西方早期教师职业发展探究
摘要
本文通过对从古希腊罗马到文艺复兴时期教师职业发展的史料分析，探究正规教师教育出现之前西方早期教师职业的发展状况。以职业教师关注的重心转移为主线，将古希腊罗马到文艺复兴时期的教师职业发展分为处于知识研究阶段的古希腊教师、转向教学方法研究阶段的古罗马教师、进行神学研究阶段的中世纪教师和注重教学对象研究阶段的人文主义教师四个阶段，并总结出了各时期教师职业发展的主要特征。
全文分为五部分。第一部分探究了处于知识研究阶段的古希腊教师。把教师的职业群体划分为收费的智者派教师和不收费的哲学派教师，并以普罗泰戈拉和古希腊三哲为个案分析了此阶段教师职业的总体特征。古希腊教师并未形成统一的职业群体，教学存在很大的随意性，教师对教材持排斥态度，其社会地位由于收费而得到改善，知识在教师职业的形成中扮演了不可或缺的角色。第二部分论述了转向教学方法研究阶段的古罗马教师。并对昆体良和他的《雄辩术原理》进行了个案研究，古罗马教师职业已经趋向形成统一的职业标准，教师职业活动有了初步的理论总结，并得到了国家的正式认可。第三部分叙述了进行神学研究阶段的中世纪教师，并以经院哲学家教师阿伯拉尔和托马斯·阿奎那为例分析了此阶段的教师特征，中世纪的教师职业严重的神学性，但也出现了人文主义的思想萌芽。第四部分研究了注重教学对象研究阶段的人文主义教师，并对维多利诺和马尔卡斯特进行了个案研究。人文主义教师职业的角色得到了拓展，不仅是知识的教导者，更是信仰的捍卫者，开始重视学生的主体性地位，并出现了教师教育的萌芽，提出建立特定教师培训机构的设想。最后在结语部分总结了西方早期教师职业的发展趋势及其特点，以及古代教师社会地位低下的历史根源。
对西方早期教师职业状况的探究，以及对教师职业发展阶段及其主要特征的分析，有利于更全面的认识西方早期教师职业的状况和发展趋势。其次，有利于从历史的角度更加深刻地认识正规教师教育产生和发展的历史背景，从而突破以往教师教育研究的范围。目前外国教育史学界对于西方早期教师职业发展尚缺乏系统的研究，因此本文的研究同时也促进了外国教育史的学科建设，在一定程度上弥补了对西方早期教师职业研究的不足。
This article, by analyzing the historical material of teaching profession development from the ancient Greek and Roman period to Renaissance, explores the development condition of Western teaching profession before normal teacher education appeared. The author, focusing on the change of professional teachers' attention, classifies the teaching development from the ancient Greek and Roman period to Renaissance into three phases: the phase of ancient Greek teachers, who paid attention to knowledge research, the phase of ancient Roman teachers, who paid attention to pedagogical research, the phase of medieval teachers, who paid attention to theological research and the phase of humanist teachers, who paid attention to teaching objects, and summarizes the main features of teaching profession development in each phase.
This article falls into five parts. The first part distinguishes the school of the sophists, who accepted pupils' money for teaching, and the school of philosophy, analyzing the general features of this phase by studying the cases of Protagoras and Three Greek Philosophers. The author argues that ancient Greek teachers did not form a united professional group, that there existed great arbitrariness in teaching, that teachers repulsed textbooks, that their social status was improved by being paid and that knowledge played an important role in the formation of the teaching profession. The second part studies ancient Roman teachers. The author, by analyzes the cases of Quintilianus and his work, draws the conclusion that the teaching profession had had the tendency of forming unified professional standards, that there appeared some theoretical summary of teacher's professional activities, and that these activities were approved by the state. The third part studies medieval teachers. The author, analyzes the cases of scholastic teachers 桺ierre Abelard and Thomas Aquinas, deems that although medieval teaching profession embodied serious theology, it appeared humanism bud. The forth part studies humanist teachers of the forth phase. The author, after analyzing the cases of Vhtorino and Mulcaster, claims that teachers of this phase had their role expanded, that they were not only custodians of the moral of the young, but also defenders of the faith, that the subject position of students began to be attached importance, that there began to appear the shape of teachers education. The end of the article summarizes the development tendency and features of the Western teaching profession and analyzes the historical factors that caused ancient teachers' low social status.
The studies of the earlier western teaching professional condition, teaching profession development phases and their features facilitate understanding in a more comprehensive way earlier western teaching professional condition and development tendency, and understanding in a more profound way the historical background of the formation and development of formal teachers' education, thus breaking the range of previous research in teachers' education. Up to now the foreign educational history field of our country has not carried out systematic studies of the teaching profession conditions of earlier western societies; therefore, the study of this article helps to enhance the discipline construction of foreign educational history and, to some extent, adds to the research of earlier western teaching profession.
全文分为五部分。第一部分探究了处于知识研究阶段的古希腊教师。把教师的职业群体划分为收费的智者派教师和不收费的哲学派教师，并以普罗泰戈拉和古希腊三哲为个案分析了此阶段教师职业的总体特征。古希腊教师并未形成统一的职业群体，教学存在很大的随意性，教师对教材持排斥态度，其社会地位由于收费而得到改善，知识在教师职业的形成中扮演了不可或缺的角色。第二部分论述了转向教学方法研究阶段的古罗马教师。并对昆体良和他的《雄辩术原理》进行了个案研究，古罗马教师职业已经趋向形成统一的职业标准，教师职业活动有了初步的理论总结，并得到了国家的正式认可。第三部分叙述了进行神学研究阶段的中世纪教师，并以经院哲学家教师阿伯拉尔和托马斯·阿奎那为例分析了此阶段的教师特征，中世纪的教师职业严重的神学性，但也出现了人文主义的思想萌芽。第四部分研究了注重教学对象研究阶段的人文主义教师，并对维多利诺和马尔卡斯特进行了个案研究。人文主义教师职业的角色得到了拓展，不仅是知识的教导者，更是信仰的捍卫者，开始重视学生的主体性地位，并出现了教师教育的萌芽，提出建立特定教师培训机构的设想。最后在结语部分总结了西方早期教师职业的发展趋势及其特点，以及古代教师社会地位低下的历史根源。
对西方早期教师职业状况的探究，以及对教师职业发展阶段及其主要特征的分析，有利于更全面的认识西方早期教师职业的状况和发展趋势。其次，有利于从历史的角度更加深刻地认识正规教师教育产生和发展的历史背景，从而突破以往教师教育研究的范围。目前外国教育史学界对于西方早期教师职业发展尚缺乏系统的研究，因此本文的研究同时也促进了外国教育史的学科建设，在一定程度上弥补了对西方早期教师职业研究的不足。
This article, by analyzing the historical material of teaching profession development from the ancient Greek and Roman period to Renaissance, explores the development condition of Western teaching profession before normal teacher education appeared. The author, focusing on the change of professional teachers' attention, classifies the teaching development from the ancient Greek and Roman period to Renaissance into three phases: the phase of ancient Greek teachers, who paid attention to knowledge research, the phase of ancient Roman teachers, who paid attention to pedagogical research, the phase of medieval teachers, who paid attention to theological research and the phase of humanist teachers, who paid attention to teaching objects, and summarizes the main features of teaching profession development in each phase.
This article falls into five parts. The first part distinguishes the school of the sophists, who accepted pupils' money for teaching, and the school of philosophy, analyzing the general features of this phase by studying the cases of Protagoras and Three Greek Philosophers. The author argues that ancient Greek teachers did not form a united professional group, that there existed great arbitrariness in teaching, that teachers repulsed textbooks, that their social status was improved by being paid and that knowledge played an important role in the formation of the teaching profession. The second part studies ancient Roman teachers. The author, by analyzes the cases of Quintilianus and his work, draws the conclusion that the teaching profession had had the tendency of forming unified professional standards, that there appeared some theoretical summary of teacher's professional activities, and that these activities were approved by the state. The third part studies medieval teachers. The author, analyzes the cases of scholastic teachers 桺ierre Abelard and Thomas Aquinas, deems that although medieval teaching profession embodied serious theology, it appeared humanism bud. The forth part studies humanist teachers of the forth phase. The author, after analyzing the cases of Vhtorino and Mulcaster, claims that teachers of this phase had their role expanded, that they were not only custodians of the moral of the young, but also defenders of the faith, that the subject position of students began to be attached importance, that there began to appear the shape of teachers education. The end of the article summarizes the development tendency and features of the Western teaching profession and analyzes the historical factors that caused ancient teachers' low social status.
The studies of the earlier western teaching professional condition, teaching profession development phases and their features facilitate understanding in a more comprehensive way earlier western teaching professional condition and development tendency, and understanding in a more profound way the historical background of the formation and development of formal teachers' education, thus breaking the range of previous research in teachers' education. Up to now the foreign educational history field of our country has not carried out systematic studies of the teaching profession conditions of earlier western societies; therefore, the study of this article helps to enhance the discipline construction of foreign educational history and, to some extent, adds to the research of earlier western teaching profession.
引文
1、E. B. Castle, The Teacher, Oxford University Press 1970.
2、Kenneth J. Freeman, Schools of Hellas, Macmillan and CO., Limited ST. Martin's Street, 1907.
3、Translated by Wilmer C. Wright, Philostratus and Eunapous Lives of the Sophists, Harvard University Press, London, 1952.
4、William. H. Burnham, Great Teachers and Mental Health, D. Appleton and Company, London 1926.
5、Pearl Cleveland Wilson, The living Socrates, Publishers, Inc. 1975.
6、W Norman Pittenger, Plato His Life and Teachings, 1971.
7、Cyrilwinn and Maurice Jacks, Aristotle His thought and its relevance today, Methuen& CO LTD, 1967.
8、Willian M Small, Quintilian on Education, T. C. Press, 1971.
9、H. G. Good, A History of Western Education, The Macmillan Company 1960.
10、Thomas Davidson, A History of Education, Charles Scribner's sons, New York, 1908.
11、Paul. Monroe, A Brief Course in the History of Education, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1918.
12、Ellwood P. Cubberley, Reading in the History of Education, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1920.
13、Paul. Monroe, A Text-book in the History of Education, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1912.
14、Ellwood P. Cubberley, A brief History of Education, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1922.
15、Ellwood P. Cubberley, The History of Education, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1920.
16、Frederik Eby, The History and Philosophy of Education Ancient and Medieval, New York, Prentice-Hall, INC, 1946.
17、Frank Pierrepont Graves, A History of Education (before the middle age), The Macmillan Company, New York, 1921.
18、Frank Pierrepont Graves, A Student's History of Education, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1923.
19、Willian Taylor, Society and the Education of Teachers, Faber and Faber LTD, London, 1969.
20、S. J. Curtis, M. A, PH. D, M. E. A. Boultwood, M. A., A Short History of Educational Ideas, University Tutorial Press, LTD, 1958.
21、Hermann Weimer, Concise History of Education, Peter Owen, London, 1963.
22、Willian Boyd, The History of Western Education, A. &. C. Black, Limited, London, 1921.
23、H. I. Marrou, translated by George Lamb, The history of education in Antiquity, University of Wisconsin Press, 1982.
24、Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Harcourt Brace and Company, New York, 1960.
25、Frederik Eby, The Development of Modern Education, New York, Prentice-Hall, INC, 1946.
26、James Mulhern, A History of Education, The Ronald Press Company, New York, 1945.
27、Mehdi Nakosteen, History of Islamic Origins of Western Education A. D. 800-1350, University of Colorado Press, 1964.
28、Robert Holmes Beck, A Social History of Education, Prentic-Hall, INC, Englewood, Cliffs, N. J. 1965.
29、Charles Homer Haskins, The Rise of Universities, Cornell University Press, 1957.
30、A. B. Cobban, The Medieval Universities: their Development and Organization, Methuen & Co Ltd, 1975.
31、赵祥麟主编：《外国教育家评传》，上海教育出版社 1992年版。
32、滕大春主编：《外国教育通史》，山东教育出版社 1995年第二版。
33、吴式颖主编：《外国教育史教程》，人民教育出版社 1999年版。
34、曹孚等编：《外国古代教育史》，人民教育出版社 1981年版。
35、佛罗斯特著，吴元训等译：《外国教育的历史和哲学基础》，华夏出版社 1987年版。
36、赵荣昌、单中惠主编：《外国教育史参考资料》，华东师范大学出版社 1991年版。
37、E.P.克伯雷选编，任宝祥、任钟印主译：《外国教育史资料》，华中师范大学出版社 1991年版。
38、任钟印：《昆体良教育论著选》，人民教育出版社 1989年版。
39、诸宏启著：《走出中世纪》，北京师大出版社 2000年版。
40、勒戈夫著，张弘译：《中世纪的知识分子》，商务印书馆 1999年版。
41、布兰著，杨国政译：《柏拉图及其学园》，商务印书馆 1999年版。
42、中野幸次著，骆重宾译：《苏格拉底》，新华出版社 1988年版。
43、让·布伦著，傅勇强译：《苏格拉底》，商务印书馆 1997年版。
44、A·E·泰勒著，周濂 朱万国译：《苏格拉底》，山东人民出版社 1998年版。
45、托太哈(Dr.KhalilA.Totah)著，马坚译：《回族教育史》，商务印书馆印行，1946年版。
46、瞿葆奎主编：《教育学文集·教师》，人民教育出版社 1991年版。
47、叶澜等著：《教师角色与教师发展新探》，教育科学出版社 2001年版。
48、戴本博主编：《外国教育史》(上、中、下)，人民教育出版社 1989年版。
49、王天一编著：《外国教育史》，北京师范大学出版社 1984年版。
50、柯费尔德著，刘开会、徐名驹译：《智者运动》，兰州大学出版社 1996年版。
51、陈永明主编：《现代教师论》，上海教育出版社 1999年版。
52、周国黎著：《伊斯兰教育与科学》，中国社会科学出版社 1999年版。
53、于漪主编：《现代教师学概论》，上海教育出版社 1999年版。
54、程方平著：《新师说》，湖南教育出版社 1999年版。
55、梁忠义、罗正华分卷主编：《教师教育》，吉林教育出版社 1998年版。
2、Kenneth J. Freeman, Schools of Hellas, Macmillan and CO., Limited ST. Martin's Street, 1907.
3、Translated by Wilmer C. Wright, Philostratus and Eunapous Lives of the Sophists, Harvard University Press, London, 1952.
4、William. H. Burnham, Great Teachers and Mental Health, D. Appleton and Company, London 1926.
5、Pearl Cleveland Wilson, The living Socrates, Publishers, Inc. 1975.
6、W Norman Pittenger, Plato His Life and Teachings, 1971.
7、Cyrilwinn and Maurice Jacks, Aristotle His thought and its relevance today, Methuen& CO LTD, 1967.
8、Willian M Small, Quintilian on Education, T. C. Press, 1971.
9、H. G. Good, A History of Western Education, The Macmillan Company 1960.
10、Thomas Davidson, A History of Education, Charles Scribner's sons, New York, 1908.
11、Paul. Monroe, A Brief Course in the History of Education, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1918.
12、Ellwood P. Cubberley, Reading in the History of Education, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1920.
13、Paul. Monroe, A Text-book in the History of Education, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1912.
14、Ellwood P. Cubberley, A brief History of Education, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1922.
15、Ellwood P. Cubberley, The History of Education, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1920.
16、Frederik Eby, The History and Philosophy of Education Ancient and Medieval, New York, Prentice-Hall, INC, 1946.
17、Frank Pierrepont Graves, A History of Education (before the middle age), The Macmillan Company, New York, 1921.
18、Frank Pierrepont Graves, A Student's History of Education, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1923.
19、Willian Taylor, Society and the Education of Teachers, Faber and Faber LTD, London, 1969.
20、S. J. Curtis, M. A, PH. D, M. E. A. Boultwood, M. A., A Short History of Educational Ideas, University Tutorial Press, LTD, 1958.
21、Hermann Weimer, Concise History of Education, Peter Owen, London, 1963.
22、Willian Boyd, The History of Western Education, A. &. C. Black, Limited, London, 1921.
23、H. I. Marrou, translated by George Lamb, The history of education in Antiquity, University of Wisconsin Press, 1982.
24、Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Harcourt Brace and Company, New York, 1960.
25、Frederik Eby, The Development of Modern Education, New York, Prentice-Hall, INC, 1946.
26、James Mulhern, A History of Education, The Ronald Press Company, New York, 1945.
27、Mehdi Nakosteen, History of Islamic Origins of Western Education A. D. 800-1350, University of Colorado Press, 1964.
28、Robert Holmes Beck, A Social History of Education, Prentic-Hall, INC, Englewood, Cliffs, N. J. 1965.
29、Charles Homer Haskins, The Rise of Universities, Cornell University Press, 1957.
30、A. B. Cobban, The Medieval Universities: their Development and Organization, Methuen & Co Ltd, 1975.
31、赵祥麟主编：《外国教育家评传》，上海教育出版社 1992年版。
32、滕大春主编：《外国教育通史》，山东教育出版社 1995年第二版。
33、吴式颖主编：《外国教育史教程》，人民教育出版社 1999年版。
34、曹孚等编：《外国古代教育史》，人民教育出版社 1981年版。
35、佛罗斯特著，吴元训等译：《外国教育的历史和哲学基础》，华夏出版社 1987年版。
36、赵荣昌、单中惠主编：《外国教育史参考资料》，华东师范大学出版社 1991年版。
37、E.P.克伯雷选编，任宝祥、任钟印主译：《外国教育史资料》，华中师范大学出版社 1991年版。
38、任钟印：《昆体良教育论著选》，人民教育出版社 1989年版。
39、诸宏启著：《走出中世纪》，北京师大出版社 2000年版。
40、勒戈夫著，张弘译：《中世纪的知识分子》，商务印书馆 1999年版。
41、布兰著，杨国政译：《柏拉图及其学园》，商务印书馆 1999年版。
42、中野幸次著，骆重宾译：《苏格拉底》，新华出版社 1988年版。
43、让·布伦著，傅勇强译：《苏格拉底》，商务印书馆 1997年版。
44、A·E·泰勒著，周濂 朱万国译：《苏格拉底》，山东人民出版社 1998年版。
45、托太哈(Dr.KhalilA.Totah)著，马坚译：《回族教育史》，商务印书馆印行，1946年版。
46、瞿葆奎主编：《教育学文集·教师》，人民教育出版社 1991年版。
47、叶澜等著：《教师角色与教师发展新探》，教育科学出版社 2001年版。
48、戴本博主编：《外国教育史》(上、中、下)，人民教育出版社 1989年版。
49、王天一编著：《外国教育史》，北京师范大学出版社 1984年版。
50、柯费尔德著，刘开会、徐名驹译：《智者运动》，兰州大学出版社 1996年版。
51、陈永明主编：《现代教师论》，上海教育出版社 1999年版。
52、周国黎著：《伊斯兰教育与科学》，中国社会科学出版社 1999年版。
53、于漪主编：《现代教师学概论》，上海教育出版社 1999年版。
54、程方平著：《新师说》，湖南教育出版社 1999年版。
55、梁忠义、罗正华分卷主编：《教师教育》，吉林教育出版社 1998年版。