区域贸易协定内技术性贸易壁垒问题研究
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摘要
进入20世纪90年代以来,由于多边贸易体制谈判的受阻,各个国家纷纷转向区域性的贸易谈判,因此在经济全球化迅速发展的同时,区域经济一体化也出现了迅猛的发展势头。尤其在近几年,区域贸易协定在保持高速增长的同时,其涉及的领域和问题也越来越广泛,涵盖了货物贸易、原产地规则及操作程序、海关程序与合作、贸易救济、卫生与植物卫生措施、技术性贸易壁垒、自然人移动、投资、知识产权、透明度、合作、管理与机制条款、争端解决等多方面内容。而随着传统的关税壁垒和非关税壁垒如配额、补贴等逐步消减,技术性贸易壁垒已成为当前保护贸易的最重要工具,由于其具有复杂性、隐蔽性和双重性等特征,被认为是最难突破的贸易壁垒。伴随着近期的金融危机,贸易保护主义又有所抬头,仅2009年前10个月向WTO通报的技术性贸易壁垒数量已经1673份,是近5年同期通报数量最多的一年,比2008年增加了16%。
由于多边贸易体制对技术性贸易壁垒消除的不利,各个国家纷纷通过区域贸易协定谈判来制订出比WTO更深入的政策措施对技术性贸易壁垒进行规范和消除,这使得技术性贸易壁垒谈判成为了目前区域贸易协定谈判中的最重要部分之一。近几年签署的区域贸易协定内,几乎都包括了专门的技术性贸易壁垒条款章节。由于技术性贸易壁垒问题的介入,传统的以关税为分析基础的区域贸易协定理论已经不能再满足现实的需要,这对区域贸易协定和技术性贸易壁垒的研究提出了新的课题。
本文以此为切入点,首先系统的分析了当前区域贸易协定内技术性贸易壁垒条款的主要内容,通过对多边区域贸易协定组织和目前比较流行的双边自由贸易协定进行比较分析,得出了不同层次国家在区域贸易协定内对技术性贸易壁垒的不同规定以及采取消除技术性贸易壁垒的不同方式。在此基础上,本文对区域贸易协定的传统理论进行了拓展,把技术性贸易壁垒引入了区域贸易协定理论当中,弥补了传统以关税为基础的分析方法对非关税壁垒尤其是技术性贸易壁垒分析的欠缺,指出区域贸易协定内对技术性贸易壁垒的规定,其目的在于通过消除区域内技术性贸易壁垒,促进区域经济一体化的实现。由于对区域贸易协定内的技术性贸易壁垒的消除,既具有开放区域主义的特征,又具有潜在的歧视性,导致了其贸易效应的不确定性。本文实证部分首先对异质企业理论进行拓展,从企业层面上来分析区域贸易协定内技术性贸易壁垒的消除对出口企业的出口成本、进而对企业决策的影响；然后通过把消除技术性贸易壁垒的两种政策工具——协调和互认引入拓展的引力模型,对东盟和欧盟内部实施消除技术性贸易壁垒政策的效果进行了实证分析,结果发现：东盟和欧盟对区域内实行的协调和互认政策,促进了区域内成员国贸易的提高,但是协调对区域外第三方的影响不确定,其效果与一国的经济发展水平有关,发达国家由于在技术水平上领先可以获得比发展中国家更多的收益。就欧盟和东盟的标准协调对区域外第三方影响效果而言,结果表明参照国际标准比参照区域标准进行标准协调的效果更好,国际标准要比区域标准更能促进贸易自由化开展。最后,针对中国当前参与的区域贸易协定,分析了其中的技术性贸易壁垒条款内容、特点和存在的问题,并在此基础上,提出了我国今后进行区域贸易协定内技术性贸易壁垒谈判的策略和我国政府及企业应对当前区域贸易协定内技术性贸易壁垒的建议。
Since the 1990s, due to the blocked negotiations on the multilateral trading system, various countries have turned to regional trade negotiations, so the rapid development of economic globalization, regional economic integration has also appeared in the momentum of rapid development. Especially in recent years, regional trade agreements, while maintaining rapid growth, its areas and issues involved in more and more extensive, covering trade in goods, rules of origin and procedures, customs procedures and cooperation, trade remedies, sanitary and phytosanitary measures, technical barriers to trade movement of natural persons, investment, intellectual property rights, transparency, cooperation, management and mechanical terms, dispute settlement and other aspects. With the traditional barriers and nontariff barriers such as quotas and subsidies will gradually reduce technical barriers to trade has become the most important tool to protect trade, because of its complexity, such as concealment and double features, is considered the most difficult to break through barriers to trade. With the recent financial crisis, the rise of trade protectionism, only the first 10 months of 2009, notified to the WTO Technical Barriers to Trade volume has 1673 copies in the last five years, which is the highest number in the past five years, and an increase of 16% over the same period in 2008.
As the multilateral trading system on technical barriers to eliminate the negative, all countries have through the regional trade agreement negotiations to develop a more in-depth than the WTO technical barriers to trade policy measures to regulate, which makes the technical barriers to trade negotiations, regional trade agreements as the current negotiations One of the most important part. In recent years, the signing of regional trade agreements, almost all technical barriers to trade, include the special provisions of chapter. As the technical barriers to trade issues involved, the traditional tariff analysis based theory of regional trade agreements can no longer meet the real needs, which regional trade agreements and technical barriers to trade research has raised new issues.
This paper uses it as the starting point, the first systematic analysis of the current regional trade agreements the principal terms of the content of technical barriers to trade, regional trade agreements on multilateral organizations and the more popular current bilateral free trade agreements comparative analysis shows that countries with different levels in regional trade agreements on technical barriers to trade and adopt different provisions of different ways to eliminate technical barriers. On this basis, on regional trade agreements the paper has expanded the traditional theory, the technical barriers to trade into the theory of regional trade agreements which make up the traditional tariff-based analysis method of non-tariff barriers, especially the lack of technical barriers to trade. Regional trade agreements on technical barriers to trade within the provisions aimed at eliminating technical barriers to trade within the region and promote the realization of regional economic integration. As regional trade agreements on technical trade barriers, not only has the characteristics of open regionalism, but also potentially discriminatory, leading to uncertainty in its trade effects. Then, this theory on the heterogeneous enterprise development, come from the enterprise level of technical barriers to trade within regional trade agreements, the elimination of the export cost of export enterprises, and thus the impact of business decisions. Then, through the elimination of technical barriers to trade two policy tools-the introduction of co-ordination and mutual recognition of the gravity model of development, ASEAN and the EU implemented a policy to eliminate the effect of technical barriers to trade an empirical analysis, found:Association of Southeast Asian Nations and the EU co-ordination within the region to implement policies to promote regional trade within the member countries to improve, but the impact of third parties outside the region and the level of economic development, the level of developed countries as the leading technology available in developing countries more than income. For the bilateral mutual recognition agreements for the trade of the region and beyond both countries to promote, but if related to the discriminatory rules of origin of bilateral mutual recognition agreements, which may lead to extra-regional trade to the transfer of the region, makes the extra-regional third-party interests. Finally, for China's current participation in regional trade agreements, analysis of one of the technical barriers to trade terms, characteristics and problems, and on this basis, the paper proposes the strategies that China should adopt in the negotiation about technical barriers to trade and the countermeasures for the Government and corporate to response to the current technical barriers to trade within regional trade agreements the proposal.
由于多边贸易体制对技术性贸易壁垒消除的不利,各个国家纷纷通过区域贸易协定谈判来制订出比WTO更深入的政策措施对技术性贸易壁垒进行规范和消除,这使得技术性贸易壁垒谈判成为了目前区域贸易协定谈判中的最重要部分之一。近几年签署的区域贸易协定内,几乎都包括了专门的技术性贸易壁垒条款章节。由于技术性贸易壁垒问题的介入,传统的以关税为分析基础的区域贸易协定理论已经不能再满足现实的需要,这对区域贸易协定和技术性贸易壁垒的研究提出了新的课题。
本文以此为切入点,首先系统的分析了当前区域贸易协定内技术性贸易壁垒条款的主要内容,通过对多边区域贸易协定组织和目前比较流行的双边自由贸易协定进行比较分析,得出了不同层次国家在区域贸易协定内对技术性贸易壁垒的不同规定以及采取消除技术性贸易壁垒的不同方式。在此基础上,本文对区域贸易协定的传统理论进行了拓展,把技术性贸易壁垒引入了区域贸易协定理论当中,弥补了传统以关税为基础的分析方法对非关税壁垒尤其是技术性贸易壁垒分析的欠缺,指出区域贸易协定内对技术性贸易壁垒的规定,其目的在于通过消除区域内技术性贸易壁垒,促进区域经济一体化的实现。由于对区域贸易协定内的技术性贸易壁垒的消除,既具有开放区域主义的特征,又具有潜在的歧视性,导致了其贸易效应的不确定性。本文实证部分首先对异质企业理论进行拓展,从企业层面上来分析区域贸易协定内技术性贸易壁垒的消除对出口企业的出口成本、进而对企业决策的影响；然后通过把消除技术性贸易壁垒的两种政策工具——协调和互认引入拓展的引力模型,对东盟和欧盟内部实施消除技术性贸易壁垒政策的效果进行了实证分析,结果发现：东盟和欧盟对区域内实行的协调和互认政策,促进了区域内成员国贸易的提高,但是协调对区域外第三方的影响不确定,其效果与一国的经济发展水平有关,发达国家由于在技术水平上领先可以获得比发展中国家更多的收益。就欧盟和东盟的标准协调对区域外第三方影响效果而言,结果表明参照国际标准比参照区域标准进行标准协调的效果更好,国际标准要比区域标准更能促进贸易自由化开展。最后,针对中国当前参与的区域贸易协定,分析了其中的技术性贸易壁垒条款内容、特点和存在的问题,并在此基础上,提出了我国今后进行区域贸易协定内技术性贸易壁垒谈判的策略和我国政府及企业应对当前区域贸易协定内技术性贸易壁垒的建议。
Since the 1990s, due to the blocked negotiations on the multilateral trading system, various countries have turned to regional trade negotiations, so the rapid development of economic globalization, regional economic integration has also appeared in the momentum of rapid development. Especially in recent years, regional trade agreements, while maintaining rapid growth, its areas and issues involved in more and more extensive, covering trade in goods, rules of origin and procedures, customs procedures and cooperation, trade remedies, sanitary and phytosanitary measures, technical barriers to trade movement of natural persons, investment, intellectual property rights, transparency, cooperation, management and mechanical terms, dispute settlement and other aspects. With the traditional barriers and nontariff barriers such as quotas and subsidies will gradually reduce technical barriers to trade has become the most important tool to protect trade, because of its complexity, such as concealment and double features, is considered the most difficult to break through barriers to trade. With the recent financial crisis, the rise of trade protectionism, only the first 10 months of 2009, notified to the WTO Technical Barriers to Trade volume has 1673 copies in the last five years, which is the highest number in the past five years, and an increase of 16% over the same period in 2008.
As the multilateral trading system on technical barriers to eliminate the negative, all countries have through the regional trade agreement negotiations to develop a more in-depth than the WTO technical barriers to trade policy measures to regulate, which makes the technical barriers to trade negotiations, regional trade agreements as the current negotiations One of the most important part. In recent years, the signing of regional trade agreements, almost all technical barriers to trade, include the special provisions of chapter. As the technical barriers to trade issues involved, the traditional tariff analysis based theory of regional trade agreements can no longer meet the real needs, which regional trade agreements and technical barriers to trade research has raised new issues.
This paper uses it as the starting point, the first systematic analysis of the current regional trade agreements the principal terms of the content of technical barriers to trade, regional trade agreements on multilateral organizations and the more popular current bilateral free trade agreements comparative analysis shows that countries with different levels in regional trade agreements on technical barriers to trade and adopt different provisions of different ways to eliminate technical barriers. On this basis, on regional trade agreements the paper has expanded the traditional theory, the technical barriers to trade into the theory of regional trade agreements which make up the traditional tariff-based analysis method of non-tariff barriers, especially the lack of technical barriers to trade. Regional trade agreements on technical barriers to trade within the provisions aimed at eliminating technical barriers to trade within the region and promote the realization of regional economic integration. As regional trade agreements on technical trade barriers, not only has the characteristics of open regionalism, but also potentially discriminatory, leading to uncertainty in its trade effects. Then, this theory on the heterogeneous enterprise development, come from the enterprise level of technical barriers to trade within regional trade agreements, the elimination of the export cost of export enterprises, and thus the impact of business decisions. Then, through the elimination of technical barriers to trade two policy tools-the introduction of co-ordination and mutual recognition of the gravity model of development, ASEAN and the EU implemented a policy to eliminate the effect of technical barriers to trade an empirical analysis, found:Association of Southeast Asian Nations and the EU co-ordination within the region to implement policies to promote regional trade within the member countries to improve, but the impact of third parties outside the region and the level of economic development, the level of developed countries as the leading technology available in developing countries more than income. For the bilateral mutual recognition agreements for the trade of the region and beyond both countries to promote, but if related to the discriminatory rules of origin of bilateral mutual recognition agreements, which may lead to extra-regional trade to the transfer of the region, makes the extra-regional third-party interests. Finally, for China's current participation in regional trade agreements, analysis of one of the technical barriers to trade terms, characteristics and problems, and on this basis, the paper proposes the strategies that China should adopt in the negotiation about technical barriers to trade and the countermeasures for the Government and corporate to response to the current technical barriers to trade within regional trade agreements the proposal.
引文
2张曙光等：中国贸易自由化进程的理论思考,经济研究,1996(11)。
3 Baldwin, Robert(1970a),Non-Tariff Distortions in International Trade,Brookings Institute,Washington.
4其实,这种分类比较笼统,主要基于本文的分析所需。关于RTA的详细分类,刘德标(2009)认为：RTA发展的基本模式可以分为5类：双边RTA(1+1)；多边RTA；双边自由贸易协定+n；多边RTA+n；双边或多边自由贸易协定+双边或多边自由贸易协定；双边或多边自由贸易协定+双边或多边自由贸易协定+n。
5本文分析时还是把欧盟作为北北型RTA。
Bal66 Baldwin,Robert.Non-tariff Distortions of International Trade,The Brookings Institution, Washington DC.1970.
7 Roberts Donna,Timothy E.Josling,David Orden.A Framework Analyzing Techincal Trade Barriers in Agericulture Markets,Economics Research Service Staff Paper, US Department of Agriculture,1999.
8在国内,更多人称之为技术性贸易壁垒理性化。
9鲍晓华：技术性贸易壁垒的经济效应和政策选择——基于发展中国家视角的分析,上海财经大学出版社,2007.3
10 Chen and Matoo (2004)把标准的严格度作为一个变量对区域内标准协调进行分析,认为更严格标准的选择可以增加区域内外国家的贸易量。王耀中(2007)利用空间竞争模型中的Hotelling模型对区域内协调标准的差异性进行分析,得出的结论是强势标准的选择得到的区域福利要大于弱势标准的区域福利。
11这存在一种风险,当区域内拥有不同标准的国家进行互认时,各国政府可能具有降低标准的动机并引发“标准竞劣”行为,这样国内企业可以获得成本优势。但是,用作贸易的产品质量及安全性将受到威胁。
12 Baldwin.Richard.The Growth Effect of 1992.Economic Policy.October 1989.
13罗布森,国际一体化经济学,上海,上海译文出版社,2001。
14托利,区域贸易协定,国际货币基金组织不定期出版物,1993,p39。
115 Norman D. Palmer, The New Regionalism in Asia andthe Pacific (Lexington:Lexington Books,1991), p 1-19.
16刘德彪、张秀娥：区域贸易协定概论,中国金融出版社,2010。
17 Yi,Sang-Seung(1996). "Endogenous Fomuationg of Customs Union under Imperfect Competition:Open Regionalism is Good".Journal of International Economics, Vol.41.
18刘德标,《区域贸易协定概论》,中国商务出版社,2009.10,p56。
19技术性贸易壁垒研究综述,吉睿
20 Otsuki.Tsunehiro.John S.Wilson and Mirvat Sewadelf.Saving Two in a Billion:A case Study to Quantify the Trade Effect of Euroean Food Safety Standards on African Exports. World Bank Paper, Washington DC.2000.
23WTO秘书处：2003年世界贸易报告,P46。
24封闭的RTA在拉美和撒哈拉沙漠以南的非洲等地广为存在,不过近年来的RTA更多地采取了同时削减优惠关税和最惠国待遇(MFN)关税的开放主义原则。
25王海峰等编著：WTO法律规则与非关税壁垒约束机制,上海财经大学出版社,2000。
26技术壁垒资源网,http://www.tbtmap.cn。
27IS0主席菲利普斯和IEC主席布赖特联名发表的代表了国际标准界意见的评论文章指出：“欧盟的这种本身对标准化的过分需求,必将形成一个地区内部贸易的局面,这势必也将导致世界上其他平行的地理、经济区域为对付被排除在外而试图形成自己的标准化的危险”。
28汪贵顺：非法技术性贸易壁垒的危害性分析及对策研究,武汉大学学报(社会科学版),2009(1)。
29小林友彦：作为国际制度的地区贸易协定——日本经济合作协定的比较分析,经济产业杂志2007.12
30 Caroline Lesser. Do Bilateral and Regional Approaches for Reducing Technical Barriers to Trade Converge Towards the Multilateral Trading System? OECD Working Paper,2007,p17.
31 Andrew L.Stoler. TBT and SPS Provisions in Regional Trading Agreenments.Conference on Regional Integration in Asia and Europe Sussex. United Kingdom 14-15 September 2009
32张海东、朱钟棣：技术性贸易壁垒理性化路径研究——兼论发展中国家的问题与出路,世界经济与政治,2005(3)。
33 WTO/TBT的2.2条款
34陈淑梅：技术标准化与欧洲经济一体化,欧洲研究,2004(2)。
36 Mona Haddad. Overcoming Trade Barriers from Standards and Technical Regulations.The Word Bank Paper 42720,2008.p20-23.
37此处参考了2001年APEC标准与合格评定分委员会第三次会议会议,这次议题共20项,包括与国际标准一致化,良好法规行为,合格评定互认,基础技术结构建设、透明度、WTO协议,SCSC项目、集体行动计划(CAP)等项内容。
38陈淑梅：技术标准化与欧洲经济一体化,欧洲研究,2004(2)。
39 Nico Meyer. Bilateral and Regional Trade Agreements and Technical Barriers to Trade:an African Perspective. OECD Headquarters,Paris,2009.
40 Baldwin, R.E. Regulatory Protectionism, Developing nations and a Two-Tier World Trade System. Centre for Economic Policy Research (CEPR) Discussion Paper No.2574, CEPR, London,2000.
41 William L. Bliss. Can Existing Networks Facilitate Global Monitoring? Security Management, Vol.38, June 1994.
42 Joel P.Thachtman.Toward Open Recognition? John H.Jackson ed. Journal of International Economic Law,2003,6(2)p.459-492
43这种情况常在南南型RTA中看到,如非洲一些国家之间签署的RTA。
44对于欧盟实现技术性贸易壁垒自由化的方式在下一节将有具体分析。
45内记香子：地区贸易协定对“技术性贸易壁垒”的处理——以相互承认的制度为中心.RIETA研究论文,2006.5。
46田东文：新视角下的标准与国际贸易,中国标准出版社。2009.3.P39
47 Chen. Maggie X. and A. Mattoo. Regionalism in Standards:Good or Bad for Trade? World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No 3458. World Bank, Washington, DC,2005.
48鲍晓华：技术性贸易壁垒的经济效应和政策选择——基于发展中国家视角的分析,上海财经大学出版社2007.3,p186
49 APEC在1999年要求包括东盟在各个成员国在通讯设备、电子和电气设备、电气安全、F电磁兼容部门开展双边互认。
51表达式的具体推导请参见Helpman, Elhanan, M. Melitz and Y. Rubinstein (2004) "Trading Partners and Trading Volumes".
53张雨,于津平,“发展中国家参与区域经济合作的动因及政策选择”,《南京社会科学》2007年第7期。
54刘昌黎著：《东亚双边自由贸易研究》,东北财经大学出版社,大连,2007年。
55朱艳李淑贞,“区域经济合作发展趋势及我国的对策”,《北方经济》,2006年第2期。
56 Piermartini and Budetta(2006)考察了58个具有TBT款的RTA,涵盖了不同地区和不同经济发展水平的国家, 分别从对WTO/TBT的参考、协调、技术法规等效化、双边互认的合格评定程序、透明度、执行和解决争端、深层次的合作共7方面对其中的TBT条款进行分析研究。
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175.全毅：国际社会对技术性贸易壁垒的协调与规范,福建论坛(人文社会科学版),2007(8)。
176.孙敬水：技术性贸易壁垒的经济分析,中国物资出版社,2005.1。
177.田东文：新视角下的标准与国际贸易,中国标准出版社,2009.3。
178.汪贵顺：非法技术性贸易壁垒的危害性分析及对策研究,武汉大学学报(社会科学版),2009(1)。
179.小林友彦：作为国际制度的地区贸易协定——日本经济合作协定的比较分析,经济产业杂志2007(12)。
180.肖德：上海合作组织区域经济合作的问题研究,人民出版社,2009.5。
181.杨艳红：中外WTO技术性贸易壁垒的绩效差异分析,中南财经政法大学学报,2009(5)。
182.叶辅靖：走向FTA建立中国东盟自由贸易区的战略与对策,中国计划出版社. 2004.05。
183.张丽娟：美国商务外交策略,经济科学出版社,2005.7。
184.张永忠：中国-东盟政府间经济合作法律机制研究,暨南大学出版社,2007.9。
185.张海东、朱钟棣：技术性贸易壁垒理性化路径研究——兼论发展中国家的问题与出路,世界经济与政治,2005(3)。
186.朱钟棣：“合规性”贸易壁垒的应对和应用研究,人民出版社,2007.1。
3 Baldwin, Robert(1970a),Non-Tariff Distortions in International Trade,Brookings Institute,Washington.
4其实,这种分类比较笼统,主要基于本文的分析所需。关于RTA的详细分类,刘德标(2009)认为：RTA发展的基本模式可以分为5类：双边RTA(1+1)；多边RTA；双边自由贸易协定+n；多边RTA+n；双边或多边自由贸易协定+双边或多边自由贸易协定；双边或多边自由贸易协定+双边或多边自由贸易协定+n。
5本文分析时还是把欧盟作为北北型RTA。
Bal66 Baldwin,Robert.Non-tariff Distortions of International Trade,The Brookings Institution, Washington DC.1970.
7 Roberts Donna,Timothy E.Josling,David Orden.A Framework Analyzing Techincal Trade Barriers in Agericulture Markets,Economics Research Service Staff Paper, US Department of Agriculture,1999.
8在国内,更多人称之为技术性贸易壁垒理性化。
9鲍晓华：技术性贸易壁垒的经济效应和政策选择——基于发展中国家视角的分析,上海财经大学出版社,2007.3
10 Chen and Matoo (2004)把标准的严格度作为一个变量对区域内标准协调进行分析,认为更严格标准的选择可以增加区域内外国家的贸易量。王耀中(2007)利用空间竞争模型中的Hotelling模型对区域内协调标准的差异性进行分析,得出的结论是强势标准的选择得到的区域福利要大于弱势标准的区域福利。
11这存在一种风险,当区域内拥有不同标准的国家进行互认时,各国政府可能具有降低标准的动机并引发“标准竞劣”行为,这样国内企业可以获得成本优势。但是,用作贸易的产品质量及安全性将受到威胁。
12 Baldwin.Richard.The Growth Effect of 1992.Economic Policy.October 1989.
13罗布森,国际一体化经济学,上海,上海译文出版社,2001。
14托利,区域贸易协定,国际货币基金组织不定期出版物,1993,p39。
115 Norman D. Palmer, The New Regionalism in Asia andthe Pacific (Lexington:Lexington Books,1991), p 1-19.
16刘德彪、张秀娥：区域贸易协定概论,中国金融出版社,2010。
17 Yi,Sang-Seung(1996). "Endogenous Fomuationg of Customs Union under Imperfect Competition:Open Regionalism is Good".Journal of International Economics, Vol.41.
18刘德标,《区域贸易协定概论》,中国商务出版社,2009.10,p56。
19技术性贸易壁垒研究综述,吉睿
20 Otsuki.Tsunehiro.John S.Wilson and Mirvat Sewadelf.Saving Two in a Billion:A case Study to Quantify the Trade Effect of Euroean Food Safety Standards on African Exports. World Bank Paper, Washington DC.2000.
23WTO秘书处：2003年世界贸易报告,P46。
24封闭的RTA在拉美和撒哈拉沙漠以南的非洲等地广为存在,不过近年来的RTA更多地采取了同时削减优惠关税和最惠国待遇(MFN)关税的开放主义原则。
25王海峰等编著：WTO法律规则与非关税壁垒约束机制,上海财经大学出版社,2000。
26技术壁垒资源网,http://www.tbtmap.cn。
27IS0主席菲利普斯和IEC主席布赖特联名发表的代表了国际标准界意见的评论文章指出：“欧盟的这种本身对标准化的过分需求,必将形成一个地区内部贸易的局面,这势必也将导致世界上其他平行的地理、经济区域为对付被排除在外而试图形成自己的标准化的危险”。
28汪贵顺：非法技术性贸易壁垒的危害性分析及对策研究,武汉大学学报(社会科学版),2009(1)。
29小林友彦：作为国际制度的地区贸易协定——日本经济合作协定的比较分析,经济产业杂志2007.12
30 Caroline Lesser. Do Bilateral and Regional Approaches for Reducing Technical Barriers to Trade Converge Towards the Multilateral Trading System? OECD Working Paper,2007,p17.
31 Andrew L.Stoler. TBT and SPS Provisions in Regional Trading Agreenments.Conference on Regional Integration in Asia and Europe Sussex. United Kingdom 14-15 September 2009
32张海东、朱钟棣：技术性贸易壁垒理性化路径研究——兼论发展中国家的问题与出路,世界经济与政治,2005(3)。
33 WTO/TBT的2.2条款
34陈淑梅：技术标准化与欧洲经济一体化,欧洲研究,2004(2)。
36 Mona Haddad. Overcoming Trade Barriers from Standards and Technical Regulations.The Word Bank Paper 42720,2008.p20-23.
37此处参考了2001年APEC标准与合格评定分委员会第三次会议会议,这次议题共20项,包括与国际标准一致化,良好法规行为,合格评定互认,基础技术结构建设、透明度、WTO协议,SCSC项目、集体行动计划(CAP)等项内容。
38陈淑梅：技术标准化与欧洲经济一体化,欧洲研究,2004(2)。
39 Nico Meyer. Bilateral and Regional Trade Agreements and Technical Barriers to Trade:an African Perspective. OECD Headquarters,Paris,2009.
40 Baldwin, R.E. Regulatory Protectionism, Developing nations and a Two-Tier World Trade System. Centre for Economic Policy Research (CEPR) Discussion Paper No.2574, CEPR, London,2000.
41 William L. Bliss. Can Existing Networks Facilitate Global Monitoring? Security Management, Vol.38, June 1994.
42 Joel P.Thachtman.Toward Open Recognition? John H.Jackson ed. Journal of International Economic Law,2003,6(2)p.459-492
43这种情况常在南南型RTA中看到,如非洲一些国家之间签署的RTA。
44对于欧盟实现技术性贸易壁垒自由化的方式在下一节将有具体分析。
45内记香子：地区贸易协定对“技术性贸易壁垒”的处理——以相互承认的制度为中心.RIETA研究论文,2006.5。
46田东文：新视角下的标准与国际贸易,中国标准出版社。2009.3.P39
47 Chen. Maggie X. and A. Mattoo. Regionalism in Standards:Good or Bad for Trade? World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No 3458. World Bank, Washington, DC,2005.
48鲍晓华：技术性贸易壁垒的经济效应和政策选择——基于发展中国家视角的分析,上海财经大学出版社2007.3,p186
49 APEC在1999年要求包括东盟在各个成员国在通讯设备、电子和电气设备、电气安全、F电磁兼容部门开展双边互认。
51表达式的具体推导请参见Helpman, Elhanan, M. Melitz and Y. Rubinstein (2004) "Trading Partners and Trading Volumes".
53张雨,于津平,“发展中国家参与区域经济合作的动因及政策选择”,《南京社会科学》2007年第7期。
54刘昌黎著：《东亚双边自由贸易研究》,东北财经大学出版社,大连,2007年。
55朱艳李淑贞,“区域经济合作发展趋势及我国的对策”,《北方经济》,2006年第2期。
56 Piermartini and Budetta(2006)考察了58个具有TBT款的RTA,涵盖了不同地区和不同经济发展水平的国家, 分别从对WTO/TBT的参考、协调、技术法规等效化、双边互认的合格评定程序、透明度、执行和解决争端、深层次的合作共7方面对其中的TBT条款进行分析研究。
57杨艳红：中外WTO技术性贸易壁垒的绩效差异分析,中南财经政法大学学报,2009(5)。
58孙敬水：技术性贸易壁垒的经济分析,中国物资出版社,2005.1。
59全毅：国际社会对技术性贸易壁垒的协调与规范,福建论坛(人文社会科学版),2007.8。
61郝学子：区域贸易协定内的技术性贸易壁垒研究,对外经贸大学硕士论文。2006
62李丽,区域贸易协定发展与技术性贸易壁垒,国际贸易,2009,4。
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