空气污染对城市居民的健康风险与经济损失的研究
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摘要
空气污染对人类及其生存环境造成的危害与影响，已逐渐为人们所认识。空气污染可分为室外空气污染和室内空气污染。室外空气污染物包括气态污染物、颗粒态污染物等；室内空气污染是由于各种原因导致的室内空气中有害物质超标，进而影响人体健康，有害物质包括甲醛、苯、氨、放射性氡等。近二三十年来我国东部地区空气污染加剧，其中霾污染正演变成为我国城市大气中主要污染之一，引起了普通民众和科学界的广泛关注。目前国内外关于空气污染对城市居民的健康风险、由此造成的经济损失、室内空气污染特征以及对居民的健康影响还缺乏系统的研究。
为了深入了解空气污染对城市居民的健康影响，本论文对人群暴露空气中可吸入颗粒物（PM10）、二氧化硫和二氧化氮、霾污染、颗粒物上持久性有毒污染物（PTS）的健康风险进行了评价。同时，考虑到室外空气污染对室内空气质量的影响，建立了计算室内空气污染物浓度的数学模型，应用此模型计算了室内空气中典型PTS和甲醛的浓度；对室内空气污染物甲醛、氨和挥发性有机污染物的控制方法及其健康效应进行了研究。
论文主要结果与结论如下：
2005-2009年长江三角洲地区（YRDR）25城市PM10平均浓度为52.8-112.1μg/m~3，南京（107.3μg/m~3）、徐州（112.1μg/m~3）、盐城（107.8μg/m~3）和杭州（108.2μg/m~3）的PM10年平均浓度高于YRDR的其他城市。冬季YRDR的PM10最高，为110.5μg/m~3，其次是春季（95.9μg/m~3）和夏季（85.5μg/m~3），秋季最低，为78.2μg/m~3。徐州、盐城、杭州和南京居民在由大气颗粒物引起的呼吸系统疾病的潜在健康风险分别是舟山的2.11、2.04、2.04和2.02倍。宁波市区PM10、NO_2和SO_2的年平均浓度分别是郊区的1.13、1.25和1.41倍。城区居民的健康风险较高，由NO_2引起的对城区居民的健康风险为可接受水平的11倍以上。
在2009年霾污染期间上海市空气中PM_(10)、NO_2、SO_2的浓度（分别为110.9μg/m~3、67.7μg/m~3和48.8μg/m~3）高于非霾污染期间（分别为63.6μg/m~3、45.3μg/m~3和27.5μg/m~3）。PM10、NO_2、SO_2的浓度在冬季最高，其次是春季和夏季，秋季最低。所调查的两所大型医院儿科门诊数冬季大于其他季节。在非霾污染期间儿科医院的门诊数大于霾污染期间显示出霾污染对当地居民健康影响的滞后效应。对不同人群的健康风险研究发现，在霾污染期间NO_2对成人和1岁左右儿童的形成的健康风险较大；霾污染期间所有人群的健康风险高于非霾污染期间。
2009年上海市霾污染造成的健康危害经济损失为72.48亿元，占上海全市当年GDP的0.49%，表明上海市目前的霾污染水平对居民健康危害及其经济损失较大。预测控制目前上海市霾污染尤其是细颗粒物PM_(2.5)的浓度，可以较大幅度地改善城市居民健康状况，进而减少相应的经济损失。
上海某工业区焦化厂、氯碱厂、热电厂附近大气颗粒物中总多环芳烃（∑PAHs）的浓度分别为151.22ng/m~3、66.85ng/m~3和112.9ng/m~3。总多氯联苯（∑PCBs）浓度范围分布在0.247~1.436ng/m~3之间。总有机氯农药（∑OCPs）在焦化厂、氯碱厂、热电厂附近大气颗粒物中浓度分别为253.93pg/m~3、230.27pg/m~3和80.00pg/m~3。三个厂区下风向的大气中，发电厂下风向大气汞含量最高，氯碱厂下风向大气汞含量较低。
基因毒物质的致癌风险评估结果表明，颗粒物中PCBs和OCPs污染引起的对人群的致癌风险较小，比可接受水平低2-3个数量级。但由PAHs通过呼吸暴露途径对人体造成的致癌危险度大多比可接受的水平（10~(-6)）高2-3个数量级。其中，由苯并（а）芘（BaP）导致的致癌风险最大。BaP通过呼吸暴露途径对成人造成的致癌风险高于可接受的水平的263-823倍，对儿童造成的致癌危险度高于可接受水平的172-538倍；∑PAHs致癌当量（BaPE）的致癌风险约为可接受水平的10~3倍，且成人的致癌风险约是儿童的1~2倍。躯体毒物质导致的健康风险较大，为可接受水平的1.03-99.01倍，且成人大于儿童。
根据物质守恒定律，本研究建立了室内空气中污染物浓度的数值计算模型。结果表明，本文建立的建筑物内污染物浓度计算的数值模型适用于建筑物密闭和通风条件下气态污染物的浓度的预测。计算结果表明，减少建筑材料装填率，增加空气交换率，可以降低室内空气中污染物浓度，从而降低其对人体的健康风险。
本研究对比了在气体净化装置密闭和不密闭的情况下，光催化、臭氧协同光催化和有机胺吸附对于HCHO、NH_3和VOCs的去除效果。90.4%的甲醛、92.3%的氨以及57.9%的VOCs在有机胺吸收剂处理过程中被去除，而67.5%的甲醛、60.0%的氨以及61.2%的VOCs在光催化氧化的过程中被去除。在通风不足的条件下，采用有机胺吸附剂8小时后，其致癌风险将降低一个数量级。
The damage and effects caused by air pollution on humans and theenvironment are gradually recognized. Air pollution includes outdoor airpollution and indoor air pollution. Outdoor air pollutants include gaseouspollutants, particle pollutants etc., and indoor air pollution is caused byexcessive harmful materials in indoor air, which will affect human health.The harmful materials include formaldehyde, benzene, ammonia,radioactive radon etc. In the past20/30years, haze weather has beenrapidly increasing in the eastern areas of our country, and at the sametime, the visibility has been getting worse significantly. Haze pollution isbecoming one kind of the main air pollution in cities. And ordinarypeople and scientific community have paid more and more attention to it.However, it still lacks systematic and in-deep research on health risks caused by air pollution, related economic loss, indoor air pollutioncharacteristics and pollutants.
In order to deeply understand the health effects of air pollution oncitizens, this paper studied the health risks caused by inhalable particulatematters (PM10), SO_2, NO_2, haze pollution, and the persistent toxicsubstances (PTS) on particles. At the same time, considering the effect ofoutdoor air pollution on indoor air pollution, the mathematical modelwhich is used to calculate the concentrations of indoor air pollutants hasbeen established, and the model has been used to calculate theconcentrations of typical PTS and formaldehyde in the indoor air.Furthermore, the degradation techniques of typical pollutants, HCHO,NH3and volatile organic pollutants have been studied.
The main results and conclusions of this paper are as follows:
The average PM10concentrations of25cities in Yangtze River DeltaRegion during2005-2009were52.8-112.1μg/m~3, and among them, theaverage PM10concentrations of Nanjing (107.3μg/m~3), Xuzhou(112.1μg/m~3), Yancheng (107.8μg/m~3) and Hangzhou (108.2μg/m~3) werehigher than the other cities of YRDR. The PM10concentrations in thewinter were the highest, about110.5μg/m~3, followed by spring(95.9μg/m~3) and summer (85.5μg/m~3), with the lowest in autumn(78.2μg/m~3). The potential health risks of respiratory system diseasecaused by atmospheric particulates in Xuzhou, Yancheng, Hangzhou and Nanjing were2.11,2.04,2.04and2.02times respectively as much as inZhoushan. The average concentrations of SO_2, NO_2and PM10in theurban areas of Ningbo were1.13,1.25and1.41times as much as those insuburban areas. The health risks of urban residents were higher than theresidents in the suburbs. The urban residents had the health risks causedby NO_2as high as the11times the acceptable level.
The concentrations of PM10, NO_2and SO_2(63.6μg/m~3、45.3μg/m~3and27.5μg/m~3respectively) during haze pollution period in2009inShanghai was higher than those (63.6μg/m~3、45.3μg/m~3and27.5μg/m~3respectively) in non-haze pollution period. And the concentrations ofPM10, NO_2and SO_2were highest in winter, followed by spring andsummer, and the lowest in winter. The outpatients of two large pediatrichospitals investigated have more outpatients in winter than other seasons.The number of outpatients in non-haze pollution period is larger thanhaze pollution period, which shows the hysteresis effect of haze pollutionon local residents’ health. For the potential health risk analysis, healthrisks for all age groups in haze days were higher than those in non-hazedays and adults and children (1year) suffered from the highest healthrisks due to NO_2in haze days.
The related economic loss caused by haze pollution in Shanghai in2009was about7.248billion RMB, which accounted for0.49%of theGDP of the same year. Therefore current haze pollution in Shanghai brings large harm to residents’ health and big economic loss. Controllingthe haze pollution especially the concentrations of PM_(2.5),can improveresidents’ health and in turn reduce related economic loss.
The concentrations of∑PAHs on the particulates in the air of thecoking chemical plant, chlor-alkali chemical plant, thermal power plant ofthe industrial zone are151.22ng/m~3,66.85ng/m~3and112.9ng/m~3respectively; and∑PCBs ranges between0.247~1.436ng/m~3,and theconcentrations of∑OCPs are253.93pg/m~3、230.27pg/m~3and80.00pg/m~3respectively. The concentration of Hg in the downwind fromthe thermal power plant is the highest of the three plants, while theconcentration of Hg in the downwind from the chlor-alkali chemical plantis the lowest.
The results of carcinogenic risk assessment of gene toxic substancesshowed that the cancer risks caused by PCBs and OCPs on theparticulates were lower than acceptable levels by2-3magnitudes. But thecancer risks caused by PAHs through breath exposure to human bodywere higher than acceptable levels by2-3magnitudes. Among them, thecancer risks resulted by BaP were the largest. The cancer risk caused byBaP was263-823times higher than acceptable level for adults, and172-538times for children. The cancer risk caused by BaPE about103times as much as the acceptable level and the risk to adult is about1to2times as much as that to children. The health risks caused by the non-gene toxic substances were higher than the accepted levels by1.03to99.01times, and the risks for adults were higher than those for children.
According to the law of conservation of mater, this study hasestablished a numerical calculation model of the concentrations of indoorair pollutants. The results showed that this model was appropriate forpredicting the concentration of pollutants within airtight and ventilatedbuildings. The results of the calculation showed that the indoor airpollutants concentrations and the resulting human health risks can bereduced by reducing the loading rate of building materials, and increasingair exchange rates.
In this study, experiments were carried out to remove formaldehyde(HCHO), ammonia (NH3) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in theairtight and ventilated chambers. Results demonstrated that90.4%ofHCHO,92.3%of NH3and57.9%of VOCs were removed in the amineadsorption process, while67.5%of HCHO,60.0%of NH3, and61.2%ofVOCs were removed in the photocatalytic process. Under the conditionof insufficient ventilation, the cancer risk can be reduced by one order ofmagnitude after the8-hour amine adsorption process.
为了深入了解空气污染对城市居民的健康影响，本论文对人群暴露空气中可吸入颗粒物（PM10）、二氧化硫和二氧化氮、霾污染、颗粒物上持久性有毒污染物（PTS）的健康风险进行了评价。同时，考虑到室外空气污染对室内空气质量的影响，建立了计算室内空气污染物浓度的数学模型，应用此模型计算了室内空气中典型PTS和甲醛的浓度；对室内空气污染物甲醛、氨和挥发性有机污染物的控制方法及其健康效应进行了研究。
论文主要结果与结论如下：
2005-2009年长江三角洲地区（YRDR）25城市PM10平均浓度为52.8-112.1μg/m~3，南京（107.3μg/m~3）、徐州（112.1μg/m~3）、盐城（107.8μg/m~3）和杭州（108.2μg/m~3）的PM10年平均浓度高于YRDR的其他城市。冬季YRDR的PM10最高，为110.5μg/m~3，其次是春季（95.9μg/m~3）和夏季（85.5μg/m~3），秋季最低，为78.2μg/m~3。徐州、盐城、杭州和南京居民在由大气颗粒物引起的呼吸系统疾病的潜在健康风险分别是舟山的2.11、2.04、2.04和2.02倍。宁波市区PM10、NO_2和SO_2的年平均浓度分别是郊区的1.13、1.25和1.41倍。城区居民的健康风险较高，由NO_2引起的对城区居民的健康风险为可接受水平的11倍以上。
在2009年霾污染期间上海市空气中PM_(10)、NO_2、SO_2的浓度（分别为110.9μg/m~3、67.7μg/m~3和48.8μg/m~3）高于非霾污染期间（分别为63.6μg/m~3、45.3μg/m~3和27.5μg/m~3）。PM10、NO_2、SO_2的浓度在冬季最高，其次是春季和夏季，秋季最低。所调查的两所大型医院儿科门诊数冬季大于其他季节。在非霾污染期间儿科医院的门诊数大于霾污染期间显示出霾污染对当地居民健康影响的滞后效应。对不同人群的健康风险研究发现，在霾污染期间NO_2对成人和1岁左右儿童的形成的健康风险较大；霾污染期间所有人群的健康风险高于非霾污染期间。
2009年上海市霾污染造成的健康危害经济损失为72.48亿元，占上海全市当年GDP的0.49%，表明上海市目前的霾污染水平对居民健康危害及其经济损失较大。预测控制目前上海市霾污染尤其是细颗粒物PM_(2.5)的浓度，可以较大幅度地改善城市居民健康状况，进而减少相应的经济损失。
上海某工业区焦化厂、氯碱厂、热电厂附近大气颗粒物中总多环芳烃（∑PAHs）的浓度分别为151.22ng/m~3、66.85ng/m~3和112.9ng/m~3。总多氯联苯（∑PCBs）浓度范围分布在0.247~1.436ng/m~3之间。总有机氯农药（∑OCPs）在焦化厂、氯碱厂、热电厂附近大气颗粒物中浓度分别为253.93pg/m~3、230.27pg/m~3和80.00pg/m~3。三个厂区下风向的大气中，发电厂下风向大气汞含量最高，氯碱厂下风向大气汞含量较低。
基因毒物质的致癌风险评估结果表明，颗粒物中PCBs和OCPs污染引起的对人群的致癌风险较小，比可接受水平低2-3个数量级。但由PAHs通过呼吸暴露途径对人体造成的致癌危险度大多比可接受的水平（10~(-6)）高2-3个数量级。其中，由苯并（а）芘（BaP）导致的致癌风险最大。BaP通过呼吸暴露途径对成人造成的致癌风险高于可接受的水平的263-823倍，对儿童造成的致癌危险度高于可接受水平的172-538倍；∑PAHs致癌当量（BaPE）的致癌风险约为可接受水平的10~3倍，且成人的致癌风险约是儿童的1~2倍。躯体毒物质导致的健康风险较大，为可接受水平的1.03-99.01倍，且成人大于儿童。
根据物质守恒定律，本研究建立了室内空气中污染物浓度的数值计算模型。结果表明，本文建立的建筑物内污染物浓度计算的数值模型适用于建筑物密闭和通风条件下气态污染物的浓度的预测。计算结果表明，减少建筑材料装填率，增加空气交换率，可以降低室内空气中污染物浓度，从而降低其对人体的健康风险。
本研究对比了在气体净化装置密闭和不密闭的情况下，光催化、臭氧协同光催化和有机胺吸附对于HCHO、NH_3和VOCs的去除效果。90.4%的甲醛、92.3%的氨以及57.9%的VOCs在有机胺吸收剂处理过程中被去除，而67.5%的甲醛、60.0%的氨以及61.2%的VOCs在光催化氧化的过程中被去除。在通风不足的条件下，采用有机胺吸附剂8小时后，其致癌风险将降低一个数量级。
The damage and effects caused by air pollution on humans and theenvironment are gradually recognized. Air pollution includes outdoor airpollution and indoor air pollution. Outdoor air pollutants include gaseouspollutants, particle pollutants etc., and indoor air pollution is caused byexcessive harmful materials in indoor air, which will affect human health.The harmful materials include formaldehyde, benzene, ammonia,radioactive radon etc. In the past20/30years, haze weather has beenrapidly increasing in the eastern areas of our country, and at the sametime, the visibility has been getting worse significantly. Haze pollution isbecoming one kind of the main air pollution in cities. And ordinarypeople and scientific community have paid more and more attention to it.However, it still lacks systematic and in-deep research on health risks caused by air pollution, related economic loss, indoor air pollutioncharacteristics and pollutants.
In order to deeply understand the health effects of air pollution oncitizens, this paper studied the health risks caused by inhalable particulatematters (PM10), SO_2, NO_2, haze pollution, and the persistent toxicsubstances (PTS) on particles. At the same time, considering the effect ofoutdoor air pollution on indoor air pollution, the mathematical modelwhich is used to calculate the concentrations of indoor air pollutants hasbeen established, and the model has been used to calculate theconcentrations of typical PTS and formaldehyde in the indoor air.Furthermore, the degradation techniques of typical pollutants, HCHO,NH3and volatile organic pollutants have been studied.
The main results and conclusions of this paper are as follows:
The average PM10concentrations of25cities in Yangtze River DeltaRegion during2005-2009were52.8-112.1μg/m~3, and among them, theaverage PM10concentrations of Nanjing (107.3μg/m~3), Xuzhou(112.1μg/m~3), Yancheng (107.8μg/m~3) and Hangzhou (108.2μg/m~3) werehigher than the other cities of YRDR. The PM10concentrations in thewinter were the highest, about110.5μg/m~3, followed by spring(95.9μg/m~3) and summer (85.5μg/m~3), with the lowest in autumn(78.2μg/m~3). The potential health risks of respiratory system diseasecaused by atmospheric particulates in Xuzhou, Yancheng, Hangzhou and Nanjing were2.11,2.04,2.04and2.02times respectively as much as inZhoushan. The average concentrations of SO_2, NO_2and PM10in theurban areas of Ningbo were1.13,1.25and1.41times as much as those insuburban areas. The health risks of urban residents were higher than theresidents in the suburbs. The urban residents had the health risks causedby NO_2as high as the11times the acceptable level.
The concentrations of PM10, NO_2and SO_2(63.6μg/m~3、45.3μg/m~3and27.5μg/m~3respectively) during haze pollution period in2009inShanghai was higher than those (63.6μg/m~3、45.3μg/m~3and27.5μg/m~3respectively) in non-haze pollution period. And the concentrations ofPM10, NO_2and SO_2were highest in winter, followed by spring andsummer, and the lowest in winter. The outpatients of two large pediatrichospitals investigated have more outpatients in winter than other seasons.The number of outpatients in non-haze pollution period is larger thanhaze pollution period, which shows the hysteresis effect of haze pollutionon local residents’ health. For the potential health risk analysis, healthrisks for all age groups in haze days were higher than those in non-hazedays and adults and children (1year) suffered from the highest healthrisks due to NO_2in haze days.
The related economic loss caused by haze pollution in Shanghai in2009was about7.248billion RMB, which accounted for0.49%of theGDP of the same year. Therefore current haze pollution in Shanghai brings large harm to residents’ health and big economic loss. Controllingthe haze pollution especially the concentrations of PM_(2.5),can improveresidents’ health and in turn reduce related economic loss.
The concentrations of∑PAHs on the particulates in the air of thecoking chemical plant, chlor-alkali chemical plant, thermal power plant ofthe industrial zone are151.22ng/m~3,66.85ng/m~3and112.9ng/m~3respectively; and∑PCBs ranges between0.247~1.436ng/m~3,and theconcentrations of∑OCPs are253.93pg/m~3、230.27pg/m~3and80.00pg/m~3respectively. The concentration of Hg in the downwind fromthe thermal power plant is the highest of the three plants, while theconcentration of Hg in the downwind from the chlor-alkali chemical plantis the lowest.
The results of carcinogenic risk assessment of gene toxic substancesshowed that the cancer risks caused by PCBs and OCPs on theparticulates were lower than acceptable levels by2-3magnitudes. But thecancer risks caused by PAHs through breath exposure to human bodywere higher than acceptable levels by2-3magnitudes. Among them, thecancer risks resulted by BaP were the largest. The cancer risk caused byBaP was263-823times higher than acceptable level for adults, and172-538times for children. The cancer risk caused by BaPE about103times as much as the acceptable level and the risk to adult is about1to2times as much as that to children. The health risks caused by the non-gene toxic substances were higher than the accepted levels by1.03to99.01times, and the risks for adults were higher than those for children.
According to the law of conservation of mater, this study hasestablished a numerical calculation model of the concentrations of indoorair pollutants. The results showed that this model was appropriate forpredicting the concentration of pollutants within airtight and ventilatedbuildings. The results of the calculation showed that the indoor airpollutants concentrations and the resulting human health risks can bereduced by reducing the loading rate of building materials, and increasingair exchange rates.
In this study, experiments were carried out to remove formaldehyde(HCHO), ammonia (NH3) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in theairtight and ventilated chambers. Results demonstrated that90.4%ofHCHO,92.3%of NH3and57.9%of VOCs were removed in the amineadsorption process, while67.5%of HCHO,60.0%of NH3, and61.2%ofVOCs were removed in the photocatalytic process. Under the conditionof insufficient ventilation, the cancer risk can be reduced by one order ofmagnitude after the8-hour amine adsorption process.
引文
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