical aspects but also learning economic, political and cultural system.Duringprocess of opening up, China transition from a socialist planned economy to asocialist market economy, China accessed to the World Trade Organization in2001. Itensure china’s opening up delevop sound and rapid.
(7) Opening up is actually institutional arrangements and institutional changes inhistory. China learn and the introduce world advanced economic system and economicstructure by institutional arrangements and system design during opening up, through.For China, opening up go first, reform follow opening up. Content and direction ofreform often depends on the field of opening up and path design by the centralgovernment. By opening up, China has gradually changed from a self-sufficientnatural economy to commodity economy and a market economy which characterizedby the division of labor, from agricultural country to industrial country. Made inChina is famous around the world. By opening up, China is real to be distant frompoverty and backwardness, to avoid the tragedy behind beaten. In fact, the process ofopening upalso the continuous development of China’s industrialization process. Astime goes on, society changes, the productive forces develop constantly requireadjust the relations of production corresponding.Both China and world are changing,China’s opening up will inevitably need to expand and deepen. Traditionalmanufacturing and processing industries as the main economic structure existobjective such problems, the Western countries have continuously adjust and optimizeits. For China, The mode of economic development which characterized withextensive and resource-intensive can not sustainable any more,it is imperative totransform the economic development mode. We must strengthen and improve Partyleadership, maintain fast economic growth, effectively transform the mode ofeconomic development, adjust and optimize the economic structure and improving thelevel of opening up, better implementation of “going out” strategy, Activelyparticipate in international economic cooperation and competition and create newcompetitive advantages.
There are the following four aspects of innovation in the doctoral dissertation:
(1) Describing and summarizing the history of opening up and panoramicprocesses from1840to2010. According to chronological order, there are fourimportant stages: Qing Dynasty,the Beiyang Government, National Government, andthe People’s Republic of China. Summarizing170years history of opening up is toprovide useful exploration for the academic study of China’s opening up.
(2) Objective evaluation of opening up of each stage from1840to2010. Atpresent, the most important thing in researching China’s opening up is to understandits basic history, and it needs both historical accumulation and new researchperspectives to make an accurate assessment.
(3) Describing and summarizing the characteristics, constraints, experiences, andlessons of China’s opening up, which provide reference policies on how to expand anddeepen China’s opening up.
(4) Summarizing the history of China’s sending students abroad: the dissertationanalyzes the types of students to be sent overseas, how to administer and provideservice to them, their majors, as well as the problems and challenges faced byoverseas students, while providing suggestions on how to attract more overseasstudents to return home after their graduation.
第1章是绪论。首先阐述了本文的研究背景及意义，并在此基础上，对国内外的有关对外经济开放研究现状进行了回顾，进而对论文的研究方法、内容安排及可能的创新之处进行了简单概括。第2章至第3章研究晚清对外经济开放。第4章至第7章研究中华民国时期的对外经济开放。第8章至第10章研究中华人民共和国的对外经济开放。第11章分析对外经济开放的特征、制约因素和经验教训，对中国从1840年到2010年的对外经济开放进行高度概括和提炼，对于中国进一步扩大和深化对外经济开放有着重要的参考价值。最后部分是结论，总结全文并对中国对外经济开放的未来研究方向做出展望。
在对中国对外经济开放进行全景式勾勒和概括后，得出以下主要结论：
（1）坚持实行对外经济开放是一个国家抓住重大战略机遇的关键。清政府因为历史眼光的局限性，错失重大历史机遇，失去人民的支持和信任，只能黯然淡出历史舞台。1978年实行的对外经济开放，以邓小平同志为核心的党中央，紧紧抓住世界产业转移的重大历史机遇，中国的发展得到全党和全国人民的衷心拥护，也赢得全世界人民的尊敬和赞叹。
（2）中国对外经济开放的特征是：从被动屈辱到主动可控；从任人宰割到实现双赢；从学习西方到中国特色；从漠视华侨到重视华侨；从闭关锁国到融入世界。
（3）中国对外经济开放的制约因素包括国际环境、国内环境、文化氛围、军事因素、技术因素、法律因素等等。
（4）中国对外经济开放的经验教训：对外经济开放要持之以恒；对外经济开放要稳中求进；对外经济开放要防范风险；对外经济开放要内外兼顾；对外经济开放要精心设计。
（5）对外经济开放必须与国内改革同步。如果只有对外开放，没有对内改革，对外开放既难以深入，也不可能持久。清政府向欧美派出留学生的时候，他们的如意算盘是：留学生只学习国外的先进技术，不学习西方的制度和文化，结果当留学生开始剪辫子、穿西装时，清政府认为留学生政治上已经不可靠，将留学生全部撤回。清政府甚至对百日维新运动镇压，拒绝进行改革，开历史的倒车，最终被历史无情淘汰。1978年开始的对外开放，具有留学经历的改革开放的总设计师邓小平指出：既要改革也要开放。可以说，对外开放带来了中国经济大发展大繁荣，如果没有国内的配套经济和政治改革，是难以保持30多年高速增长。
（6）对外经济开放要注重技术学习和制度学习的协调发展。技术的长远发展必须有一定社会的经济、政治、文化、法律制度作为根本保障。南京国民政府和清政府一样喜欢学习西方发达国家的技术，过分注重技术的模仿，惰于学习西方发达国家的制度。南京国民政府虽然建立了西方的宪政制度，但是本质上还是独裁统治，而这注定南京国民政府逃脱不了最终失败的命运。中国1978年开始的对外经济开放，既有技术层面的学习，也有经济、政治、文化制度方面的学习。在对外经济开放过程中，中国从社会主义计划经济过渡到社会主义市场经济，中国在2001年加入世界贸易组织。可以说，保证了中国对外经济开放又好又快发展。
（7）对外经济开放实际上就是制度安排和制度变迁的历史。中国通过对外经济开放，通过制度安排和制度设计，学习和引进世界上先进的经济制度和经济结构。就中国来说，都是开放在前，改革在后。改革的内容和方向，往往取决于中央政府对外经济开放的领域和路径设计。通过对外开放，中国逐步从自给自足为特征的自然经济向分工合作为特征的商品经济和市场经济过渡，从农业大国向工业大国不断迈进，中国制造誉满全球。通过对外经济开放，中国真正摆脱了贫穷落后，避免了落后挨打的悲剧。实际上，对外经济开放过程中，也是中国工业化不断发展的过程。时代在发展，社会在变迁，生产力的发展要求生产关系不断调整与之相适应。中国在改变，世界也在改变，中国对外经济开放也必然需要扩大和深化。以传统制造加工业为主体的经济结构，客观上存在着这样那样的问题，西方国家一直在对其不断调整和优化。对中国来说，粗放型和资源密集型为特征的经济发展方式已经难以持续，转变经济发展方式刻不容缓。就中国来说，要不断加强和改善党的领导，保持经济又好又快发展，切实转变经济发展方式，调整优化经济结构，提高对外经济开放水平，更好实施“走出去”战略，积极主动创造参与国际经济合作和竞争新优势。
本文力图在以下4个方面进行创新：
（1）对1840—2010年这170年的对外经济开放历史和进程进行全景式描述和概括。根据时间顺序，把对外经济开放分为清朝、北洋政府、南京国民政府、中华人民共和国四个重要阶段。对这170年对外经济开放进程和历史进行概括，为学术界研究中国对外经济开放提供有益的探索。
（2）对清朝、北洋政府、南京国民政府、中华人民共和国每个阶段的对外经济开放对国家经济发展的作用进行客观评价。对外开放的研究，当前最重要的是梳理基本历程，要从整体上作出客观准确的评价既需要研究时间更需要新的研究视角。
（3）对1840—2010年这170年的对外经济开放的特征、制约因素和经验教训进行研究总结，为中国进一步扩大和深化对外经济开放提供政策建议。
（4）对中国向外国派遣留学生进行概括和总结。全文对留学生派出的类别、留学生如何管理服务、留学生学习专业、留学生本身面临的问题和挑战等进行分析研究，对如何进一步吸引更多留学生回国服务提供建议。
History is like an unbroken chain of time, today’s development can only beestablished on the basis of yesterday. Since the late Qing Dynasty,China’s opening upis actually an unbroken system. After the Opium War,China began a passive andhumiliating process of opening up. In170years since China’s economic opening up tothe outside world, China has turned from a closed or semi closed country to an allsided open country,this is a significant historical turning point. Opening up is theinevitable choice of summing up historical experience,Opening up the large scalesocialized production and the objective requirements of economic globalization,Opening up is the establishment and perfection of socialist market economymechanism and the objective needs of the socialist countries absorption of all humancivilization including capitalist countries to win an important way of comparativeadvantage. it is if great significance to recall the great process of China’s economicopening up, to sum up the historical experience of China’s opening up, and to explorethe new ideas and strategies of expanding and optimizing China’s opening up,concerning the enhancing of China’s opening up to the outside world, perfecting ofChina’s opening type economic system, and the forming of new advantages inparticipating in international cooperation and competition.
Chapter1is introduction. First, this study describes the background andsignificance, and on this basis, the relevant domestic and international researches ofopening up are reviewed,and then on the research method,content,arrangement andpossible innovations briefly summarized. Chapter2to Chapter3research the lateQing opening up. Chapter4to Chapter7research the Republic of China’s opening upperiod. Chapter8to Chapter10research the PRC’s opening up.“Going out”is a majorchallenge facing.China’s opening up, and how to “go out” is one of China,s openingup weaknesses. Chapter11is to analyze the laws,characteristics, constraints andlessons of China’s opening up from1840to2010, to summarize,refine and sublimateChina’s opening up,which has important reference value for China to further expandand deepen its opening up. where summary is made, while making prospects for thefuture research directions of China’s opening up to the outside world.
After sketching China’s opening up,we draw the following conclusions:
(1) Adhere to the implementation of opening up is the key for countries to seize major strategic opportunity. Qing Dynasty missed opportunity because of thelimitations of history, Qing Dynasty had resigned out the stage of history because ofloss of people’s support and trust. China have adhere to the implementation ofopening up since1978, the CPC Central Committee headed by Comrade DengXiaoping, firmly grasp the world’s great historical opportunity for industry transfer,China’s development has been won the support of the people from whole Party and thewholehearted, also won the respect and admiration of people around the world.
(2) The characteristics of China’s opening up is: From passive and humiliationto active control; from slaughter by west countries to achieve win-win situation; Fromstudy West to form Chinese characteristics; From neglect overseas Chinese to attachimportance to overseas Chinese from; from closed-door policy to the integration intothe world.
(3) There are several constraints China’s opening up, including internationalenvironment and domestic environment, culture, military factors, technical factors,legal factors, and so on.
(4) There are several lessons for China’s opening up: Opening up must persevere;progress of opening up must maintain stability; Opening up must prevent thepotential risk; Opening up must develop both domestic market and international;Opening up must be designed carefully.
(5) Opening up and domestic reform must be synchronized. Without domesticreform further opening up is difficult and can not be sustained. Qing government sentstudents to Europe and American, they ordered students only learn advancedtechnology, not learn the system and culture, when the students began to cut braidsand wearing Western style clothes, the Qing government thank those students is nolonger politics reliable and the withdraw students. Qing government even suppressedthe Hundred Days Reform movement, refused to carry out reforms, turn the clockback, eventually the history eliminated ruthlessly Qing government. The opening upfrom1978, Deng Xiaoping who has studied abroad is chief architect of the reform andopening up,he pointed out: we must also adhere to reform and opening up. opening upleading to China’s economic development and prosperity.It is difficult to maintainover30years of rapid growth for China without domestic supporting economic andpolitical reforms.
(6)During process of opening up,we must handling relations betweentechnological learning and system learning. Long-term technology development musthave a certain social and economic, political, cultural, legal system as the fundamental guarantee. Nanjing National Government and the Qing governmentstudied Western developed countries like the same technology, too much focus ontechnology imitation, lazy to learn the system of Western countries. Nanjing NationalGovernment has established the Western constitutional system, but the essence is stillauthoritarian rule, which doomed the Nanjing national government can not escape theultimate defeat. China’s opening up from1978focus on not only learning thetechnical aspects but also learning economic, political and cultural system.Duringprocess of opening up, China transition from a socialist planned economy to asocialist market economy, China accessed to the World Trade Organization in2001. Itensure china’s opening up delevop sound and rapid.
(7) Opening up is actually institutional arrangements and institutional changes inhistory. China learn and the introduce world advanced economic system and economicstructure by institutional arrangements and system design during opening up, through.For China, opening up go first, reform follow opening up. Content and direction ofreform often depends on the field of opening up and path design by the centralgovernment. By opening up, China has gradually changed from a self-sufficientnatural economy to commodity economy and a market economy which characterizedby the division of labor, from agricultural country to industrial country. Made inChina is famous around the world. By opening up, China is real to be distant frompoverty and backwardness, to avoid the tragedy behind beaten. In fact, the process ofopening upalso the continuous development of China’s industrialization process. Astime goes on, society changes, the productive forces develop constantly requireadjust the relations of production corresponding.Both China and world are changing,China’s opening up will inevitably need to expand and deepen. Traditionalmanufacturing and processing industries as the main economic structure existobjective such problems, the Western countries have continuously adjust and optimizeits. For China, The mode of economic development which characterized withextensive and resource-intensive can not sustainable any more,it is imperative totransform the economic development mode. We must strengthen and improve Partyleadership, maintain fast economic growth, effectively transform the mode ofeconomic development, adjust and optimize the economic structure and improving thelevel of opening up, better implementation of “going out” strategy, Activelyparticipate in international economic cooperation and competition and create newcompetitive advantages.
There are the following four aspects of innovation in the doctoral dissertation:
(1) Describing and summarizing the history of opening up and panoramicprocesses from1840to2010. According to chronological order, there are fourimportant stages: Qing Dynasty,the Beiyang Government, National Government, andthe People’s Republic of China. Summarizing170years history of opening up is toprovide useful exploration for the academic study of China’s opening up.
(2) Objective evaluation of opening up of each stage from1840to2010. Atpresent, the most important thing in researching China’s opening up is to understandits basic history, and it needs both historical accumulation and new researchperspectives to make an accurate assessment.
(3) Describing and summarizing the characteristics, constraints, experiences, andlessons of China’s opening up, which provide reference policies on how to expand anddeepen China’s opening up.
(4) Summarizing the history of China’s sending students abroad: the dissertationanalyzes the types of students to be sent overseas, how to administer and provideservice to them, their majors, as well as the problems and challenges faced byoverseas students, while providing suggestions on how to attract more overseasstudents to return home after their graduation.
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