教师的纠错反馈行为与学习者的吸纳：英语专业英语课堂研究
摘要
自上个世纪八十年代至今,在二语习得研究领域中,作为外语学习环境的二语课堂受到了颇多的关注,二语课堂中的师生互动更是成为关注焦点。在各种类型的师生互动中,关于教师的反馈行为的研究在二语课堂研究中占有核心位置,因此,反馈成为国内外专家学者的重点研究对象。本文以Lyster和Ranta的研究模式为指导,主要研究教师反馈行为中的一个重要方面——教师的纠错反馈行为,并尝试描述中国英语专业学生二语课堂中教师针对学习者不同类型错误所采取的纠错行为,试图分析不同纠错行为与学习者吸纳之间的关系,旨在解决三个问题:1)学习者的何种错误会引起教师更多的纠错行为? 2)不同的纠错行为是如何分布的? 3)学习者的吸纳是如何分布的?
本文通过对安徽师范大学英语专业大二两个班的“综合英语”课堂的观察(17节课,共计850分钟)及分析,发现:
1.在所观察的课堂中,学习者更容易在词汇以及语法方面出现使用错误,但是词汇错误却比其他种类的错误得到更多的纠错反馈。
2.教师倾向于重述学习者的语音错误,但对于词汇和语法错误,则会采取形式协商的方式。
3.学习者的语音修正会更多的出现在教师的重述行为之后,而词汇和语法修正则更容易出现在形式协商行为之后。
4.教师的形式协商行为更容易引起学习者的即时修正,而重述行为却没有如此效果,在教师的重述行为之后多会由教师自身或学生继续原先的话题,从而导致“零吸纳”现象的出现。由这些发现可以得出:
1.在二语课堂中,教师应该给予学习者充分的使用二语的机会,从而使其通过不断地练习来发现并改正语言错误。
2.教师不应以牺牲语音训练为前提而仅把纠错重点放在学习者的词汇和语法习得方面。
3.教师可以通过形式协商的方式鼓励学习者进行错误修正。同时,如果教师纠错行为得当、学习者有充分的时间回应或学习者注意到了教师的纠错行为,英语专业的学习者有能力加以自我修正。
4.教师应给与学习者以充分的时间去修正自己的错误,而不是继续原先的话题。虽然由此可能会使教学时间受到影响,但学习者却可从中受益。
Since 1980s, there have been plenty of studies about classroom as language learning environment in the research field of second language acquisition (SLA). Most of those studies linked with the verbal interactions between the teacher and the students. Among the various kinds of interactions, teacher feedback lies at the core in the field of second language classroom research. So it has been attracting much attention from foreign as well as domestic researchers. The present study, inspired by Lyster & Ranta (1997) and Lyster (1998a), attempts to describe the patterns of corrective feedback, following different types of errors, and to analyze its relationship to learner uptake. Three research questions are addressed: 1) What type of error made by L2 learners attracts most attention from teacher? Alternatively, which type initiates more corrective feedback? 2) What is the distribution of different types of corrective feedback, i.e. what type of corrective feedback follows different learner errors? 3) What is the distribution of learner uptake following different types of corrective feedback?
The data are derived from note-taking of observation of two sophomore English-majored comprehensive English classes at Anhui Normal University, with 17 lessons of 850 minutes. After analysis and discussion, the major findings are presented as follows:
1. Lexical and grammatical errors are the more frequent ones committed by learners in the observed classrooms, but lexical errors receive much more corrective feedback than other types of errors.
2. Teachers would like to recast phonological errors but prefer to negotiate lexical and grammatical errors.
3. Phonological repairs tend to follow recasts, whereas lexical and grammatical errors tend to follow negotiation of form.
4. Negotiation of form tend to successfully invite immediate repairs, whereas recasts are less effective in leading to repairs, often resulting in topic-continuation initiated by the teacher or students, i.e. zero-uptake.
Based on the findings, some implications can be drawn for the classroom applications:
1. The teacher ought to conduct more activities in which the teacher and students may have more communications with each other, and students get more opportunities to practice the target language and thus have more chances to let the teacher inform them of the gap between the target language and their problematic output.
2. Teachers should not only focus their attention on lexical and grammatical development regardless of students' pronunciation in that pronunciation is one of the basic skills for English majors. As English majors in a normal university, the teaching career after graduation is the priority choice for most students. Without a standard pronunciation, they cannot become qualified teachers.
3. Teachers can use the negotiation of form to encourage students' self- or peer-repairs, because this type of corrective feedback can make students, either the one committing an error or the others, notice that there are some errors in the students' performance that need modification. Besides, the English majors are capable of self-correction if they are given proper feedback moves, sufficient time and if their awareness is aroused.
4. Teachers should leave more space to students to repair the errors, rather than continue the topic. Although this way may take some time, it is good for the students to develop their interlanguage.
本文通过对安徽师范大学英语专业大二两个班的“综合英语”课堂的观察(17节课,共计850分钟)及分析,发现:
1.在所观察的课堂中,学习者更容易在词汇以及语法方面出现使用错误,但是词汇错误却比其他种类的错误得到更多的纠错反馈。
2.教师倾向于重述学习者的语音错误,但对于词汇和语法错误,则会采取形式协商的方式。
3.学习者的语音修正会更多的出现在教师的重述行为之后,而词汇和语法修正则更容易出现在形式协商行为之后。
4.教师的形式协商行为更容易引起学习者的即时修正,而重述行为却没有如此效果,在教师的重述行为之后多会由教师自身或学生继续原先的话题,从而导致“零吸纳”现象的出现。由这些发现可以得出:
1.在二语课堂中,教师应该给予学习者充分的使用二语的机会,从而使其通过不断地练习来发现并改正语言错误。
2.教师不应以牺牲语音训练为前提而仅把纠错重点放在学习者的词汇和语法习得方面。
3.教师可以通过形式协商的方式鼓励学习者进行错误修正。同时,如果教师纠错行为得当、学习者有充分的时间回应或学习者注意到了教师的纠错行为,英语专业的学习者有能力加以自我修正。
4.教师应给与学习者以充分的时间去修正自己的错误,而不是继续原先的话题。虽然由此可能会使教学时间受到影响,但学习者却可从中受益。
Since 1980s, there have been plenty of studies about classroom as language learning environment in the research field of second language acquisition (SLA). Most of those studies linked with the verbal interactions between the teacher and the students. Among the various kinds of interactions, teacher feedback lies at the core in the field of second language classroom research. So it has been attracting much attention from foreign as well as domestic researchers. The present study, inspired by Lyster & Ranta (1997) and Lyster (1998a), attempts to describe the patterns of corrective feedback, following different types of errors, and to analyze its relationship to learner uptake. Three research questions are addressed: 1) What type of error made by L2 learners attracts most attention from teacher? Alternatively, which type initiates more corrective feedback? 2) What is the distribution of different types of corrective feedback, i.e. what type of corrective feedback follows different learner errors? 3) What is the distribution of learner uptake following different types of corrective feedback?
The data are derived from note-taking of observation of two sophomore English-majored comprehensive English classes at Anhui Normal University, with 17 lessons of 850 minutes. After analysis and discussion, the major findings are presented as follows:
1. Lexical and grammatical errors are the more frequent ones committed by learners in the observed classrooms, but lexical errors receive much more corrective feedback than other types of errors.
2. Teachers would like to recast phonological errors but prefer to negotiate lexical and grammatical errors.
3. Phonological repairs tend to follow recasts, whereas lexical and grammatical errors tend to follow negotiation of form.
4. Negotiation of form tend to successfully invite immediate repairs, whereas recasts are less effective in leading to repairs, often resulting in topic-continuation initiated by the teacher or students, i.e. zero-uptake.
Based on the findings, some implications can be drawn for the classroom applications:
1. The teacher ought to conduct more activities in which the teacher and students may have more communications with each other, and students get more opportunities to practice the target language and thus have more chances to let the teacher inform them of the gap between the target language and their problematic output.
2. Teachers should not only focus their attention on lexical and grammatical development regardless of students' pronunciation in that pronunciation is one of the basic skills for English majors. As English majors in a normal university, the teaching career after graduation is the priority choice for most students. Without a standard pronunciation, they cannot become qualified teachers.
3. Teachers can use the negotiation of form to encourage students' self- or peer-repairs, because this type of corrective feedback can make students, either the one committing an error or the others, notice that there are some errors in the students' performance that need modification. Besides, the English majors are capable of self-correction if they are given proper feedback moves, sufficient time and if their awareness is aroused.
4. Teachers should leave more space to students to repair the errors, rather than continue the topic. Although this way may take some time, it is good for the students to develop their interlanguage.
引文
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Carroll, S, & Swain, M. "Explicit and Implicit Negative Feedback: An Empirical Study of the learning of Linguistics Generalizations". Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 1993(15):357-386.
Chaudron, C. "Teachers' Priorities in Correcting Learners' Errors in French Immersion Classes". Talking to Learn. ed. R. Day. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1986.
—. Second Language Classrooms. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Chenoweth, N.A. et al. "Attitudes and Preferences of ESL Learners to Error Correction". Studies in Second language Acquisition. 1983(6):79-87.
Chomsky, N. Reflections on Language. New York: Pantheon, 1975.
Cook, V. Second Language Learning and Second Language Teaching. London: Edward Arnold, 1991.
Corder, S. P. "The Significance of Learners' Errors". International Review of Applied Linguistics. 1967(4): 161-170.
—. "Idiosyncratic Dialects and Error Analysis". International Review of Applied Linguistics. 1971(9):149-159.
Courchene, R. "The Error Analysis Hypothesis, the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, and the Correction or Error in the Second Language Classroom". TESL Talk. 1980(2): 3-13 and (3): 1-29.
Dekeyser, R. "The Effect of Error Correction on L2 Grammar Knowledge and Oral Proficiency". Modern Language Journal. 1993(77):501-514.
Doughty, C., & Varela. E. "Communicative Focus on Form". Focus on Form in Classroom Second Language Acquisition. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Ellis, R. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985; rpt. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1994.
—. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994; rpt. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1997.
—. Instructed Second Language Acquisition: A Literature Review. Wellington: Research Division, 2005.
Ellis, R., Basturkmen, H., & Loewen, S. "Learner Uptake in Communicative ESL Lessons". Language Learning. 2001(51):281-318.
Ellis, R., Shawn L., and Rosemery E. "Implicit and Explicit Corrective Feedback and the Acquisition of L2 Grammar". Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 2006(28): 339-368.
Fanselow, J. "The Treatment of Error in Oral Work". Foreign Language Annals. 1977(10):583-593.
Gao Hong. "Feedback in Language Classrooms". Beijing Normal University: Unpublished M.A. Thesis, 1998.
Gass, S. "Integrating Research Areas: A Framework for Second Language Studies". Applied Linguistics. 1988(9):198-217.
Gass, S., & Varonis, E. "Input, Interaction, and Second Language Production". Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 1994(16):283-302.
Han, Zhaohong. "A Study of the Impact of Recast on the Tense Consistency in L2 Output". TESOL Quarterly. 2002(36):543-571.
Hendrickson, J. "Error Correction in Foreign Language Teaching: Recent Theory, Research, and Practice". Modern Language Journal. 1978(62):387-398.
James, Carl. Errors in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2001.
Kim Ji Hyun."Issues of Corrective Feedback in Second Language Acquisition".Online Posting.Teachers College,Columbia University Working Papers in TESOL & Applied linguistics.2004 < http://journals.tc-library.org/index.php/tesol/article/view/60/66>.
Kim He-Rim."Explicit vs.Implicit Corrective Feedback".The Korea TESOL Journal.2001(4):57-72.
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