乔治·吉辛作品中的作家生存危机
摘要
本论文研究乔治·吉辛作品中的作家生存危机这一主题。过去数十年的研究表明,在英国十九世纪后期的文学作品中,吉辛作品突出反映了这一主题,是该时期文化景观研究中一个不可或缺的部分。然而,在仔细梳理了近一个世纪的吉辛研究成果后,我们发现该主题仍有待于进一步的研究。国外的相关研究成果为数不少,但还未曾有过专门的研究著作。国内的吉辛研究仍处于起步阶段,尚无专著出版,相关论文则更是稀少。所以,本论文试图在已有的研究基础上,对该主题做一个系统性的研究。此处选取最能体现主题的四部作品作为主要研究对象,结合吉辛其他作品、传记及相关研究资料,挖掘作品中所体现的十九世纪后期作家生存危机的时代特征和形成原因,并探讨其中各种应对危机的尝试,从整体上把握作者对危机的认识。
第一章通过解读作品中多名作家的死亡结局,阐明作家在十九世纪后期遭遇到一个前所未有的生存危机。作品中频繁地出现身处绝境的作家人物。他们大都在为生存而抗争的过程中不幸坠入死亡的深渊。同大多数维多利亚小说一样,死亡现象在吉辛作品中也有着重要意义。这些作家的死亡表明,他们的生存问题已然演变成为一个迫在眉睫的生死危机。本章的研究聚焦于三个主要的作家人物：诗人朱利安·卡斯蒂、小说家埃德温·里尔登和期刊评论家阿尔弗烈德·尤尔。卡斯蒂所面临的危机主要通过两个文学典故来表现。它们分别位于小说的开头和结尾,形成结构上的呼应。大多数批评家认为,卡斯蒂的早逝与他的软弱性格密不可分。然而,上述两个典故的首尾呼应却意味着卡斯蒂的死亡原因远非性格一说那么简单。典故所要暗示的是,卡斯蒂从一开始就注定无法完成诗作,而且因为身处十九世纪后期而面临更加悲惨的命运。同样,里尔登的过世也不仅仅是他的性格缺陷所致。作品中反复出现的教堂钟声一直将他置于死亡的威胁之下。不断响起的钟声是尼采式的重复,形成一种节奏,层层深入,凸现致命的精神压迫,揭示出里尔登所面临的生存危机。此外,由于十九世纪后期通过期刊写作来谋生的人数剧增,尤尔的死亡尤其具有代表性。在小说中,他被喻为“书荫幽谷里的居民”。这一隐喻预示他的死亡,尖锐地指向其生存危机。该隐喻结合了“书荫幽谷”的隐喻和“居民”的词源学意义,二者叠加,产生了一种“化合作用”,表明长期身处“书荫幽谷”里的尤尔不但深陷危机之中,而且几乎看不到突出重围的希望。简单地说,上述作家的死亡结局一致证明,十九世纪后期的作家委实陷入了一场生死攸关的生存危机之中。
第二章考察吉辛作品对危机成因的探索。如果说接二连三的作家死亡可以唤起世人对作家生存危机的关注,那么对该时期文学场的深度呈现则能够促使大家进一步思考危机的成因。此类思考主要从两个层面展开。首先,“格拉布街”典故的多次运用提供了一种历史的视角,意在指明危机肇始于十九世纪后期文学场的剧变。文学场的规模因得益于科技的飞速发展而迅速扩大,作家人数也随之大增。孰料这一变化载舟亦覆舟,增加了人们从事写作的机会,却也加剧了作家的生存竞争。同时,与日俱增的商业化浪潮也渗入文学场内部,扫荡传统的文学价值观。文学与市场的对峙在十九世纪后期达到一个历史的高峰。作家在文学场中所处的位置也相应发生变化,商业作家占据文学场的中心,严肃作家则被挤压至边缘地带。换言之,在文学繁荣的表象下,作家的生存愈加艰难。第二层面的思考通过“雾”的意象来展开。该意象进一步表明,文学场形式上的巨变使其大幅转向本质上的深层嬗变,由此从根本上引发作家生存危机。雾是十九世纪后期欧洲艺术作品中经常出现的一个意象,多指工业革命的多种不良后果。吉辛作品则创造性地使用雾的意象来象征该时期的文学场。其种种特点暗示,十九世纪后期的文学场已经蜕变成一个自主程度相当低的文化场域。文学场自身艺术至上的原则俱已瓦解,对作家生存的影响日益严重,直至危及他们的生命。
第三章探究质变后的文学场如何对个体作家的生存产生威胁。在明示危机历史成因的基础上,作品着眼于个体作家,生动展现危机形成的具体缘由,从而使危机成因研究更加细致和深入。吉辛的成名作《新格拉布街》被誉为是一本关于文学生活的病理学研究佳作。作品中有一组意象,看似孤立无涉,却可纳入一种与危机相联的“病理学”语境中。它们对危机成因的剖析可谓入木三分。
第一个意象是“贫民习艺所的铃声”。它一针见血地揭露了造成作家里尔登生存危机的一个直接原因。里尔登的骤然离世不仅与他的性格有关,更是与文学场附加于作家的不利条件有因果关系。但是,在已有的研究中,有关这些不利条件的陈述过于简略,而且,关于它们如何导致里尔登的生存危机更是语焉不详。铃声的意象喻指其中的一个不利条件,即文学场对写作速度的机械要求。在十九世纪后期,机械时代对速度的狂热追求愈演愈烈,文学的成功标准也深受影响,产生畸变。它无视作品的质量,认定作家的成功只与作品数量的多寡有关。然而,里尔登信奉艺术性的写作,与机械刻板的写作要求格格不入。后者让他套上了一副精神枷锁。其结果就是,他完全丧失了创作灵感,遭受了不可挽回的文化资本的损失。换言之,对写作的机械要求引发了本雅明所说的“艺术家的无产阶级化”,将作家推入一场残酷的生存斗争中,最终导致危机迭起。
第二个意象“大火”彰显另一名作家哈罗德·比芬的早逝原因。这场大火的意义重大,表明即使比芬能够精心写作,抵制上述对写作速度的机械要求,他也依然逃不脱生存危机。已有研究大都关注火灾的受害者比芬,却鲜有提及大火肆虐的起因。仔细审视该意象的上下文语境,就会发现它的发生绝非偶然。大火象征了另一种威胁作家生存的不利条件,即占主导地位的低俗阅读趣味。这种趣味的形成原因主要有二：1870年教育法案的推行和文化产业的兴起。前者仅以培养产业工人为目的,在使大多数人脱盲的同时,也造就了一大批阅读趣味低俗且毫无文字鉴赏能力的读者；后者则惟利是图,迎合低俗趣味的需求,鼓吹粗鄙杂语,起到了推波助澜的作用。由此,文艺接受模式惨遭瓦解。比芬的自杀身亡证明,在此晦暗背景下,即使作家坚持文艺原则,他们仍会如同孤军奋战,屡屡陷入危机,最终被“大火”吞噬。
与前两个饱含悲愤色彩的意象不同,第三个意象“未来的阿里斯塔克斯”从一名作家的成功经历来说明造成作家生存危机的另一个缘由。期刊撰稿人贾斯帕·米尔文才疏学浅,却被标榜为“未来的阿里斯塔克斯”(注：阿里斯塔克斯是古希腊著名的文学批评家)。一般人认为,他的成功是由于他的作品满足了低俗的阅读趣味需求。然而,“未来的阿里斯塔克斯”这一意象虽然不起眼,却因闪烁其间的潜在意义而足以揭示米尔文的成功原因不尽于此。在作品中,该意象的合法性一直得到质疑。有三种不同的声音形成一股破坏性力量,不断地解构该意象的表面意义。与古希腊的阿里斯塔克斯不同,米尔文全然摒弃文学准则,对其交际手段直言不讳,并且处心积虑地广结社交网。在往来酬酢中,他从一介无名小卒,俨然成为文坛冉冉升起的一颗新星。所以,当阿里斯塔克斯一说的合法性被打破后,我们就可以断定,“未来的阿里斯塔克斯”这一意象的潜在意义在于它提示如下事实：米尔文绝不是文坛巨匠,而是一个依靠积累社会资本立身的文学小丑。也就是说,在十九世纪后期的文学场中,社会资本竟然凌驾于文化资本之上,成为在场中成功生存的一个必备条件。由此推论,当时的作家如果仅凭借文学成就而缺少社会资本,则仍然会举步维艰,面临重重危机。
第四个意象“毛发斑白的老马”突出导致尤尔溃败的特殊原因。他尽管满腹经纶,但不愿屈从于市场要求,最后也难逃失败厄运。但是,市场需求仍非尤尔失败的唯一原因。老马意象中暗藏玄机。它与其他意象形成了并列结构,共同揭示异化现象乃是造成尤尔死亡的一个重要原因。首先,老马意象与火车意象交替出现,反映尤尔深受异化劳动所害。马的年老体衰与火车的风驰电掣形成鲜明对比。它们的并置不仅体现不同时代运输工具的竞争,更是代表两种不同劳动模式之间的冲突。火车所代表的机械生产模式四处进犯,写作也毫不例外地论为异化劳动。面对铺天盖地的异化进程,尤尔试图坚守艺术独立,抵制异化写作,却只争得个如老马般颓丧落魄的境地。更重要的是,老马意象与“苍蝇”的意象同时出现,诉说尤尔为异化的人际关系所累。老马饱受苍蝇的攻击,欲反戈一击,却显得力不从心。此处,苍蝇暗指信奉金钱哲学的克莱蒙特·法奇之辈。他为了显身扬名,与尤尔分道扬镳,并不断蓄意打压诋毁后者,使后者名誉扫地。其露骨的卑劣行径虽令人不齿,却让尤尔百口莫辩,彻底丧失了象征资本,最终不得不离开文坛,客死异乡。
以上三章表明,吉辛作品对危机的分析已然击中危机要害,其深刻性足以让人叹为观止。面对文学场内乱象重生和危机四伏的状况,吉辛作品大加批驳,反复呈现作家的死亡结局。此举很容易再次引发他是“悲观代言人”一说。殊不知,此等悲观反而促进了寻求突破的探索之举。已有研究者从其一部早期作品中发现,吉辛并未完全放弃战胜物质唯上的努力。如果细读文本,我们会发现至少有三部作品探讨了危机应对的问题。这三部作品既包括吉辛早期作品,也有后期作品,因此具有代表性。据此,第四章通过解读这三部作品,阐明其中的作家人物在危机之下应声而出,就危机应对大举阐发各自高论。他们的反应虽各执一端,却都大力突出文化价值观,可以一并归为文化拯救。
首当其冲的应是《失去阶级归属的人们》中的奥斯蒙德·威马克。他殚精竭虑,试图构建作家的文化角色。已有研究发现,该小说的人物言行集合了多种美学观点。本小节进一步表明,威马克借助美学观点,在与他人的交往活动中竭力建构作家的文化角色。他的努力主要有两方面。一方面,在同会计师伍德斯托克的对话中,他义正词严地提出,作家的文化角色与他们的文艺写作密切相关。他们的写作胜于政府管理,而且能够在混乱社会中开创一个伟大的局面。此说振聋发聩,却言之凿凿。伍德斯托克之流所支持的政府功利当头,目光短浅,只知交换价值,无视内在价值,造成价值领域的持续分裂,引发物欲横流和社会混乱。这种状态显然有悖于马修·阿诺德的文化理念。威马克则沿用其说,倡导作家身负传播“世界上最优秀的思想和知识”之重任,重建信仰,恢复秩序。另一方面,在他拯救女主人公艾达·斯塔尔的过程中,作家的文化角色得以实现。长期以来,艾达从一名妓女到一名洗衣女工的转变饱受争议。将一妓女作为主人公的做法由于不符合十九世纪英国的传统,更是被看作是一种错误。然而,此处艾达的出现别有深意。她与威马克的不解之缘实际上暗中催生了作家的文化引导作用。艾达从威马克处获得文学经典著作,在阅读之后,其思想发生显著变化,最终主动放弃舒适却毫无尊严的从妓生活。由此展示的意义深刻：如果一个处于社会底层的妓女能够在文学作品的引导下改变生活方式,那么我们就有理由相信,作家通过他们的作品能够改变整个社会的生活方式,帮助社会摆脱混乱。威马克的建构努力旨在突出作家的文化角色,赋予他们充分的生存理由,以此抵制危机的威胁。
小说《瑟尔萨》则从文艺接受模式的角度探索危机出路。即使如威马克所愿,作家能够担负起文化角色,后者的实现仍有赖于读者的接受与配合。然而,正如上述大火意象所示,十九世纪后期的读者并非都如艾达那样配合。如何提高他们的阅读趣味就显得十分必要。《瑟尔萨》中就有对这个问题的专门探讨。面对俯拾皆是的商业化写作,霍尔特·艾格蒙特痛心疾首,决定在工人中开展一个教育计划,义务为他们提供文学讲座,希望提高他们的阅读趣味。不幸的是,艾格蒙特功败垂成,最终被迫放弃该计划。因此,不少评论家认为,小说意在批评艾格蒙特的尝试仅是唐吉诃德式的理想主义。他枉费心机,难逃失败的命运。但是,小说中其实另有一种声音,不时地对上述否定评价发表异议。它隐藏在一系列的风景描写之中,虽然隐晦,却分量不轻,与前一种评价形成多声部演奏,互为补充,既承认该计划所面临的巨大困难,又坚信它的文化价值和实现的可能。其价值在于它秉承约翰·罗斯金的文艺思想,抨击机械式的大众教育,抵制机械生活和庸俗趣味,提高阅读趣味。风景中的点点星光更是暗示它是一场文化的圣战,能够为作家走出危机的阴影提供一线希望。
《四季随笔》是吉辛的最后一本作品,更加成熟地探讨了作家自身如何实现文化角色的问题。对作家的生存而言,该问题牵扯更多的精力,故而尤为重要。此书是一名退休作家的回忆散文集。一直以来,对主人公亨利·赖伊克罗夫特逃避文坛乱象的批评不绝于耳。其实,赖翁在隐居生活中从未停止过对上述问题的思考,而是孜孜寻求一种非异化的写作。如吉辛本人所言,在回忆昔日生存困境的同时,赖翁更多地表达了一种强烈的愿望。作品中此起彼伏的鸟的歌声就是这种愿望的化身。因其中蕴含生命意志,所以赖翁听到歌声便激动不已,登高大呼,直言写作应出自对生命的热爱,以示与机械的商业写作之决裂。此举与尼采的生命哲学生息相通,不谋而合,酝酿革命动力。鸟的歌声犹如交响曲,昭示后人,唯有如此,作家才有望摆脱异化,履行文化角色,抵制精神沉论,克服危机。
本文结语部分得出以下结论：为参与建构十九世纪后期的英国文化景观,吉辛作品提出了一个重要的文化命题,即在文学商业化进程中作家的生存危机。该命题持续至今,仍无了结迹象。虽然它在历史学家和社会学家中引发了热议,但是,在同时期的文学作品中很少有人能像吉辛一样对危机做出全面、生动且敏锐的观察。其作品既深刻揭露危机的成因,又积极寻求突破,开启了新的格局。没有这些独树一帜的观察,十九世纪后期英国文化景观的研究就会缺失一个重要的组成部分,从而显得不够完整和深入。
This dissertation examines the writer's crisis of survival in four of Gissing's works that bring the subject into its sharpest focus. The critical study of the subject in the past decades has proved its significance precisely in that the crisis is an overarching theme in Gissing's works and becomes an integral part of the cultural landscape of the fin de siecle. However, an overview of century-long Gissing studies suggests that this subject requires a systematic treatment because there has been a lack of essays devoted to the subject and no book-length study delving into it, and similar studies are even sparser in China.
This dissertation argues that an unprecedented crisis of survival that writers encounter in the late nineteenth century finds an abundant manifestation and a profound investigation in Gissing's works in a delicate and effective way. The untimely death of the writer protagonists exposes the intensified crisis to such an extent that their survival is hardly to be secured. The revelation of the nature of the late nineteenth-century literary field expounds the deep-rooted crisis at the transitional moment. The field undergoes a crucial transformation in its scale and structure, and in essence becomes one with low autonomy. The impact of the field on writers becomes most revealing when the representation of the literary field is knit deeply into an examination of the formation of the crisis regarding individual writers through a set of imagery that has rarely attracted critical attention, but has a profound bearing on the issue concerned, and discloses that the crisis has its roots in its connection with the dominant intellectual thought of the era.
How the writer protagonists respond to the crisis is of equal significance in Gissing's works. Though reading optimism into Gissing still remains a minority approach, this dissertation, based on the research work of a few Gissing scholars, adopts a cultural perspective to discover sanguine responses to the crisis that are concealed beneath the surface of despair. Following eminent Victorian thinkers and brilliant German philosophers, the writer protagonists endeavor to overcome the crisis by way of changing the life both of writers and readers. These responses provide a promising vision of countering the impact of the crisis at a turning point of cultural transformation.
第一章通过解读作品中多名作家的死亡结局,阐明作家在十九世纪后期遭遇到一个前所未有的生存危机。作品中频繁地出现身处绝境的作家人物。他们大都在为生存而抗争的过程中不幸坠入死亡的深渊。同大多数维多利亚小说一样,死亡现象在吉辛作品中也有着重要意义。这些作家的死亡表明,他们的生存问题已然演变成为一个迫在眉睫的生死危机。本章的研究聚焦于三个主要的作家人物：诗人朱利安·卡斯蒂、小说家埃德温·里尔登和期刊评论家阿尔弗烈德·尤尔。卡斯蒂所面临的危机主要通过两个文学典故来表现。它们分别位于小说的开头和结尾,形成结构上的呼应。大多数批评家认为,卡斯蒂的早逝与他的软弱性格密不可分。然而,上述两个典故的首尾呼应却意味着卡斯蒂的死亡原因远非性格一说那么简单。典故所要暗示的是,卡斯蒂从一开始就注定无法完成诗作,而且因为身处十九世纪后期而面临更加悲惨的命运。同样,里尔登的过世也不仅仅是他的性格缺陷所致。作品中反复出现的教堂钟声一直将他置于死亡的威胁之下。不断响起的钟声是尼采式的重复,形成一种节奏,层层深入,凸现致命的精神压迫,揭示出里尔登所面临的生存危机。此外,由于十九世纪后期通过期刊写作来谋生的人数剧增,尤尔的死亡尤其具有代表性。在小说中,他被喻为“书荫幽谷里的居民”。这一隐喻预示他的死亡,尖锐地指向其生存危机。该隐喻结合了“书荫幽谷”的隐喻和“居民”的词源学意义,二者叠加,产生了一种“化合作用”,表明长期身处“书荫幽谷”里的尤尔不但深陷危机之中,而且几乎看不到突出重围的希望。简单地说,上述作家的死亡结局一致证明,十九世纪后期的作家委实陷入了一场生死攸关的生存危机之中。
第二章考察吉辛作品对危机成因的探索。如果说接二连三的作家死亡可以唤起世人对作家生存危机的关注,那么对该时期文学场的深度呈现则能够促使大家进一步思考危机的成因。此类思考主要从两个层面展开。首先,“格拉布街”典故的多次运用提供了一种历史的视角,意在指明危机肇始于十九世纪后期文学场的剧变。文学场的规模因得益于科技的飞速发展而迅速扩大,作家人数也随之大增。孰料这一变化载舟亦覆舟,增加了人们从事写作的机会,却也加剧了作家的生存竞争。同时,与日俱增的商业化浪潮也渗入文学场内部,扫荡传统的文学价值观。文学与市场的对峙在十九世纪后期达到一个历史的高峰。作家在文学场中所处的位置也相应发生变化,商业作家占据文学场的中心,严肃作家则被挤压至边缘地带。换言之,在文学繁荣的表象下,作家的生存愈加艰难。第二层面的思考通过“雾”的意象来展开。该意象进一步表明,文学场形式上的巨变使其大幅转向本质上的深层嬗变,由此从根本上引发作家生存危机。雾是十九世纪后期欧洲艺术作品中经常出现的一个意象,多指工业革命的多种不良后果。吉辛作品则创造性地使用雾的意象来象征该时期的文学场。其种种特点暗示,十九世纪后期的文学场已经蜕变成一个自主程度相当低的文化场域。文学场自身艺术至上的原则俱已瓦解,对作家生存的影响日益严重,直至危及他们的生命。
第三章探究质变后的文学场如何对个体作家的生存产生威胁。在明示危机历史成因的基础上,作品着眼于个体作家,生动展现危机形成的具体缘由,从而使危机成因研究更加细致和深入。吉辛的成名作《新格拉布街》被誉为是一本关于文学生活的病理学研究佳作。作品中有一组意象,看似孤立无涉,却可纳入一种与危机相联的“病理学”语境中。它们对危机成因的剖析可谓入木三分。
第一个意象是“贫民习艺所的铃声”。它一针见血地揭露了造成作家里尔登生存危机的一个直接原因。里尔登的骤然离世不仅与他的性格有关,更是与文学场附加于作家的不利条件有因果关系。但是,在已有的研究中,有关这些不利条件的陈述过于简略,而且,关于它们如何导致里尔登的生存危机更是语焉不详。铃声的意象喻指其中的一个不利条件,即文学场对写作速度的机械要求。在十九世纪后期,机械时代对速度的狂热追求愈演愈烈,文学的成功标准也深受影响,产生畸变。它无视作品的质量,认定作家的成功只与作品数量的多寡有关。然而,里尔登信奉艺术性的写作,与机械刻板的写作要求格格不入。后者让他套上了一副精神枷锁。其结果就是,他完全丧失了创作灵感,遭受了不可挽回的文化资本的损失。换言之,对写作的机械要求引发了本雅明所说的“艺术家的无产阶级化”,将作家推入一场残酷的生存斗争中,最终导致危机迭起。
第二个意象“大火”彰显另一名作家哈罗德·比芬的早逝原因。这场大火的意义重大,表明即使比芬能够精心写作,抵制上述对写作速度的机械要求,他也依然逃不脱生存危机。已有研究大都关注火灾的受害者比芬,却鲜有提及大火肆虐的起因。仔细审视该意象的上下文语境,就会发现它的发生绝非偶然。大火象征了另一种威胁作家生存的不利条件,即占主导地位的低俗阅读趣味。这种趣味的形成原因主要有二：1870年教育法案的推行和文化产业的兴起。前者仅以培养产业工人为目的,在使大多数人脱盲的同时,也造就了一大批阅读趣味低俗且毫无文字鉴赏能力的读者；后者则惟利是图,迎合低俗趣味的需求,鼓吹粗鄙杂语,起到了推波助澜的作用。由此,文艺接受模式惨遭瓦解。比芬的自杀身亡证明,在此晦暗背景下,即使作家坚持文艺原则,他们仍会如同孤军奋战,屡屡陷入危机,最终被“大火”吞噬。
与前两个饱含悲愤色彩的意象不同,第三个意象“未来的阿里斯塔克斯”从一名作家的成功经历来说明造成作家生存危机的另一个缘由。期刊撰稿人贾斯帕·米尔文才疏学浅,却被标榜为“未来的阿里斯塔克斯”(注：阿里斯塔克斯是古希腊著名的文学批评家)。一般人认为,他的成功是由于他的作品满足了低俗的阅读趣味需求。然而,“未来的阿里斯塔克斯”这一意象虽然不起眼,却因闪烁其间的潜在意义而足以揭示米尔文的成功原因不尽于此。在作品中,该意象的合法性一直得到质疑。有三种不同的声音形成一股破坏性力量,不断地解构该意象的表面意义。与古希腊的阿里斯塔克斯不同,米尔文全然摒弃文学准则,对其交际手段直言不讳,并且处心积虑地广结社交网。在往来酬酢中,他从一介无名小卒,俨然成为文坛冉冉升起的一颗新星。所以,当阿里斯塔克斯一说的合法性被打破后,我们就可以断定,“未来的阿里斯塔克斯”这一意象的潜在意义在于它提示如下事实：米尔文绝不是文坛巨匠,而是一个依靠积累社会资本立身的文学小丑。也就是说,在十九世纪后期的文学场中,社会资本竟然凌驾于文化资本之上,成为在场中成功生存的一个必备条件。由此推论,当时的作家如果仅凭借文学成就而缺少社会资本,则仍然会举步维艰,面临重重危机。
第四个意象“毛发斑白的老马”突出导致尤尔溃败的特殊原因。他尽管满腹经纶,但不愿屈从于市场要求,最后也难逃失败厄运。但是,市场需求仍非尤尔失败的唯一原因。老马意象中暗藏玄机。它与其他意象形成了并列结构,共同揭示异化现象乃是造成尤尔死亡的一个重要原因。首先,老马意象与火车意象交替出现,反映尤尔深受异化劳动所害。马的年老体衰与火车的风驰电掣形成鲜明对比。它们的并置不仅体现不同时代运输工具的竞争,更是代表两种不同劳动模式之间的冲突。火车所代表的机械生产模式四处进犯,写作也毫不例外地论为异化劳动。面对铺天盖地的异化进程,尤尔试图坚守艺术独立,抵制异化写作,却只争得个如老马般颓丧落魄的境地。更重要的是,老马意象与“苍蝇”的意象同时出现,诉说尤尔为异化的人际关系所累。老马饱受苍蝇的攻击,欲反戈一击,却显得力不从心。此处,苍蝇暗指信奉金钱哲学的克莱蒙特·法奇之辈。他为了显身扬名,与尤尔分道扬镳,并不断蓄意打压诋毁后者,使后者名誉扫地。其露骨的卑劣行径虽令人不齿,却让尤尔百口莫辩,彻底丧失了象征资本,最终不得不离开文坛,客死异乡。
以上三章表明,吉辛作品对危机的分析已然击中危机要害,其深刻性足以让人叹为观止。面对文学场内乱象重生和危机四伏的状况,吉辛作品大加批驳,反复呈现作家的死亡结局。此举很容易再次引发他是“悲观代言人”一说。殊不知,此等悲观反而促进了寻求突破的探索之举。已有研究者从其一部早期作品中发现,吉辛并未完全放弃战胜物质唯上的努力。如果细读文本,我们会发现至少有三部作品探讨了危机应对的问题。这三部作品既包括吉辛早期作品,也有后期作品,因此具有代表性。据此,第四章通过解读这三部作品,阐明其中的作家人物在危机之下应声而出,就危机应对大举阐发各自高论。他们的反应虽各执一端,却都大力突出文化价值观,可以一并归为文化拯救。
首当其冲的应是《失去阶级归属的人们》中的奥斯蒙德·威马克。他殚精竭虑,试图构建作家的文化角色。已有研究发现,该小说的人物言行集合了多种美学观点。本小节进一步表明,威马克借助美学观点,在与他人的交往活动中竭力建构作家的文化角色。他的努力主要有两方面。一方面,在同会计师伍德斯托克的对话中,他义正词严地提出,作家的文化角色与他们的文艺写作密切相关。他们的写作胜于政府管理,而且能够在混乱社会中开创一个伟大的局面。此说振聋发聩,却言之凿凿。伍德斯托克之流所支持的政府功利当头,目光短浅,只知交换价值,无视内在价值,造成价值领域的持续分裂,引发物欲横流和社会混乱。这种状态显然有悖于马修·阿诺德的文化理念。威马克则沿用其说,倡导作家身负传播“世界上最优秀的思想和知识”之重任,重建信仰,恢复秩序。另一方面,在他拯救女主人公艾达·斯塔尔的过程中,作家的文化角色得以实现。长期以来,艾达从一名妓女到一名洗衣女工的转变饱受争议。将一妓女作为主人公的做法由于不符合十九世纪英国的传统,更是被看作是一种错误。然而,此处艾达的出现别有深意。她与威马克的不解之缘实际上暗中催生了作家的文化引导作用。艾达从威马克处获得文学经典著作,在阅读之后,其思想发生显著变化,最终主动放弃舒适却毫无尊严的从妓生活。由此展示的意义深刻：如果一个处于社会底层的妓女能够在文学作品的引导下改变生活方式,那么我们就有理由相信,作家通过他们的作品能够改变整个社会的生活方式,帮助社会摆脱混乱。威马克的建构努力旨在突出作家的文化角色,赋予他们充分的生存理由,以此抵制危机的威胁。
小说《瑟尔萨》则从文艺接受模式的角度探索危机出路。即使如威马克所愿,作家能够担负起文化角色,后者的实现仍有赖于读者的接受与配合。然而,正如上述大火意象所示,十九世纪后期的读者并非都如艾达那样配合。如何提高他们的阅读趣味就显得十分必要。《瑟尔萨》中就有对这个问题的专门探讨。面对俯拾皆是的商业化写作,霍尔特·艾格蒙特痛心疾首,决定在工人中开展一个教育计划,义务为他们提供文学讲座,希望提高他们的阅读趣味。不幸的是,艾格蒙特功败垂成,最终被迫放弃该计划。因此,不少评论家认为,小说意在批评艾格蒙特的尝试仅是唐吉诃德式的理想主义。他枉费心机,难逃失败的命运。但是,小说中其实另有一种声音,不时地对上述否定评价发表异议。它隐藏在一系列的风景描写之中,虽然隐晦,却分量不轻,与前一种评价形成多声部演奏,互为补充,既承认该计划所面临的巨大困难,又坚信它的文化价值和实现的可能。其价值在于它秉承约翰·罗斯金的文艺思想,抨击机械式的大众教育,抵制机械生活和庸俗趣味,提高阅读趣味。风景中的点点星光更是暗示它是一场文化的圣战,能够为作家走出危机的阴影提供一线希望。
《四季随笔》是吉辛的最后一本作品,更加成熟地探讨了作家自身如何实现文化角色的问题。对作家的生存而言,该问题牵扯更多的精力,故而尤为重要。此书是一名退休作家的回忆散文集。一直以来,对主人公亨利·赖伊克罗夫特逃避文坛乱象的批评不绝于耳。其实,赖翁在隐居生活中从未停止过对上述问题的思考,而是孜孜寻求一种非异化的写作。如吉辛本人所言,在回忆昔日生存困境的同时,赖翁更多地表达了一种强烈的愿望。作品中此起彼伏的鸟的歌声就是这种愿望的化身。因其中蕴含生命意志,所以赖翁听到歌声便激动不已,登高大呼,直言写作应出自对生命的热爱,以示与机械的商业写作之决裂。此举与尼采的生命哲学生息相通,不谋而合,酝酿革命动力。鸟的歌声犹如交响曲,昭示后人,唯有如此,作家才有望摆脱异化,履行文化角色,抵制精神沉论,克服危机。
本文结语部分得出以下结论：为参与建构十九世纪后期的英国文化景观,吉辛作品提出了一个重要的文化命题,即在文学商业化进程中作家的生存危机。该命题持续至今,仍无了结迹象。虽然它在历史学家和社会学家中引发了热议,但是,在同时期的文学作品中很少有人能像吉辛一样对危机做出全面、生动且敏锐的观察。其作品既深刻揭露危机的成因,又积极寻求突破,开启了新的格局。没有这些独树一帜的观察,十九世纪后期英国文化景观的研究就会缺失一个重要的组成部分,从而显得不够完整和深入。
This dissertation examines the writer's crisis of survival in four of Gissing's works that bring the subject into its sharpest focus. The critical study of the subject in the past decades has proved its significance precisely in that the crisis is an overarching theme in Gissing's works and becomes an integral part of the cultural landscape of the fin de siecle. However, an overview of century-long Gissing studies suggests that this subject requires a systematic treatment because there has been a lack of essays devoted to the subject and no book-length study delving into it, and similar studies are even sparser in China.
This dissertation argues that an unprecedented crisis of survival that writers encounter in the late nineteenth century finds an abundant manifestation and a profound investigation in Gissing's works in a delicate and effective way. The untimely death of the writer protagonists exposes the intensified crisis to such an extent that their survival is hardly to be secured. The revelation of the nature of the late nineteenth-century literary field expounds the deep-rooted crisis at the transitional moment. The field undergoes a crucial transformation in its scale and structure, and in essence becomes one with low autonomy. The impact of the field on writers becomes most revealing when the representation of the literary field is knit deeply into an examination of the formation of the crisis regarding individual writers through a set of imagery that has rarely attracted critical attention, but has a profound bearing on the issue concerned, and discloses that the crisis has its roots in its connection with the dominant intellectual thought of the era.
How the writer protagonists respond to the crisis is of equal significance in Gissing's works. Though reading optimism into Gissing still remains a minority approach, this dissertation, based on the research work of a few Gissing scholars, adopts a cultural perspective to discover sanguine responses to the crisis that are concealed beneath the surface of despair. Following eminent Victorian thinkers and brilliant German philosophers, the writer protagonists endeavor to overcome the crisis by way of changing the life both of writers and readers. These responses provide a promising vision of countering the impact of the crisis at a turning point of cultural transformation.
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Collie, Michael (1979). The Alien Art:A Critical Study of George Gissing's Novels. Folkestone:Archon Books.
Connelly, Mark (1997). Orwell and Gissing. New York:Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.
Conrad, Joseph (1983). Collected Letters. Vol.1. Frederick R. Karl & Laurence Davis (eds.). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Cook, Susan E. (2009). Envisioning Reform in Gissing's The Nether World, English Literature in Transition 1880-1920 52 (4):458-475.
Dalton, Susan (2003). Engendering the Republic of Letters:Reconnecting Public and Private Spheres. Montreal:McGill-Queen's University Press.
Davis, Oswald H. (1974). George Gissing:A Study in Literary Leanings. Dorking: Kohler and Coombes.
Davis, Philip (2002). The Victorians. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Delany, Paul (2008). George Gissing:A Life. London:Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
Eliot, Simon (2001). The Business of Victorian Publishing. In Deirdre David (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Victorian Novel. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,37-60.
Eliot T. S. (2005). Tradition and the Individual Talent. In Lawrence Rainey (ed.). Modernism:An Anthology. Malden:Blackwell Publishing,152-156.
Fernando, Lloyd (1981). Gissing's Studies in "Vulgarism":Aspects of His Anti-Feminism. In Jean-Pierre Michaux (ed.). George Gissing:Critical Essays. London:Vision and Barnes & Noble,108-120.
Flint, Kate (2001). The Victorian Novel and its Readers. In Deirdre David (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Victorian Novel. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,17-36.
Gissing, George (1925). The Immortal Dickens. London:Cecil Palmer.---. (1970). The Letters of George Gissing to Members of His Family. New York: Kraus Reprint Co.---. (1978). London and the Life of Literature in Late Victorian England:the Diary of George Gissing. Pierre Coustillas (ed.). Hassocks:The Harvester Press.---. (1993). The Collected Letters of George Gissing. Vol.4. New York:Kraus Reprint Co.---. (1996). New Grub Street. Ware:Wordsworth Editions Limited.---. (1997). The Collected Letters of George Gissing. Vol.9. Athens:Ohio University Press.---. (2006a). Thyrza. Teddington:The Echo Library.---. (2006b). The Unclassed. Teddington:The Echo Library.---. (2007). New Grub Street. New York:Broadview Editions.---. (2008). The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft. New York:Cosimo, Inc..
Goode, John (1978). George Gissing:Ideology and Fiction. London:Vision Press Limited.
Gross, John (1992). The Rise and Fall of the Man of Letters. Chicago:Ivan R. Dee, Inc.
Grylls, David (1986). The Paradox of Gissing. London:Allen & Unwin.
Guillaume, Andre (1984). The Jamesian Pattern in George Gissing's New Grub Street, The Gissing Newsletter 20 (1):28-33.
Guy, Josephine (2010). Authors and Authorship. In Joanne Shattock (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to English Literature 1830-1914. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,9-29.
Guy, Josephine & Ian Small (2000). Oscar Wilde's Profession, Writing and the Culture Industry in the Late Nineteenth Century. Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Halperin, John (1982). Geroge Gissing:A Life in Books. Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Hammond, Mary (2006a). Reading, Publishing and the Formation of Literary Taste in England 1880-1914. Aldershot:Ashgate.---. (2006b). "Amid the Dear Old Horrors":Memory, London, and Literary Labour in The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft. In John Spiers (ed.). Gissing and the City. New York:Pal grave Macmillan,171-179.
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Harrison, Austin (1981). George Gissing. In Jean-Pierre Michaux (ed.). George Gissing:Critical Essays. London:Vision and Barnes & Noble,22-36.
Harsh, Constance. (1992). Gissing's The Unclassed and the Perils of Naturalism. English Literary History 59 (4):911-938.---. (1994). George Gissing's Thyrza:Romantic Love and Ideological Co-conspiracy. The Gissing Journal 30 (1):1-11.
Horkheimer, Max & Theodor W. Adorno (2002). Dialectic of Enlightenment, trans. Edmund Jephcott. Palo Alto:Stanford University Press.
Howe, Irving (1968). George Gissing:Poet of Fatigue. In Pierre Coustillas (ed.). Collected Articles on George Gissing. London:Frank Cass and Company Ltd, 119-125.
James, Simon J. (2003). Unsettled Accounts:Money and Narrative in the Novels of George Gissing. London:Anthem Press.
Jameson, Fredric (1988). The Ideology of Theories. London:Routledge.---. (1991). Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Durham: Duke University Press.
Johnson, Barbara (1992). The Critical Difference:Essays in the Contemporary Rhetoric of Reading. Baltimore:John Hopkins University Press.
Johnson, Samuel (1839). Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language. London: John Williamson and Co..
Joseph, Michael (1926). The Commercial Side of Literature, New York:Harper.
Kastan, David Scott (2009)牛津英国文学百科全书(2).上海：上海外语教育出版社.
Keating, P. J. (1971). The Working Classes in Victorian Fiction. London:Routledge & Kegan Paul.---. (1975). New Grub Street (Introduction). In Jerome H. Buckley (ed.). The Worlds of Victorian Fiction. Harvard:Harvard University Press,187-194.---. (1989). The Haunted Study:A Social History of the English Novel 1875-1914. London:Seeker & Warburg.
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Lupton, Christina & Tilman Reitz (2005). New Grub Street's Self-consciousness. In Martin Ryle & Jenny Bourne Taylor (eds.). George Gissing:Voices of the Unclassed. Aldershot:Ashgate Publishing Limited,133-144.
Maltz, Diana (2000). Practical Aesthetics and Decadent Rationale in George Gissing, Victorian Literature and Culture 28 (1):55-71.---. (2001). George Gissing as Thwarted Aesthete. In Bouwe Postmus (ed.). A Garland for Gissing. New York:Rodopi,203-214.
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Milton, John (1905). Paradise Lost. London:G. Routledge and Sons, Limited.
Moore, Lewis D. (2008). The Fiction of George Gissing:A Critical Analysis. Jefferson:McFarland & Co.
Morris, William (1984). News from Nowhere and Selected Writings and Designs. Harmondsworth:Penguin Books Ltd.
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Bridgwater, Patrick (1982). Homage to Goethe:George Gissing and the Goethe-cult, Eighteenth-Century Studies 5 (2):169-178.
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Carey, John (1992). The Intellectuals and the Masses. New York:St. Martin's Press.
Carmichael, Virginia (1988). The Moment of Lyric in Matthew Arnold's Poetry, Victorian Poetry 26 (1):61-74.
Chambers, Deborah, Linda Steiner & Carole Fleming (2004). Women and Journalism. London:Routledge.
Cockshut, A. O. J. (1968). Anthony Trollope:A Critical Study. New York University Press. (1979). George Gissing. In James Vinson (ed.). Great Writers of the English Language Novelists and Prose Writers. London:St. Martin's Press,463-464.
Collie, Michael (1979). The Alien Art:A Critical Study of George Gissing's Novels. Folkestone:Archon Books.
Connelly, Mark (1997). Orwell and Gissing. New York:Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.
Conrad, Joseph (1983). Collected Letters. Vol.1. Frederick R. Karl & Laurence Davis (eds.). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Cook, Susan E. (2009). Envisioning Reform in Gissing's The Nether World, English Literature in Transition 1880-1920 52 (4):458-475.
Dalton, Susan (2003). Engendering the Republic of Letters:Reconnecting Public and Private Spheres. Montreal:McGill-Queen's University Press.
Davis, Oswald H. (1974). George Gissing:A Study in Literary Leanings. Dorking: Kohler and Coombes.
Davis, Philip (2002). The Victorians. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Delany, Paul (2008). George Gissing:A Life. London:Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
Eliot, Simon (2001). The Business of Victorian Publishing. In Deirdre David (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Victorian Novel. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,37-60.
Eliot T. S. (2005). Tradition and the Individual Talent. In Lawrence Rainey (ed.). Modernism:An Anthology. Malden:Blackwell Publishing,152-156.
Fernando, Lloyd (1981). Gissing's Studies in "Vulgarism":Aspects of His Anti-Feminism. In Jean-Pierre Michaux (ed.). George Gissing:Critical Essays. London:Vision and Barnes & Noble,108-120.
Flint, Kate (2001). The Victorian Novel and its Readers. In Deirdre David (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Victorian Novel. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,17-36.
Gissing, George (1925). The Immortal Dickens. London:Cecil Palmer.---. (1970). The Letters of George Gissing to Members of His Family. New York: Kraus Reprint Co.---. (1978). London and the Life of Literature in Late Victorian England:the Diary of George Gissing. Pierre Coustillas (ed.). Hassocks:The Harvester Press.---. (1993). The Collected Letters of George Gissing. Vol.4. New York:Kraus Reprint Co.---. (1996). New Grub Street. Ware:Wordsworth Editions Limited.---. (1997). The Collected Letters of George Gissing. Vol.9. Athens:Ohio University Press.---. (2006a). Thyrza. Teddington:The Echo Library.---. (2006b). The Unclassed. Teddington:The Echo Library.---. (2007). New Grub Street. New York:Broadview Editions.---. (2008). The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft. New York:Cosimo, Inc..
Goode, John (1978). George Gissing:Ideology and Fiction. London:Vision Press Limited.
Gross, John (1992). The Rise and Fall of the Man of Letters. Chicago:Ivan R. Dee, Inc.
Grylls, David (1986). The Paradox of Gissing. London:Allen & Unwin.
Guillaume, Andre (1984). The Jamesian Pattern in George Gissing's New Grub Street, The Gissing Newsletter 20 (1):28-33.
Guy, Josephine (2010). Authors and Authorship. In Joanne Shattock (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to English Literature 1830-1914. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,9-29.
Guy, Josephine & Ian Small (2000). Oscar Wilde's Profession, Writing and the Culture Industry in the Late Nineteenth Century. Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Halperin, John (1982). Geroge Gissing:A Life in Books. Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Hammond, Mary (2006a). Reading, Publishing and the Formation of Literary Taste in England 1880-1914. Aldershot:Ashgate.---. (2006b). "Amid the Dear Old Horrors":Memory, London, and Literary Labour in The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft. In John Spiers (ed.). Gissing and the City. New York:Pal grave Macmillan,171-179.
Hardy, Florence Emily (1962). The Life of Thomas Hardy,1840-1928. New York:St. Martin's Press.
Harrison, Austin (1981). George Gissing. In Jean-Pierre Michaux (ed.). George Gissing:Critical Essays. London:Vision and Barnes & Noble,22-36.
Harsh, Constance. (1992). Gissing's The Unclassed and the Perils of Naturalism. English Literary History 59 (4):911-938.---. (1994). George Gissing's Thyrza:Romantic Love and Ideological Co-conspiracy. The Gissing Journal 30 (1):1-11.
Horkheimer, Max & Theodor W. Adorno (2002). Dialectic of Enlightenment, trans. Edmund Jephcott. Palo Alto:Stanford University Press.
Howe, Irving (1968). George Gissing:Poet of Fatigue. In Pierre Coustillas (ed.). Collected Articles on George Gissing. London:Frank Cass and Company Ltd, 119-125.
James, Simon J. (2003). Unsettled Accounts:Money and Narrative in the Novels of George Gissing. London:Anthem Press.
Jameson, Fredric (1988). The Ideology of Theories. London:Routledge.---. (1991). Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Durham: Duke University Press.
Johnson, Barbara (1992). The Critical Difference:Essays in the Contemporary Rhetoric of Reading. Baltimore:John Hopkins University Press.
Johnson, Samuel (1839). Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language. London: John Williamson and Co..
Joseph, Michael (1926). The Commercial Side of Literature, New York:Harper.
Kastan, David Scott (2009)牛津英国文学百科全书(2).上海：上海外语教育出版社.
Keating, P. J. (1971). The Working Classes in Victorian Fiction. London:Routledge & Kegan Paul.---. (1975). New Grub Street (Introduction). In Jerome H. Buckley (ed.). The Worlds of Victorian Fiction. Harvard:Harvard University Press,187-194.---. (1989). The Haunted Study:A Social History of the English Novel 1875-1914. London:Seeker & Warburg.
Korg, Jacob (ed.) (1962). George Gissing's Commonplace Book. New York:The New York Public Library.---. (1963). George Gissing:A Critical Biography. Seattle:University of Washington Press. ---. (1974). Introduction. Thyrza. By George Gissing. Brighton:The Harvest Press Limited, xi-xxi.
Leavis, Q. D. (1989). Collected Essays. Vol.3. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Lodge, David (1992). The Art of Fiction. London:Penguin Books.
Lukacs, Georg (1971). History and Class Consciousness, trans. Rodney Livingstone. Cambridge:The MIT Press.
Lupton, Christina & Tilman Reitz (2005). New Grub Street's Self-consciousness. In Martin Ryle & Jenny Bourne Taylor (eds.). George Gissing:Voices of the Unclassed. Aldershot:Ashgate Publishing Limited,133-144.
Maltz, Diana (2000). Practical Aesthetics and Decadent Rationale in George Gissing, Victorian Literature and Culture 28 (1):55-71.---. (2001). George Gissing as Thwarted Aesthete. In Bouwe Postmus (ed.). A Garland for Gissing. New York:Rodopi,203-214.
Marroni, Francesco (1998). Thyrza:Gissing, Darwin and the Destinies of Innocence, The Gissing Journal 34 (3):1-29.
Marshall, Gail (2007). Introduction. In Gail Marshall (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the fin de siecle. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1-12.
Matz, Aaron (2004). George Gissing's Ambivalent Realism. Nineteenth-century Literature 59 (2):212-248.---. (2006). British Aestheticism and the Urban Working Classes,1870-1900. New York:Palgrave MacMillan.
Marx, Karl (1967). Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844. Moscow: Progress Publishers.
Michaux, J. P. (1975). Names in New Grub Street. In Jerome H. Buckley (ed.). The Worlds of Victorian Fiction. Harvard:Harvard University Press,204-211.
Miller, J. Hillis (1984). Fiction and Repetition. Basil:Blackwell.
Milton, John (1905). Paradise Lost. London:G. Routledge and Sons, Limited.
Moore, Lewis D. (2008). The Fiction of George Gissing:A Critical Analysis. Jefferson:McFarland & Co.
Morris, William (1984). News from Nowhere and Selected Writings and Designs. Harmondsworth:Penguin Books Ltd.
Neacey, Markus (1998). The Hope of Pessimism and the Will to Live in The Unclassed, The Gissing Journal 34 (1):8-16.
Nietzsche, Friedrich (1991). The Birth of Tragedy, trans. Shaun Whiteside. London: Penguin.
Orwell, George (1960). George Gissing, London Magazine 1960 (June):36-43.
Parrinder, Patrick (2005). The Voice of the Unclassed:Gissing and Twentieth-century English Fiction. In Martin Ryle & Jenny Bourne Taylor (ed.). George Gissing:Voices of the Unclassed. Aldershot:Ashgate Publishing Limited,145-158.
Peck, John (1978). New Grub Street:Some Suggestions for an Approach through Form, The Gissing Newsletter 14 (3):1-13.
Phelps, Gilbert (1979). Fifty British Novels 1600-1900. London:Heinemann Educational Books Ltd.
Poole, Adrian (1975). Gissing in Context. Totowa:Rowman and Littlefield.
Pope, Alexander (1729). The Dunciad. London:Lawton Gilliver.
Quiller-Couch, Arthur (1972). Cambridge Lectures, New York:Books for Libraries Press.
Ruskin, John (1869). The Two Paths. New York:John Wiley & Son.---. (2004). Unto the Last. Whitefish:Kessinger Publishing.---. (2008). Sesame and Lilies. Rockville:Arc Manor.
Ryle, Martin (2005). "To Show a Man of Letters":Gissing, Cultural Authority and Literary Modernism. In Martin Ryle & Jenny Bourne Taylor (ed.). George Gissing:Voices of the Unclassed. Aldershot:Ashgate Publishing Limited, 119-132.
Ryle, Martin & Jenny Bourne Taylor (2005). Introduction:Gissing's Critical Contexts. In Martin Ryle & Jenny Bourne Taylor (eds.). George Gissing: Voices of the Unclassed. Aldershot:Ashgate Publishing Limited,1-13.
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