膜反应器用于海水预处理和地表水处理的实验研究
|
摘要
鉴于水污染的加剧和饮用水标准的日益严格,为适应原水水质特性的波动并去除特定的污染物,常规给水处理工艺需要被持续优化以满足要求。对地表水处理和海水预处理工艺进行改进,对饮用水生产变得非常重要。
集混凝、微滤、粉末活性炭(PAC)吸附的一体式膜混凝反应器(MCR)被用于研究渤海海水的处理,评估其最为海水反渗透预处理的可行性。实验结果表明,经预处理后的海水,其参数(SDI、浊度、总铁和pH值)完全满足了RO进水的要求,除CODMn随原水水质波动以外,其它参数非常稳定。PAC投量、曝气冲洗时间、气水比、曝气冲洗频率等因素对膜污染及预处理能力的影响依次递减。实验中优化的工艺参数为:不投加PAC、20 min曝气冲洗、气水比为10、每8 h进行曝气冲洗一次。膜清洗实验表明,化学清洗能够恢复污染膜的比通量。然而,膜比通量衰减的主要原因是膜表面滤饼层的形成和溶解性有机物,含有镁、铝、硅、钙和铁的化合物为主要的无机污染物,其对膜比通量的衰减几乎没有没有影响,同时微生物污染也并不明显。
同时,MBR处理微污染湖水的研究证实,MBR不仅对有机物和氨氮具有较高的去除率,而且还能以二级基质利用和NOM协同机理去除2,4,6-三氯酚(TCP)。原水TCP浓度为40-385μg/L时,TCP的平均去除率96.2%,处理水中平均TCP浓度低于4μg/L,能够满足《城市供水水质标准》的要求。间歇序批实验表明,生物降解是去除TCP的主要机理,遵循零级反应动力学,反应速率常数为1.65μg/(L·min),基质最大比利用速率qmax和亲和力常数Ks分别为0.060 d-1和0.235 mg/L。此外,能够在MBR中培养得到亲和TCP的微生物。
本研究证明MBR系统和MCR工艺分别具有替代常规给地表水处理工艺和传统海水反渗透预处理工艺的潜力。
Currently, due to surface water pollution and stringent drinking water quality standards, conventional water treatment processes need to be continuously optimized to remove certain pollutants and to deal with fluctuating raw water characteristics. It is crucial to develop innovative techniques for surface water treatment and seawater pretreatment for their application in drinking water production.
Under such circumstances, an integrated membrane coagulation reactor (MCR) process combining coagulation, microfiltration and/or powdered activated carbon (PAC) adsorption was investigated for Bohai seawater pretreatment prior to the RO desalination membrane, to evaluate its feasibility to be used as the seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) pretreatment. Long-term performance results showed that the parameters of the pretreated seawater (silt density index/or SDI, turbidity, total iron concentration and pH value) were absolutely superior to RO feed water requirements and even more consistent, excluding the chemical oxygen demand (CODMn), which varied with the raw seawater quality. The orthogonal experiment has shown that some factors has affected the membrane fouling and decreased the pretreatment capacity in decreasing order as: PAC dosage, duration of air scouring, ratio of air to permeate, and frequency of air scouring. As a result for this lab-scale test, the pretreatment capacity was optimized under the following conditions: no PAC dosage, 20 minutes of air scouring duration, ratio of air to permeate is 10, and air scouring every 8 hours. Membrane cleaning experiments have shown that the fouled membrane specific flux could be ultimately restored after chemical cleaning. However, the main reason for membrane specific flux decline lies in the formation of the cake layer on the membrane surface, and dissolved organic matters is considered as the main foulants. Compounds of magnesium, aluminum, silica, calcium and iron are the inorganic foulants on the membrane surface, which cause little decline of membrane specific flux, while fouling due to microorganism is almost unapparent.
On the other hand, continuous lab-scale membrane bioreactor (MBR) tests have proven that, MBR treating micro-polluted lake water could attain a good quality of treated water in terms of the removal of organic pollutants and ammonia nitrogen. MBR process for micro-polluted surface water treatment could not only remove the organic pollutants, but could simultaneously remove TCP with the mechanisms of secondary substrate utilization and NOM inducing effect. For the raw water TCP concentration ranged between 40μg/L and 385μg/L, the average removal efficiency was 96.13%, and the average TCP concentration of treated water lower than 4μg/L and met the requirement of Drinking Water Quality Standard of China (CJ/T206-2005) issued by the Ministry of Construction. In addition, a series of intermittent batch tests showed that biological degradation plays a major role in the removal of phenolic compounds by MBR and the TCP biodegradation follows zero-order kinetics with a rate constant of 1.65μg/(L.min). The maximum specific utilization rate qmax and the affinity constant Ks of TCP were determined by fed-batch reactor tests and the values were 0.060d-1 and 0.235 mg/L respectively. The result showed that, microoganisms with good affinity for TCP could be cultivated in the MBR process, which was favorable for the biodegradation of trace TCP.
This research confirmed that the MBR system and the MCR integrated coagulation-microfiltration process both have the potential to efficiently substitute the conventional surface water treatment and SWRO pretreatment processes respectively.
集混凝、微滤、粉末活性炭(PAC)吸附的一体式膜混凝反应器(MCR)被用于研究渤海海水的处理,评估其最为海水反渗透预处理的可行性。实验结果表明,经预处理后的海水,其参数(SDI、浊度、总铁和pH值)完全满足了RO进水的要求,除CODMn随原水水质波动以外,其它参数非常稳定。PAC投量、曝气冲洗时间、气水比、曝气冲洗频率等因素对膜污染及预处理能力的影响依次递减。实验中优化的工艺参数为:不投加PAC、20 min曝气冲洗、气水比为10、每8 h进行曝气冲洗一次。膜清洗实验表明,化学清洗能够恢复污染膜的比通量。然而,膜比通量衰减的主要原因是膜表面滤饼层的形成和溶解性有机物,含有镁、铝、硅、钙和铁的化合物为主要的无机污染物,其对膜比通量的衰减几乎没有没有影响,同时微生物污染也并不明显。
同时,MBR处理微污染湖水的研究证实,MBR不仅对有机物和氨氮具有较高的去除率,而且还能以二级基质利用和NOM协同机理去除2,4,6-三氯酚(TCP)。原水TCP浓度为40-385μg/L时,TCP的平均去除率96.2%,处理水中平均TCP浓度低于4μg/L,能够满足《城市供水水质标准》的要求。间歇序批实验表明,生物降解是去除TCP的主要机理,遵循零级反应动力学,反应速率常数为1.65μg/(L·min),基质最大比利用速率qmax和亲和力常数Ks分别为0.060 d-1和0.235 mg/L。此外,能够在MBR中培养得到亲和TCP的微生物。
本研究证明MBR系统和MCR工艺分别具有替代常规给地表水处理工艺和传统海水反渗透预处理工艺的潜力。
Currently, due to surface water pollution and stringent drinking water quality standards, conventional water treatment processes need to be continuously optimized to remove certain pollutants and to deal with fluctuating raw water characteristics. It is crucial to develop innovative techniques for surface water treatment and seawater pretreatment for their application in drinking water production.
Under such circumstances, an integrated membrane coagulation reactor (MCR) process combining coagulation, microfiltration and/or powdered activated carbon (PAC) adsorption was investigated for Bohai seawater pretreatment prior to the RO desalination membrane, to evaluate its feasibility to be used as the seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) pretreatment. Long-term performance results showed that the parameters of the pretreated seawater (silt density index/or SDI, turbidity, total iron concentration and pH value) were absolutely superior to RO feed water requirements and even more consistent, excluding the chemical oxygen demand (CODMn), which varied with the raw seawater quality. The orthogonal experiment has shown that some factors has affected the membrane fouling and decreased the pretreatment capacity in decreasing order as: PAC dosage, duration of air scouring, ratio of air to permeate, and frequency of air scouring. As a result for this lab-scale test, the pretreatment capacity was optimized under the following conditions: no PAC dosage, 20 minutes of air scouring duration, ratio of air to permeate is 10, and air scouring every 8 hours. Membrane cleaning experiments have shown that the fouled membrane specific flux could be ultimately restored after chemical cleaning. However, the main reason for membrane specific flux decline lies in the formation of the cake layer on the membrane surface, and dissolved organic matters is considered as the main foulants. Compounds of magnesium, aluminum, silica, calcium and iron are the inorganic foulants on the membrane surface, which cause little decline of membrane specific flux, while fouling due to microorganism is almost unapparent.
On the other hand, continuous lab-scale membrane bioreactor (MBR) tests have proven that, MBR treating micro-polluted lake water could attain a good quality of treated water in terms of the removal of organic pollutants and ammonia nitrogen. MBR process for micro-polluted surface water treatment could not only remove the organic pollutants, but could simultaneously remove TCP with the mechanisms of secondary substrate utilization and NOM inducing effect. For the raw water TCP concentration ranged between 40μg/L and 385μg/L, the average removal efficiency was 96.13%, and the average TCP concentration of treated water lower than 4μg/L and met the requirement of Drinking Water Quality Standard of China (CJ/T206-2005) issued by the Ministry of Construction. In addition, a series of intermittent batch tests showed that biological degradation plays a major role in the removal of phenolic compounds by MBR and the TCP biodegradation follows zero-order kinetics with a rate constant of 1.65μg/(L.min). The maximum specific utilization rate qmax and the affinity constant Ks of TCP were determined by fed-batch reactor tests and the values were 0.060d-1 and 0.235 mg/L respectively. The result showed that, microoganisms with good affinity for TCP could be cultivated in the MBR process, which was favorable for the biodegradation of trace TCP.
This research confirmed that the MBR system and the MCR integrated coagulation-microfiltration process both have the potential to efficiently substitute the conventional surface water treatment and SWRO pretreatment processes respectively.
引文
[1] Gao Y. L., Liu B.N., Zhao L.J., Technology evaluation and cost analysis of seawater desalination, Environmental Protection, 2005, 2: 28-30.
[2] Vial D., Doussau G., Galindo R., Comparison of three pilot studies using Microza membranes for Mediterranean seawater pre-treatment, Desalination, 2003, 156 (1-3): 43-50.
[3] Wang Z.S., Liu W.J., Micro-polluted Surface Water Treatment for Drinking Purpose, China Architecture & Building Press, Beijing, 1999, 168-170: 47-49.
[4] Suzuki T., Watanabe Y., Ozawa G., Ikeda S., Removal of soluble organics and manganese by a hybrid MF hollow fiber membrane system, Desalination, 1998, 117(3), 119-129.
[5] Mijatovic I., Matosic M., Cerneha B. H., Bratulic D., Removal of natural organic matter by ultrafiltration and nanofiltration for drinking water production, Desalination, 2004, 169(3): 223-230.
[6] U.S Water News Online, “French advances in the development of membrane separation treatment facilities for drinking water”, March 1999, at: www.uswaternews.com
[7] Clever M., Jordt F., Knauf R., Rabiger N., Rudebusch M., Hilker-Scheibel R., Process water production from river water by ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis, Desalination, 2000, 131(1-3): 325-336.
[8] Liikanen R., Miettinen I., Laukkanen R., Selection of NF membrane to improve quality of chemically treated surface water, Water Research, 2003, 37(4): 864-872.
[9] Glucina K., Alvarez A., Laine J.M., Assessment of an integrated membrane system for surface water treatment, Desalination, 2000, 132(1-3): 73-82.
[10] Klomfas G., Konieczny K., Fouling phenomena in unit and hybrid processes for potable water treatment, Desalination, 2004, 163(1-3): 311-322.
[11] Choi H., Kim H.S., Yeom I.T., Dionysiou D.D., Pilot plant study of an ultrafiltration membrane system for drinking water treatment operated in the feed-and-bleed mode, Desalination, 2005, 172(3): 281-291.
[12] Yuasa A., Drinking water production by coagulation-microfiltration and adsorption-ultrafiltration, Water Science Technology, 1998, 37(10): 135-146.
[13] Lebeau T., Lelièvre C., Buisson H., Cléret D., Van de Venter L.W., C?te P., Immersed membrane filtration for the production of drinking water: combination with PAC for NOM and SOCs removal, Desalination, 1998, 117(1-3): 219-231.
[14] Xia S.J., Nan J., Liu R.P., Li G.B., Study of drinking water treatment by ultrafiltration of surface water and its application to China, Desalination, 2004, 170(1): 41-47.
[15] Wang L., Wang B.Z., Tertiary treatment technology for drinking water production, Chemical Industry Press, Beijing, 2002, 148-163.
[16] Teng C.K., Hawlader M.N.A., Malek A., An experiment with different pretreatment methods. Desalination, 2003, 156(1): 51-58.
[17] Zhang G.H., Hao A.L., Zhang Y., Gu P., Comparison of membrane fouling during MBR and MCR processes for micropolluted water treatment, China water & wastewater, 2004, 20: 49-53.
[18] Crespo J.G., Velizarov S., Reis M.A., Membrane bioreactors for the removal of anionic micropollutants from drinking water, Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 2004, 15(56): 463-468.
[19] Boxer B., China's water problems in the context of U.S.-China relations, in: China Environment Series 2, Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholar's Environmental Change and Security Project, 1998.
[20] State Environmental Protection Administration of China, Water environment, in: Report on the State of the Environment in China, 2003.
[21] Li S.G., Research on carrying capacity of urban water resource and its adjusting method (PhD dissertation), Beijing, China: Peking University, 2003.
[22] Yang Z.Y., Tianjin is one of the northern cities affected by water shortage, Tianjin daily journal, 18/8/2004.
[23] Shao M., Tang X.Y., Zhang,Y.H. Li W.J., City clusters in China: air and surface water pollution, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 2006, 4 (7): 353-361.
[24] SEPA (State Environmental Protection Administration) 1995–2004, State of the environment China, Beijing, China: Environmental Science Press.
[25] State Council of China, 1998, Ratification of the ninth five-year plan and 2010 planning for water pollution prevention of Taihu Lake, State Council Document No2.
[26] Gao C., Zhu J.Y, and Dai K.W. et al., Impact of rapid urbanization on water quality and related mitigation options in Taihu Lake area, Science of Geography Sinica, 2003, 23: 746–50.
[27] Gjessing E.T., Egeberg P.K. and Hakedal J., Natural organic matter in drinking water-the NOM typing project, background and basic characteristics of original water samples and NOM isolates, Environment International, 1999, 25(2-3): 145-159.
[28] Seawater: http://www.bookrags.com/research/seawater-wsd.
[29] 赖利 J P, 斯基罗 G.[著], 刘光, 邱贞华, 陈文豪[译]. 化学海洋学. 第一卷. 北京: 海洋出版社, 1982: 413-415.
[30] http://www.biosbcc.net/ocean/marinesci/02ocean/swcomposition.htm
[31] Riley J. P., Skirrow G., Chemical Oceanography [M], New York: Academic Press, 1975: 558.
[32] Schafer A.I., Schwicker U., Fischer M.M., et al., Microfiltration of colloids and natural organic matter. Membrane Science, 2000, 171(2):151–172.
[33] Wilkinson K.J., Negre J.C., Buffle J., Coagulation of colloidal material in surface water: the role of natural organic matter, Contaminant Hydrology, 1997, 26 (1-4): 229–243.
[34] Vial D. and Doussau G., The use of microfiltration membranes for seawater pre-treatment prior to RO membranes. Desalination, 2003, 153(1-3): 141–147.
[35] Yiantsios S.G., Sioutopoulos D., and Karabelas A.J., Colloidal fouling of RO membranes: an overview of key issues and efforts to develop improved prediction techniques. Desalination, 2005, 183(1-3): 773–788.
[36] Karabelas A.J., Critical assessment of fouling indices. MEDRC Series of R&D Reports. Project: 98-BS-034, (2003).
[37] Costa A.R. and De Pinho M.N., The role of membrane morphology on ultrafiltration for natural organic matter removal. Desalination, 2002, 145(1-3): 299–304.
[38] Xu W., Chellam S., and Clifford D.A., Indirect evidence for deposit rearrangement during dead-end microfiltration of iron coagulated suspensions. Membrane Science, 2004, 239(2): 243–254.
[39] Hong S. and Elimelech M., Chemical and physical aspects of natural organic matter: Fouling of nanofiltration membranes. Membrane Science, 1997, 132(2): 159–181.
[40] Raspor B., Adsorption of humic substances from seawater at differently charged surfaces. The Science of the Total Environment, 1989, 81-82: 319–328.
[41] Zeng K., Hwang H., and Yu H., Effect of dissolved humic substances on the photochemical degradation rate of 1-Aminopyrene and Atrazine. International Journal of Molecular Science, 2002, 3: 1048–1057.
[42] Alpatova A., Verbych S., Bryk M., et al., Ultrafiltration of water containing natural organic matter: Heavy metal removing in the hybrid complexation-ultrafiltration process. Separation and Purification Technology, 2004, 40(2): 155–162.
[43] Kam S. and Gregory J., The interaction of humic substances with cationic polyelectrolytes. Water Research, 2001, 35(15): 3557–3566.
[44] Aiken G.R., McKnight D.M., Wershaw R.L., and Mac Carthy E., Humic Substances in Soil, Sediment and Water; New York: Wiley, 1985.
[45] Ruohomaki K., Vaisanen P., Metsamuuronen S., Kulovaara M., and Nystrom M., Characterization and removal of humic substances in ultra- and nanofiltration. Desalination, 1998, 118(1-3): 273–283.
[46] Pokrovsky O.S., and Schott J., Iron colloids/organic matter associated transport of major and trace elements in small boreal rivers and their estuaries (NW Russia). Chemical Geology, 2002, 190(1-4): 141–179.
[47] Gavriil A.M. and Angelidis M.O., Metal and organic carbon distribution in water column of a shallow enclosed Bay at the Aegean Sea Archipelago: Kalloni Bay, island of Lesvos, Greece. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 2005, 64(2-3): 200–210.
[48] Munksgaard N.C. and Parry D.L., Trace metals, arsenic and lead isotopes in dissolved and particulate phases of North Australian coastal and estuarine seawater. Marine Chemistry, 2001, 75(3): 165–184.
[49] Harmant P. and Aimar P., Coagulation of colloids in a boundary layer during cross-flow filtration. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 1998, 138(2-3): 217–230.
[50] Kretzschmar R. and Sticher H., Colloid transport in natural porous media: Influence of surface chemistry and flow velocity. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 1998, 23(2): 133–139.
[51] El-Dessouky H.T., and Ettouney H.M., Fundamentals of Salt Water Desalination. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2002, 1: 1st edition.
[52] Marcovecchio M.G., Mussati S.F., Aguirre P.A., Nicolas J., and Scenna N.J., Optimization of hybrid desalination processes including multi stage flash and reverse osmosis systems. Desalination, 2005, 182(1-3): 107–118.
[53] Nicolaisen B., Developments in membrane technology for water treatment. Desalination, 2003, 153(1-3): 355–360.
[54] Hassan A.M. and Al-Sofi M.A.K., Al-Amoudi A.S. et al., A new approach to membrane and thermal seawater desalination processes using nanofiltration membranes (Part 1). Desalination, 1998, 118(1-3): 35–51.
[55] Ghabayen S., McKee M., and Kemblowski M., Characterization of uncertainties in the operation and economics of the proposed seawater desalination plant in the Gaza Strip. Desalination, 2004, 161(2): 191–201.
[56] Sikora J., Hansson C., and Ericsson B., Pretreatment and desalination of mine drainage water in a pilot plant. Desalination, 1989, 75: 363–373.
[57] Gille D. and Czolkoss W., Ultrafiltration with multi bore membranes as seawater pre-treatment. Desalination, 2005, 182(1-3): 295–301.
[58] Halpern D.F., McArdle J., and Antrim B., UF pre-treatment for SWRO: Pilot studies. Desalination, 2005, 182(1-3): 317–326.
[59] Redondo J.A., Brackish-, sea- and waste water desalination. Desalination, 2001, 138(1-3): 29–40.
[60] Semiat R., Desalination: present and future. International Water Resources Association, 2000, 25: 54–65.
[61] Leckie J., Sun D., Membrane-Coagulation Reactor for Water Treatment, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford, Palo Alto, California, 2002.
[62] Clever M., Jordt Knauf R., et al., Process water production from river water by ultrafiltration and reverse, osmosis. Desalination, 2000, 131(1-3): 325–336.
[63] Bottino A, Capannelli C., Del Borghi,A., et al., Water treatment for drinking purpose: Ceramic microfiltration application. Desalination, 2001, 141(1): 75-79.
[64] 刘辉, 全流程生物氧化技术处理微污染原水, 北京: 化学工业出版社, 2003, 14: 52-122.
[65] 胡江泳, 张锡辉, 王占生, 强化传统工艺处理微污染水源水的试验研究, 给水排水, 1996, 22(2): 18-20.
[66] Harleman D. R. F. and Murcott S. E., Upgrading and multi-stage development of municipal wastewater treatment plants: Applicability of chemically enhanced primary treatment. Technical report, World Bank, 1992.
[67] 谭智, 许建华, 污染水源的生物法预处理, 水处理技术, 1995, 21(4):231-235 .
[68] 肖华, 周荣丰, 微污染水源水处理技术的现状与发展, 北方环境, 2005, 30(1):62-66.
[69] 范艳丽, 邵林广, 微污染水源水净化技术, 工业安全与环保, 2004, 30(11):1-3.
[70] Camel V., Bermond A., The use of ozone and associated oxidation processes in drinking water treatment, Water Research, 1998, 32(11): 3208-3222.
[71] 王华成, 吕锡武, 微污染水源水饮用水处理研究进展, 净水技术, 2005, 24(1):30-39.
[72] Mallevialle J. et al., Water Treatment Membrane Processes, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994.
[73] Hillis P., Membrane Technology in Water and Wastewater Treatment. The Royal Society of Chemistry, UK: Cambridge, 2000: 269.
[74] Mulder M., Introduction to Membrane process, in Basic Principles of Membrane Technology, Kluwer: Academic Publisers, 1996: 284.
[75] Van Houtte E., Verbauwhede J., Vanlerberghe F., Demunter S., and Cabooter J., Treating different types of raw water with micro- and ultrafiltration for further desalination using reverse osmosis. Desalination, 1998, 117(1-3): 49–60.
[76] Pervov A.G., Andrianov A.P., Efremov R.V., et al., A new solution for the Caspian Sea desalination: Low-pressure, membranes. Desalination, 2003, 157(1-3): 377–384.
[77] Teuler A., Glucina K., and Laine J.M., Assessment of UF pretreatment prior RO membranes for seawater desalination. Desalination, 1999, 125(1-3): 89–96.
[78] Van der Bruggen B., and Vandecasteele C., Removal of pollutants from surface water and groundwater by nanofiltration: Overview of possible applications in the drinking water industry. Environmental Pollution, 2003, 122(3): 435–445.
[79] Conlon W.J. and McClellen S.A., Membrane softening: treatment process comes of age. AWWA, 1989, 81: 47–51.
[80] Linde K. and Jonsson A., Nanofiltration of salt solutions and landfill leachate. Desalination, 1995, 103: 223–232.
[81] 王琳, 王宝贞, 饮用水深度处理技术, 北京: 化学工业出版社, 2002, 25(40-41): 148-163, 310-341.
[82] Watanabe Y.,Kimura K.,Suzuki T.,Membrane application to water purification process in Japan-development of hybrid membrane system , Water Science Technology, 2000, 41(10-11): 9-16.
[83] Liu Z.H, Zhang K.S., Present status and applications of membrane bioreactors. (2004), Chemical journal on internet, from www.chemistrymag.org/cji/2004/061005ne.htm
[84] Yuan N.J., Ding F.X., J. Chem. Eng. of Chinese University, (Gaoxiao Huaxue Gongcheng), 1991, 5 (1): 1.
[85] Marcano J.G.S, Tsotsis T., Catalytic Membranes and Membrane Reactors, New York: John Wiley, 2002: 133.
[86] Jiang Zhongyi, J. Membr. Sci. & Technol. (Mo Kexue Yu Jishu), 2003, 23 (1): 53.
[87] Urbain V., Benoit R., Manem J., Membrane bioreactor: a new treatment tool, Journal AWWA, 1996, 5: 75-86.
[88] Wisniewski C., Persin F., Cherif T., Sandeaux R., Grasmick A., Gavach C., Denitrification of drinking water by the association of an electrodialysis process and a membrane bioreactor: feasibility and application, Desalination, 2001, 139(1-3): 199-205.
[89] Noronha M., Britz T., Mavrov V., Janke H.D., Chmiel H. Treatment of spent process water from a fruit juice company for purposes of reuse: hybrid process concept and on-site test operation of a pilot plant, Desalination, 2002, 143(2): 183-196.
[90] Li X.Y., Chu H.P., Membrane bioreactor for the drinking water treatment of polluted surface water supplies, Water Research, 2003, 37(19): 4781-4791.
[91] Seo G.T., Jang S.W., Lee S.H., IWA Specialty Conference, Seoul, South Korea, June 7~10, 2004, 761-768.
[92] Al-Mutairi N.Z., Hamoda M.F., and Al-Ghusain I., Coagulant selection and sludge conditioning in a slaughterhouse wastewater treatment plant. Bioresource Technology, 2004, 95(2): 115–119.
[93] Carroll T., King S., Gray S.R., Bolto B.A. and Booker N.A., The fouling of microfiltration membranes by NOM after coagulation treatment. Water Research, 2000, 34(11): 2861–2868.
[94] Choksuchart P., Heran M., and Grasmick A., Ultrafiltration enhanced by coagulation in an immersed membrane system. Desalination, 2002, 145(1-3): 265–272.
[95] Vickers J.C., Thompson M.A., and and Kelkar U.G., The use of membrane filtration in conjunction with coagulation processes for improved NOM removal. Desalination, 1995, 102(1-3): 57–61.
[96] Pikkarainen A.T., Judd S.J., Jokel, J. and Gillberg, L., Pre-coagulation for microfiltration of an upland surface water. Water Research, 2004, 38(2): 455–465.
[97] Papic S., Koprivanac N., Bozic A.L., and Metes A., Removal of some reactive dyes from synthetic wastewater by combined Al(III) coagulation/ carbon absorption process. Pre-Treatment Processes in Desalination Plants 451. Dyes and Pigments, 2004, 62: 291–298.
[98] Kothari N. and Taylor J.S., Pilot scale microfiltration at Manitowoc. Desalination, 1998, 119(1-3): 93–102.
[99] Abu Qdais H. and Moussa H., Removal of heavy metals from wastewater by membrane processes: a comparative study. Desalination, 2004, 164(2): 105–110.
[100] Bodzek M. and Konieczny K., Comparison of various membrane types and module configurations in the treatment of natural water by means of low-pressure membrane method. Separation and Purification Technology, 1998, 14(1-3): 69–78.
[101] Hagen K., Removal of particles, bacteria and parasites with ultrafiltration for drinking water treatment. Desalination, 1998, 119(1-3): 85–91.
[102] Mavrov V., Chmiel H., Kluth J., et al., Comparative study of different MF and UF membranes for drinking water production. Desalination, 1998, 117(1-3): 189–196.
[103] Pianta R., Boller M., Janex M. et al., Micro- and ultrafiltration of karstic spring water. Desalination, 1998, 117(1-3): 61–71.
[104] Abdessemed D. and Nezzal G., Treatment of primary effluent by coagulation-adsorption-ultrafltration for reuse. Desalination, 2002, 152: 367–373.
[105] Schaifer A.I., Fane A.G., and Waite T.D., Nanofiltration of natural organic matter: Removal, fouling and the influence of multivalent ions. Desalination, 1998, 118(2): 109–122.
[106] Xu L., Shiyong W., and Zeng X., The maltitol purification and concentration by nanofiltration. Desalination, 2005, 184(1-3): 1275–1283.
[107] Hoek E.M.V. and Elimelech M., Cake-enhanced concentration polarisation: A new fouling mechanism for salt-rejecting membranes. Environment Science and Technology, 2003, 37: 5581–5588.
[108] Vela M.C.V., Blanco S.A., and Garcia J.L., Crossflow ultrafiltration of cake forming solutes: a non-steady state model. Desalination, 2005, 184(1-3): 1327–1336.
[109] Koros W. J., Ma Y. H. and Shimidzu T., "Terminology for membranes and membrane processes (IUPAC Recommendations 1996)", Journal of Membrane Science, 1996, 120(2): 149-159.
[110] Stephenson T., Judd S., Jefferson B., Brindle K., Membrane Bioreactors for Wastewater Treatment, London: IWA Publishing, 2000, 25-37.
[111] Glucina K., Alvarez A., Laine J.M., Assessment of an integrated membrane system for surface water treatment, Desalination, 2000, 132(1-3): 73-82.
[112] Charles Liu, Scott Caothien, Jennifer Hayes, Tom Caothuy, Membrane Chemical Cleaning: From Art to Science, Scientific and Laboratory Services, Pall Corporation, 25 Harbor Park Dr., Port Washington, NY 11050, USA.
[113] Mallevialle J., Anselme C. and Marsigny O., Effects of Humic Substances on Membrane Processes, in Advances in Chemistry (ed.), American Chemical Society, Denver, Colorado, 1989.
[114] Lahoussine-Turcaud M.R., Wiesner and J. Y. Bottero, Fouling in Tangential-Flow Ultrafiltration: The Effect of Colloid Size and Coagulation Pretreatment, Journal of Membrane Science, 1990, 52(2): 173-190.
[115] Speth T.F., Gusses A.M., and Summers R.S., Evaluation of nanofiltration pretreatments for flux loss control. Desalination, 2000, 130(1): 31-44.
[116] Cho J., Amy G., and Pellegrino J., Membrane filtration of natural organic matter: Initial comparison of rejection and flux decline characteristics with ultrafiltration and nanofiltration membranes. Water Research, 1999, 33(11): 2517-2526.
[117] Huang J.Y., Takizawa S., Fujita K., Pilot-plant study of a high recovery membrane filtration process for drinking water treatment, Water Science and Technology, 2000, 41(10-11): 77-84.
[118] Fukada S, Tsuji T, Minegishi T, et al., Fouling performance in the filtration of water containing humic acid and/or kaolin with microporous membrane, Water Science Technology, 2000, 41(10-11): 317-325.
[119] Hillis P., Padley M.B., Powell N.I., and Gallagher P.M., Effects of backwash conditions on out-to-in membrane microfiltration. Desalination, 1998, 118(1-3): 197–204.
[120] Kampa P.C., Kruithof J.C., and Folmer H.C., UF/RO treatment plant Heemskerk: From challenge to full scale application. Desalination, 2000, 131(1-3): 27-35.
[121] Nederlof M.M., Kruithof J.C., Taylor J.S. et al., Comparison of NF/RO membrane performance in integrated membrane systems. Desalination, 2000, 131(1-3): 257-269.
[122] Kulovara M, Metsamuuronen S, and Nystrom M, Effects of aquatic humic substances on a hydrophobic ultrafiltration membrane. Chemosphere, 1999, 38(15): 3485–3496.
[123] Brehant A., Bonnelye V., and Perez M., Comparison of MF/UF pretreatment with conventional filtration prior to RO membranes for surface seawater desalination. Desalination, 2002, 144(1-3): 353-360.
[124] Van Hoof S.C.J.M., Hashim A., and Kordes A.J., The effect of ultrafiltration as pre-treatment to reverse osmosis in wastewater reuse and seawater desalination applications. Desalination, 1999, 124(1-3): 231-242.
[125] Takata K., Yamamoto K., Bian R., and Watanabe Y., Removal of humic substances with vibratory shear enhanced processing membrane filtration. Desalination, 1998, 117(1-3): 273-282.
[126] National Standard Committee Comprehensive part 1 of Compulsory Standard of China [C], third edition, Beijing: China Standard Press, 2003: 376-558.
[127] 国家标准化管理委员会. 中国强制性国家标准汇编环境保护卷[C]. 第三版.北京: 中国国家标准出版社, 2003: 199-206.
[128] Véronique Bonnelye, Miguel Angel Sanz, Jean Pierre Durand, et al., Reverse osmosis on open intake seawater pre-treatment strategy. Desalination, 2004, 167: 191-200.
[129] Ebrahim S., Abdel-Jawad M., Bou-Hamad S., et al. Fifteen years of R&D program in seawater desalination at KISR part I. Pretreatment technologies for RO systems [J] . Desalination, 2001, 135(1-3): 141-153.
[130] Long Z.B, Zhang D.Q, Zhang W. Q. et al., A pretreatment technology study on Bohai seawater desalination with RO method. Urban Environment & Urban Ecology, 2003, 16(6): 241-242.
[131] Wang L Y. Study on pollution and control of RO membrane. Water treatment technology, 2003, 29(2): 102-105.
[132] Vigneswaran S, Chaudhary D, S Ngo H, Application of a PAC-membrane hybrid system for removal of organics from secondary sewage effluent: experiments and modeling, Separation Science Technology, 2003, 38 (10): 2183-2199.
[133] Abdessemed D., Nezzal G., Ben Aim R., Coagulation–adsorption–ultrafiltration for wastewater treatment reuse, Desalination, 2000, 131 (1-3): 307-314.
[134] Sagbo O., Sun Y.X., Hao A.L., Gu P., Effect of PAC addition on MBR process for drinking water treatment, Separation and Purification Technology, 2007, doi: 10.1016/j.seppur.2007.05.003
[135] Kim J.S., Lee C.H., Chun H.D., Comparison of ultra-filtration characteristics between activated sludge and BAC sludge, Water Research, 1998, 32: 3443-3451.
[136] Fang Herbert H. P., Shi X.L., Zhang T., Effect of activated carbon on membrane filtration of activated sludge, Desalination, 2006, 189: 193-199.
[137] Braghetta A, Jacangelo J G., DAF pretreatment: its effect on MF performance [J]. Journal AWWA, 1997, 89(10): 90-97.
[138] State Environment Protection Bureau, “Standard Methods for Water and Waste Water Analysis”, fourth ed., China Environmental Science Press, Beijing, 2002.
[139] Philbrook D.M., Grady C.P., Evaluation of biodegradation kinetics for priority potlutants, Proc. Ind. Waste Conf, 40th, Purdue University, 1985: 795-804.
[140] Hao A.L, Chen Y.L., Gu P., Experimental research on membrane bioreactor for micropolluted surface water treatment [J], Hua gong xue bao, 2006, 57(1): 136-139.
[141] Galapate RP, Baes AU, Ito K, Iwase K, Okada M., Trihalomethane formation potential prediction using some chemical functional groups and bulk parameters, Water Research, 1999, 33(11): 2555-2560.
[142] Singer P.C., Formation and control of disinfection by-products in drinking water, American Water Works Association, 1999: 53-63, 65-70.
[143] Kitis M., Karanfil T., Wigton A., eilduff J.E., Probing reactivity of dissolved organic matter for disinfection by-products formation using XAD-8 resin adsorption and ultrafiltration fractionation, Water Research, 2002, 36 (15): 3834-3848.
[144] Zhou W.M., Fu D.Q., Sun Z.G., List for priority pollutants in waters, Environment Monitoring, China, 1990, 6 (4): 1–3 (in Chinese).
[145] USEPA, Water quality criteria summary, ecological risk assessment branch (WH-585) and human risk assessment branch (WH-550D). Health and Ecological Criteria Division, USEPA, Washington, DC, USA, 1991.
[146] Karlsson S, Kaugare S., Formation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol and 2,4,6 trichloroanisole during treatment and distribution of drinking water, Water Science Technology, 1995, 31(11): 99–103.
[147] National Toxicology Program.Ninth Report on Carcinogens, US Department of Health and Human Services-Public Health Service, 2001.
[148] Raung K.D., Theory and practice for the removal of phenols in wastewater. Industrial Pollution Prevention and Control, 1984, 3 (3): 88-103.
[149] Zhang H.M., Zhang W., Wang B.Z., Study on the removal of phenol by integrated PAC-microfiltration membrane process, Water treatment technology, 2004, 30 (5): 259-261.
[150] Chin-Jen Lu, Gerald E., Speitel Jr., Effect of natural organic matter on biodegradation of a recalcitrant synthetic organic chemical, J. AWWA, 1991, 83 (2): 56-61.
[151] 张锡辉, 高等环境化学与微生物学原理及应用, 第二版: 北京: 化学工业出版社, 2001, 229 (284): 312-313.
[152] Kazuhiko Noto, Takako Ogasawara, Complete oxidation of high concentration of ammonia by retaining incompatible nitrification activities in three-vessel system, Water Research, 1998, 32 (3): 769-773.
[153] Monod J., Recherches sur la croissance des cultures bactériennes. Paris, France: Hermann et Cie, 1942.
[154] Williamson K.J., Mc Carty P.L., Rapid Measurement of Monod Half-Velocity Coefficients for Bacterial Kinetics, Biotech & Bioeng, 1975, 17: 915-924.
[155] 张自杰, 林荣忱, 金儒霖, 排水工程 下册, 第四版, 北京: 中国建筑工业出版社, 1999: 114-115.
[156] Lesile Grady Jr C.P., B.F. Smets, D. S. Barbeau. Variability in kinetic parameter estimates: a review of possible causes and a proposed terminology, Water Research, 1996, 30(3): 742-748.
[2] Vial D., Doussau G., Galindo R., Comparison of three pilot studies using Microza membranes for Mediterranean seawater pre-treatment, Desalination, 2003, 156 (1-3): 43-50.
[3] Wang Z.S., Liu W.J., Micro-polluted Surface Water Treatment for Drinking Purpose, China Architecture & Building Press, Beijing, 1999, 168-170: 47-49.
[4] Suzuki T., Watanabe Y., Ozawa G., Ikeda S., Removal of soluble organics and manganese by a hybrid MF hollow fiber membrane system, Desalination, 1998, 117(3), 119-129.
[5] Mijatovic I., Matosic M., Cerneha B. H., Bratulic D., Removal of natural organic matter by ultrafiltration and nanofiltration for drinking water production, Desalination, 2004, 169(3): 223-230.
[6] U.S Water News Online, “French advances in the development of membrane separation treatment facilities for drinking water”, March 1999, at: www.uswaternews.com
[7] Clever M., Jordt F., Knauf R., Rabiger N., Rudebusch M., Hilker-Scheibel R., Process water production from river water by ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis, Desalination, 2000, 131(1-3): 325-336.
[8] Liikanen R., Miettinen I., Laukkanen R., Selection of NF membrane to improve quality of chemically treated surface water, Water Research, 2003, 37(4): 864-872.
[9] Glucina K., Alvarez A., Laine J.M., Assessment of an integrated membrane system for surface water treatment, Desalination, 2000, 132(1-3): 73-82.
[10] Klomfas G., Konieczny K., Fouling phenomena in unit and hybrid processes for potable water treatment, Desalination, 2004, 163(1-3): 311-322.
[11] Choi H., Kim H.S., Yeom I.T., Dionysiou D.D., Pilot plant study of an ultrafiltration membrane system for drinking water treatment operated in the feed-and-bleed mode, Desalination, 2005, 172(3): 281-291.
[12] Yuasa A., Drinking water production by coagulation-microfiltration and adsorption-ultrafiltration, Water Science Technology, 1998, 37(10): 135-146.
[13] Lebeau T., Lelièvre C., Buisson H., Cléret D., Van de Venter L.W., C?te P., Immersed membrane filtration for the production of drinking water: combination with PAC for NOM and SOCs removal, Desalination, 1998, 117(1-3): 219-231.
[14] Xia S.J., Nan J., Liu R.P., Li G.B., Study of drinking water treatment by ultrafiltration of surface water and its application to China, Desalination, 2004, 170(1): 41-47.
[15] Wang L., Wang B.Z., Tertiary treatment technology for drinking water production, Chemical Industry Press, Beijing, 2002, 148-163.
[16] Teng C.K., Hawlader M.N.A., Malek A., An experiment with different pretreatment methods. Desalination, 2003, 156(1): 51-58.
[17] Zhang G.H., Hao A.L., Zhang Y., Gu P., Comparison of membrane fouling during MBR and MCR processes for micropolluted water treatment, China water & wastewater, 2004, 20: 49-53.
[18] Crespo J.G., Velizarov S., Reis M.A., Membrane bioreactors for the removal of anionic micropollutants from drinking water, Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 2004, 15(56): 463-468.
[19] Boxer B., China's water problems in the context of U.S.-China relations, in: China Environment Series 2, Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholar's Environmental Change and Security Project, 1998.
[20] State Environmental Protection Administration of China, Water environment, in: Report on the State of the Environment in China, 2003.
[21] Li S.G., Research on carrying capacity of urban water resource and its adjusting method (PhD dissertation), Beijing, China: Peking University, 2003.
[22] Yang Z.Y., Tianjin is one of the northern cities affected by water shortage, Tianjin daily journal, 18/8/2004.
[23] Shao M., Tang X.Y., Zhang,Y.H. Li W.J., City clusters in China: air and surface water pollution, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 2006, 4 (7): 353-361.
[24] SEPA (State Environmental Protection Administration) 1995–2004, State of the environment China, Beijing, China: Environmental Science Press.
[25] State Council of China, 1998, Ratification of the ninth five-year plan and 2010 planning for water pollution prevention of Taihu Lake, State Council Document No2.
[26] Gao C., Zhu J.Y, and Dai K.W. et al., Impact of rapid urbanization on water quality and related mitigation options in Taihu Lake area, Science of Geography Sinica, 2003, 23: 746–50.
[27] Gjessing E.T., Egeberg P.K. and Hakedal J., Natural organic matter in drinking water-the NOM typing project, background and basic characteristics of original water samples and NOM isolates, Environment International, 1999, 25(2-3): 145-159.
[28] Seawater: http://www.bookrags.com/research/seawater-wsd.
[29] 赖利 J P, 斯基罗 G.[著], 刘光, 邱贞华, 陈文豪[译]. 化学海洋学. 第一卷. 北京: 海洋出版社, 1982: 413-415.
[30] http://www.biosbcc.net/ocean/marinesci/02ocean/swcomposition.htm
[31] Riley J. P., Skirrow G., Chemical Oceanography [M], New York: Academic Press, 1975: 558.
[32] Schafer A.I., Schwicker U., Fischer M.M., et al., Microfiltration of colloids and natural organic matter. Membrane Science, 2000, 171(2):151–172.
[33] Wilkinson K.J., Negre J.C., Buffle J., Coagulation of colloidal material in surface water: the role of natural organic matter, Contaminant Hydrology, 1997, 26 (1-4): 229–243.
[34] Vial D. and Doussau G., The use of microfiltration membranes for seawater pre-treatment prior to RO membranes. Desalination, 2003, 153(1-3): 141–147.
[35] Yiantsios S.G., Sioutopoulos D., and Karabelas A.J., Colloidal fouling of RO membranes: an overview of key issues and efforts to develop improved prediction techniques. Desalination, 2005, 183(1-3): 773–788.
[36] Karabelas A.J., Critical assessment of fouling indices. MEDRC Series of R&D Reports. Project: 98-BS-034, (2003).
[37] Costa A.R. and De Pinho M.N., The role of membrane morphology on ultrafiltration for natural organic matter removal. Desalination, 2002, 145(1-3): 299–304.
[38] Xu W., Chellam S., and Clifford D.A., Indirect evidence for deposit rearrangement during dead-end microfiltration of iron coagulated suspensions. Membrane Science, 2004, 239(2): 243–254.
[39] Hong S. and Elimelech M., Chemical and physical aspects of natural organic matter: Fouling of nanofiltration membranes. Membrane Science, 1997, 132(2): 159–181.
[40] Raspor B., Adsorption of humic substances from seawater at differently charged surfaces. The Science of the Total Environment, 1989, 81-82: 319–328.
[41] Zeng K., Hwang H., and Yu H., Effect of dissolved humic substances on the photochemical degradation rate of 1-Aminopyrene and Atrazine. International Journal of Molecular Science, 2002, 3: 1048–1057.
[42] Alpatova A., Verbych S., Bryk M., et al., Ultrafiltration of water containing natural organic matter: Heavy metal removing in the hybrid complexation-ultrafiltration process. Separation and Purification Technology, 2004, 40(2): 155–162.
[43] Kam S. and Gregory J., The interaction of humic substances with cationic polyelectrolytes. Water Research, 2001, 35(15): 3557–3566.
[44] Aiken G.R., McKnight D.M., Wershaw R.L., and Mac Carthy E., Humic Substances in Soil, Sediment and Water; New York: Wiley, 1985.
[45] Ruohomaki K., Vaisanen P., Metsamuuronen S., Kulovaara M., and Nystrom M., Characterization and removal of humic substances in ultra- and nanofiltration. Desalination, 1998, 118(1-3): 273–283.
[46] Pokrovsky O.S., and Schott J., Iron colloids/organic matter associated transport of major and trace elements in small boreal rivers and their estuaries (NW Russia). Chemical Geology, 2002, 190(1-4): 141–179.
[47] Gavriil A.M. and Angelidis M.O., Metal and organic carbon distribution in water column of a shallow enclosed Bay at the Aegean Sea Archipelago: Kalloni Bay, island of Lesvos, Greece. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 2005, 64(2-3): 200–210.
[48] Munksgaard N.C. and Parry D.L., Trace metals, arsenic and lead isotopes in dissolved and particulate phases of North Australian coastal and estuarine seawater. Marine Chemistry, 2001, 75(3): 165–184.
[49] Harmant P. and Aimar P., Coagulation of colloids in a boundary layer during cross-flow filtration. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 1998, 138(2-3): 217–230.
[50] Kretzschmar R. and Sticher H., Colloid transport in natural porous media: Influence of surface chemistry and flow velocity. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 1998, 23(2): 133–139.
[51] El-Dessouky H.T., and Ettouney H.M., Fundamentals of Salt Water Desalination. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2002, 1: 1st edition.
[52] Marcovecchio M.G., Mussati S.F., Aguirre P.A., Nicolas J., and Scenna N.J., Optimization of hybrid desalination processes including multi stage flash and reverse osmosis systems. Desalination, 2005, 182(1-3): 107–118.
[53] Nicolaisen B., Developments in membrane technology for water treatment. Desalination, 2003, 153(1-3): 355–360.
[54] Hassan A.M. and Al-Sofi M.A.K., Al-Amoudi A.S. et al., A new approach to membrane and thermal seawater desalination processes using nanofiltration membranes (Part 1). Desalination, 1998, 118(1-3): 35–51.
[55] Ghabayen S., McKee M., and Kemblowski M., Characterization of uncertainties in the operation and economics of the proposed seawater desalination plant in the Gaza Strip. Desalination, 2004, 161(2): 191–201.
[56] Sikora J., Hansson C., and Ericsson B., Pretreatment and desalination of mine drainage water in a pilot plant. Desalination, 1989, 75: 363–373.
[57] Gille D. and Czolkoss W., Ultrafiltration with multi bore membranes as seawater pre-treatment. Desalination, 2005, 182(1-3): 295–301.
[58] Halpern D.F., McArdle J., and Antrim B., UF pre-treatment for SWRO: Pilot studies. Desalination, 2005, 182(1-3): 317–326.
[59] Redondo J.A., Brackish-, sea- and waste water desalination. Desalination, 2001, 138(1-3): 29–40.
[60] Semiat R., Desalination: present and future. International Water Resources Association, 2000, 25: 54–65.
[61] Leckie J., Sun D., Membrane-Coagulation Reactor for Water Treatment, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford, Palo Alto, California, 2002.
[62] Clever M., Jordt Knauf R., et al., Process water production from river water by ultrafiltration and reverse, osmosis. Desalination, 2000, 131(1-3): 325–336.
[63] Bottino A, Capannelli C., Del Borghi,A., et al., Water treatment for drinking purpose: Ceramic microfiltration application. Desalination, 2001, 141(1): 75-79.
[64] 刘辉, 全流程生物氧化技术处理微污染原水, 北京: 化学工业出版社, 2003, 14: 52-122.
[65] 胡江泳, 张锡辉, 王占生, 强化传统工艺处理微污染水源水的试验研究, 给水排水, 1996, 22(2): 18-20.
[66] Harleman D. R. F. and Murcott S. E., Upgrading and multi-stage development of municipal wastewater treatment plants: Applicability of chemically enhanced primary treatment. Technical report, World Bank, 1992.
[67] 谭智, 许建华, 污染水源的生物法预处理, 水处理技术, 1995, 21(4):231-235 .
[68] 肖华, 周荣丰, 微污染水源水处理技术的现状与发展, 北方环境, 2005, 30(1):62-66.
[69] 范艳丽, 邵林广, 微污染水源水净化技术, 工业安全与环保, 2004, 30(11):1-3.
[70] Camel V., Bermond A., The use of ozone and associated oxidation processes in drinking water treatment, Water Research, 1998, 32(11): 3208-3222.
[71] 王华成, 吕锡武, 微污染水源水饮用水处理研究进展, 净水技术, 2005, 24(1):30-39.
[72] Mallevialle J. et al., Water Treatment Membrane Processes, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994.
[73] Hillis P., Membrane Technology in Water and Wastewater Treatment. The Royal Society of Chemistry, UK: Cambridge, 2000: 269.
[74] Mulder M., Introduction to Membrane process, in Basic Principles of Membrane Technology, Kluwer: Academic Publisers, 1996: 284.
[75] Van Houtte E., Verbauwhede J., Vanlerberghe F., Demunter S., and Cabooter J., Treating different types of raw water with micro- and ultrafiltration for further desalination using reverse osmosis. Desalination, 1998, 117(1-3): 49–60.
[76] Pervov A.G., Andrianov A.P., Efremov R.V., et al., A new solution for the Caspian Sea desalination: Low-pressure, membranes. Desalination, 2003, 157(1-3): 377–384.
[77] Teuler A., Glucina K., and Laine J.M., Assessment of UF pretreatment prior RO membranes for seawater desalination. Desalination, 1999, 125(1-3): 89–96.
[78] Van der Bruggen B., and Vandecasteele C., Removal of pollutants from surface water and groundwater by nanofiltration: Overview of possible applications in the drinking water industry. Environmental Pollution, 2003, 122(3): 435–445.
[79] Conlon W.J. and McClellen S.A., Membrane softening: treatment process comes of age. AWWA, 1989, 81: 47–51.
[80] Linde K. and Jonsson A., Nanofiltration of salt solutions and landfill leachate. Desalination, 1995, 103: 223–232.
[81] 王琳, 王宝贞, 饮用水深度处理技术, 北京: 化学工业出版社, 2002, 25(40-41): 148-163, 310-341.
[82] Watanabe Y.,Kimura K.,Suzuki T.,Membrane application to water purification process in Japan-development of hybrid membrane system , Water Science Technology, 2000, 41(10-11): 9-16.
[83] Liu Z.H, Zhang K.S., Present status and applications of membrane bioreactors. (2004), Chemical journal on internet, from www.chemistrymag.org/cji/2004/061005ne.htm
[84] Yuan N.J., Ding F.X., J. Chem. Eng. of Chinese University, (Gaoxiao Huaxue Gongcheng), 1991, 5 (1): 1.
[85] Marcano J.G.S, Tsotsis T., Catalytic Membranes and Membrane Reactors, New York: John Wiley, 2002: 133.
[86] Jiang Zhongyi, J. Membr. Sci. & Technol. (Mo Kexue Yu Jishu), 2003, 23 (1): 53.
[87] Urbain V., Benoit R., Manem J., Membrane bioreactor: a new treatment tool, Journal AWWA, 1996, 5: 75-86.
[88] Wisniewski C., Persin F., Cherif T., Sandeaux R., Grasmick A., Gavach C., Denitrification of drinking water by the association of an electrodialysis process and a membrane bioreactor: feasibility and application, Desalination, 2001, 139(1-3): 199-205.
[89] Noronha M., Britz T., Mavrov V., Janke H.D., Chmiel H. Treatment of spent process water from a fruit juice company for purposes of reuse: hybrid process concept and on-site test operation of a pilot plant, Desalination, 2002, 143(2): 183-196.
[90] Li X.Y., Chu H.P., Membrane bioreactor for the drinking water treatment of polluted surface water supplies, Water Research, 2003, 37(19): 4781-4791.
[91] Seo G.T., Jang S.W., Lee S.H., IWA Specialty Conference, Seoul, South Korea, June 7~10, 2004, 761-768.
[92] Al-Mutairi N.Z., Hamoda M.F., and Al-Ghusain I., Coagulant selection and sludge conditioning in a slaughterhouse wastewater treatment plant. Bioresource Technology, 2004, 95(2): 115–119.
[93] Carroll T., King S., Gray S.R., Bolto B.A. and Booker N.A., The fouling of microfiltration membranes by NOM after coagulation treatment. Water Research, 2000, 34(11): 2861–2868.
[94] Choksuchart P., Heran M., and Grasmick A., Ultrafiltration enhanced by coagulation in an immersed membrane system. Desalination, 2002, 145(1-3): 265–272.
[95] Vickers J.C., Thompson M.A., and and Kelkar U.G., The use of membrane filtration in conjunction with coagulation processes for improved NOM removal. Desalination, 1995, 102(1-3): 57–61.
[96] Pikkarainen A.T., Judd S.J., Jokel, J. and Gillberg, L., Pre-coagulation for microfiltration of an upland surface water. Water Research, 2004, 38(2): 455–465.
[97] Papic S., Koprivanac N., Bozic A.L., and Metes A., Removal of some reactive dyes from synthetic wastewater by combined Al(III) coagulation/ carbon absorption process. Pre-Treatment Processes in Desalination Plants 451. Dyes and Pigments, 2004, 62: 291–298.
[98] Kothari N. and Taylor J.S., Pilot scale microfiltration at Manitowoc. Desalination, 1998, 119(1-3): 93–102.
[99] Abu Qdais H. and Moussa H., Removal of heavy metals from wastewater by membrane processes: a comparative study. Desalination, 2004, 164(2): 105–110.
[100] Bodzek M. and Konieczny K., Comparison of various membrane types and module configurations in the treatment of natural water by means of low-pressure membrane method. Separation and Purification Technology, 1998, 14(1-3): 69–78.
[101] Hagen K., Removal of particles, bacteria and parasites with ultrafiltration for drinking water treatment. Desalination, 1998, 119(1-3): 85–91.
[102] Mavrov V., Chmiel H., Kluth J., et al., Comparative study of different MF and UF membranes for drinking water production. Desalination, 1998, 117(1-3): 189–196.
[103] Pianta R., Boller M., Janex M. et al., Micro- and ultrafiltration of karstic spring water. Desalination, 1998, 117(1-3): 61–71.
[104] Abdessemed D. and Nezzal G., Treatment of primary effluent by coagulation-adsorption-ultrafltration for reuse. Desalination, 2002, 152: 367–373.
[105] Schaifer A.I., Fane A.G., and Waite T.D., Nanofiltration of natural organic matter: Removal, fouling and the influence of multivalent ions. Desalination, 1998, 118(2): 109–122.
[106] Xu L., Shiyong W., and Zeng X., The maltitol purification and concentration by nanofiltration. Desalination, 2005, 184(1-3): 1275–1283.
[107] Hoek E.M.V. and Elimelech M., Cake-enhanced concentration polarisation: A new fouling mechanism for salt-rejecting membranes. Environment Science and Technology, 2003, 37: 5581–5588.
[108] Vela M.C.V., Blanco S.A., and Garcia J.L., Crossflow ultrafiltration of cake forming solutes: a non-steady state model. Desalination, 2005, 184(1-3): 1327–1336.
[109] Koros W. J., Ma Y. H. and Shimidzu T., "Terminology for membranes and membrane processes (IUPAC Recommendations 1996)", Journal of Membrane Science, 1996, 120(2): 149-159.
[110] Stephenson T., Judd S., Jefferson B., Brindle K., Membrane Bioreactors for Wastewater Treatment, London: IWA Publishing, 2000, 25-37.
[111] Glucina K., Alvarez A., Laine J.M., Assessment of an integrated membrane system for surface water treatment, Desalination, 2000, 132(1-3): 73-82.
[112] Charles Liu, Scott Caothien, Jennifer Hayes, Tom Caothuy, Membrane Chemical Cleaning: From Art to Science, Scientific and Laboratory Services, Pall Corporation, 25 Harbor Park Dr., Port Washington, NY 11050, USA.
[113] Mallevialle J., Anselme C. and Marsigny O., Effects of Humic Substances on Membrane Processes, in Advances in Chemistry (ed.), American Chemical Society, Denver, Colorado, 1989.
[114] Lahoussine-Turcaud M.R., Wiesner and J. Y. Bottero, Fouling in Tangential-Flow Ultrafiltration: The Effect of Colloid Size and Coagulation Pretreatment, Journal of Membrane Science, 1990, 52(2): 173-190.
[115] Speth T.F., Gusses A.M., and Summers R.S., Evaluation of nanofiltration pretreatments for flux loss control. Desalination, 2000, 130(1): 31-44.
[116] Cho J., Amy G., and Pellegrino J., Membrane filtration of natural organic matter: Initial comparison of rejection and flux decline characteristics with ultrafiltration and nanofiltration membranes. Water Research, 1999, 33(11): 2517-2526.
[117] Huang J.Y., Takizawa S., Fujita K., Pilot-plant study of a high recovery membrane filtration process for drinking water treatment, Water Science and Technology, 2000, 41(10-11): 77-84.
[118] Fukada S, Tsuji T, Minegishi T, et al., Fouling performance in the filtration of water containing humic acid and/or kaolin with microporous membrane, Water Science Technology, 2000, 41(10-11): 317-325.
[119] Hillis P., Padley M.B., Powell N.I., and Gallagher P.M., Effects of backwash conditions on out-to-in membrane microfiltration. Desalination, 1998, 118(1-3): 197–204.
[120] Kampa P.C., Kruithof J.C., and Folmer H.C., UF/RO treatment plant Heemskerk: From challenge to full scale application. Desalination, 2000, 131(1-3): 27-35.
[121] Nederlof M.M., Kruithof J.C., Taylor J.S. et al., Comparison of NF/RO membrane performance in integrated membrane systems. Desalination, 2000, 131(1-3): 257-269.
[122] Kulovara M, Metsamuuronen S, and Nystrom M, Effects of aquatic humic substances on a hydrophobic ultrafiltration membrane. Chemosphere, 1999, 38(15): 3485–3496.
[123] Brehant A., Bonnelye V., and Perez M., Comparison of MF/UF pretreatment with conventional filtration prior to RO membranes for surface seawater desalination. Desalination, 2002, 144(1-3): 353-360.
[124] Van Hoof S.C.J.M., Hashim A., and Kordes A.J., The effect of ultrafiltration as pre-treatment to reverse osmosis in wastewater reuse and seawater desalination applications. Desalination, 1999, 124(1-3): 231-242.
[125] Takata K., Yamamoto K., Bian R., and Watanabe Y., Removal of humic substances with vibratory shear enhanced processing membrane filtration. Desalination, 1998, 117(1-3): 273-282.
[126] National Standard Committee Comprehensive part 1 of Compulsory Standard of China [C], third edition, Beijing: China Standard Press, 2003: 376-558.
[127] 国家标准化管理委员会. 中国强制性国家标准汇编环境保护卷[C]. 第三版.北京: 中国国家标准出版社, 2003: 199-206.
[128] Véronique Bonnelye, Miguel Angel Sanz, Jean Pierre Durand, et al., Reverse osmosis on open intake seawater pre-treatment strategy. Desalination, 2004, 167: 191-200.
[129] Ebrahim S., Abdel-Jawad M., Bou-Hamad S., et al. Fifteen years of R&D program in seawater desalination at KISR part I. Pretreatment technologies for RO systems [J] . Desalination, 2001, 135(1-3): 141-153.
[130] Long Z.B, Zhang D.Q, Zhang W. Q. et al., A pretreatment technology study on Bohai seawater desalination with RO method. Urban Environment & Urban Ecology, 2003, 16(6): 241-242.
[131] Wang L Y. Study on pollution and control of RO membrane. Water treatment technology, 2003, 29(2): 102-105.
[132] Vigneswaran S, Chaudhary D, S Ngo H, Application of a PAC-membrane hybrid system for removal of organics from secondary sewage effluent: experiments and modeling, Separation Science Technology, 2003, 38 (10): 2183-2199.
[133] Abdessemed D., Nezzal G., Ben Aim R., Coagulation–adsorption–ultrafiltration for wastewater treatment reuse, Desalination, 2000, 131 (1-3): 307-314.
[134] Sagbo O., Sun Y.X., Hao A.L., Gu P., Effect of PAC addition on MBR process for drinking water treatment, Separation and Purification Technology, 2007, doi: 10.1016/j.seppur.2007.05.003
[135] Kim J.S., Lee C.H., Chun H.D., Comparison of ultra-filtration characteristics between activated sludge and BAC sludge, Water Research, 1998, 32: 3443-3451.
[136] Fang Herbert H. P., Shi X.L., Zhang T., Effect of activated carbon on membrane filtration of activated sludge, Desalination, 2006, 189: 193-199.
[137] Braghetta A, Jacangelo J G., DAF pretreatment: its effect on MF performance [J]. Journal AWWA, 1997, 89(10): 90-97.
[138] State Environment Protection Bureau, “Standard Methods for Water and Waste Water Analysis”, fourth ed., China Environmental Science Press, Beijing, 2002.
[139] Philbrook D.M., Grady C.P., Evaluation of biodegradation kinetics for priority potlutants, Proc. Ind. Waste Conf, 40th, Purdue University, 1985: 795-804.
[140] Hao A.L, Chen Y.L., Gu P., Experimental research on membrane bioreactor for micropolluted surface water treatment [J], Hua gong xue bao, 2006, 57(1): 136-139.
[141] Galapate RP, Baes AU, Ito K, Iwase K, Okada M., Trihalomethane formation potential prediction using some chemical functional groups and bulk parameters, Water Research, 1999, 33(11): 2555-2560.
[142] Singer P.C., Formation and control of disinfection by-products in drinking water, American Water Works Association, 1999: 53-63, 65-70.
[143] Kitis M., Karanfil T., Wigton A., eilduff J.E., Probing reactivity of dissolved organic matter for disinfection by-products formation using XAD-8 resin adsorption and ultrafiltration fractionation, Water Research, 2002, 36 (15): 3834-3848.
[144] Zhou W.M., Fu D.Q., Sun Z.G., List for priority pollutants in waters, Environment Monitoring, China, 1990, 6 (4): 1–3 (in Chinese).
[145] USEPA, Water quality criteria summary, ecological risk assessment branch (WH-585) and human risk assessment branch (WH-550D). Health and Ecological Criteria Division, USEPA, Washington, DC, USA, 1991.
[146] Karlsson S, Kaugare S., Formation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol and 2,4,6 trichloroanisole during treatment and distribution of drinking water, Water Science Technology, 1995, 31(11): 99–103.
[147] National Toxicology Program.Ninth Report on Carcinogens, US Department of Health and Human Services-Public Health Service, 2001.
[148] Raung K.D., Theory and practice for the removal of phenols in wastewater. Industrial Pollution Prevention and Control, 1984, 3 (3): 88-103.
[149] Zhang H.M., Zhang W., Wang B.Z., Study on the removal of phenol by integrated PAC-microfiltration membrane process, Water treatment technology, 2004, 30 (5): 259-261.
[150] Chin-Jen Lu, Gerald E., Speitel Jr., Effect of natural organic matter on biodegradation of a recalcitrant synthetic organic chemical, J. AWWA, 1991, 83 (2): 56-61.
[151] 张锡辉, 高等环境化学与微生物学原理及应用, 第二版: 北京: 化学工业出版社, 2001, 229 (284): 312-313.
[152] Kazuhiko Noto, Takako Ogasawara, Complete oxidation of high concentration of ammonia by retaining incompatible nitrification activities in three-vessel system, Water Research, 1998, 32 (3): 769-773.
[153] Monod J., Recherches sur la croissance des cultures bactériennes. Paris, France: Hermann et Cie, 1942.
[154] Williamson K.J., Mc Carty P.L., Rapid Measurement of Monod Half-Velocity Coefficients for Bacterial Kinetics, Biotech & Bioeng, 1975, 17: 915-924.
[155] 张自杰, 林荣忱, 金儒霖, 排水工程 下册, 第四版, 北京: 中国建筑工业出版社, 1999: 114-115.
[156] Lesile Grady Jr C.P., B.F. Smets, D. S. Barbeau. Variability in kinetic parameter estimates: a review of possible causes and a proposed terminology, Water Research, 1996, 30(3): 742-748.