俄国1864年司法改革研究
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摘要
19世纪60、70年代沙皇亚历山大二世所推行的大改革是俄国历史上最重大的历史事件之一,历来为中外史家关注。1853-1856年克里米亚战争失败以后,沙皇为改变俄国在国际上被动落后的处境,启动了大改革。1861年俄国农奴制的废除标志着大改革的正式开始。农奴制废除之后,沙皇亚历山大二世相继进行了教育改革、地方自治改革、司法改革、财政改革和军事改革,从而开创了俄国历史上的“大改革”时代。改革标志着俄国现代化的实际开端,为俄国向现代社会的转型奠定了坚实基础。
1864年沙皇亚历山大二世颁布实施的司法改革被誉为大改革中最为成功的改革。改革创建了以欧洲司法模式为蓝本的新司法体制。司法独立、审判公开、辩诉原则、陪审团审判、律师制度等全新的制度和理念引入俄国,俄国从此有了一套可以与欧洲发达国家相媲美的司法制度。但国内学术界对司法改革缺乏专题研究,研究的论文也相当少。基于此,本文拟在现有材料的基础上,全面系统地探讨亚历山大二世的司法改革。这是本文选题的出发点。
本文的基本观点是：司法改革为俄国法治国家的建设奠定了基础,推动了晚期帝俄经济及社会的转型。具体来讲：1864年司法改革之前,俄国司法中普遍存在的管理效率低下、腐败等成为沙皇政府司法管理体制中的一大弊病。实质上,如何提高俄国的司法管理水平成为历代沙皇追求的一大目标。彼得一世的司法改革、叶卡特琳娜二世的地方管理体制变革、尼古拉一世时期的法典编撰都是沙皇政府变革俄国司法制度的尝试,但司法体制中存在的弊端直到1864年司法改革之前仍然没能得到有效解决。沙皇亚历山大二世上台之后,农奴制的废除进一步凸显出司法改革的必要性和紧迫性。在开明官僚的推动下,决意提高俄国司法管理水平的亚历山大二世决定推行司法改革。1864年,沙皇签署法令,正式开始实施司法改革。
1864年司法改革的主要创新之处在于：司法权与行政权的相对分离,口头辩诉原则的引入,陪审制的建立,对抗式诉讼模式的确立,律师及律师协会的引入,审判公开的实行等。改革创建了乡——县——司法区——省——中央的五级法院建制,完善了检察制度,创立了较为完善的上诉体制,形成了司法部和参政院联合监管下的司法管理体制。
但改革最大的创新在于陪审制度和律师制度的创立。俄国陪审制是在吸收英、法模式的基础上创建的。陪审团主要通过简单多数原则来裁决,陪审团的裁决过程受司法宣誓、法官的问题列表制度、社会伦理道德等因素的影响。陪审制的引入是人民参与司法的典型体现,在俄国法制史上有着重要的意义。
近代俄国的律师主要分为宣誓律师、实习律师和私人律师。律师是代表当事人维护个人权利的,他们享有言论自由。他们的管理由自治的律师协会负责。可以说,司法改革创建的律师制度对于维护专制制度下的个人权利有着重要的作用。
司法改革的目标是推动俄国走上法治国家的道路。但司法的独立,司法权与行政权的分离对沙皇的专制权力产生了极大的威胁,使得司法改革逐渐成为保守派攻击的对象。19世纪70年代以后,随着俄国政治环境的变化,沙皇政府开始采取直接和间接的措施来减低司法改革的影响力,其中最为重要的反改革措施是1881年安全法令的颁布和1889年地区长官制度的建立。改革逐渐走向了反改革。在反改革的影响之下,司法独立遭遇到专制权力强有力的挑战。直到1917年,改革者建立法治国家的目标仍然没有实现。尽管如此,司法改革在推动晚期帝俄社会变革方面起到了非常重要的作用,司法改革加快了晚期帝俄经济及社会转型的步伐。
同亚历山大二世实施的其他改革一样,司法改革的成功也有赖于沙皇专制体制的变革。但沙皇拒绝变革自己手中掌控的专制权力,正因为如此,司法改革也不可能实现俄国法制的真正变革。
本文从国内外学术界对司法改革研究现状的梳理入手,洋细探讨了司法改革的背景,内容,具体的实施及其影响。具体包括以下儿个部分：
第一章：俄国司法体制的历史沿革(9-19世纪上半期)。本章主要分析了自基辅罗斯建国以来俄国的司法改革,以及改革中存在的问题。从俄国司法改革的历史来看,历代沙皇变革俄国司法体制的努力为1864年司法改革奠定了坚实的基础。
第二章：1864年司法改革。本章重点论述了司法改革的背景,改革的准备,改革法令的颁布及改革的创新之处。改革前俄国司法体制中存在的严重弊端凸显了司法改革的必要性,农奴制的废除进一步促使沙皇要下定决心改革俄国的司法制度。亚历山大二世统治时期,在开明官僚的推动下,俄国正式开始实施在历史上有着重要影响的司法改革。
改革的创新之处主要在于司法相对独立、审判公开、口头辩诉等。
第三章：司法改革与晚期帝俄司法体制的变革。本章重点论述了改革后俄国的司法体制,包括法院组织体系的变革,检察制度的完善,上诉体制的建立及司法管理体制的创新。
第四章：近代俄国陪审制的创立及实践。本章从陪审制的起源入手,详细探讨了俄国陪审制的引入,陪审团的社会构成,陪审团的裁决方式及影响陪审团裁决的主要因素,帝俄晚期对陪审制的攻击和维护以及陪审制的影响。
第五章：近代俄国律师制度的形成与发展。本章从俄国律师制度的引入开始分析,重点论述了俄国宣誓律师,实习律师及私人律师的管理。同时,律师的职业道德也是本章关注的重点。
第六章：晚期帝俄司法领域的反改革。本章重点论述了司法改革的成果是如何被篡改的。沙皇政府主要通过直接和间接的反改革措施破坏了司法改革所引入的原则和制度。关键是1881年亚历山大三世安全法令的颁布及后来地区长官制度的建立,部分地破坏了司法改革所确立的司法独立原则,巩固了官僚机构的权力。19世纪80年代司法领域的一系列反改革对改革后的司法体制产生了极其不利的影响。但需要强调的是,司法改革的总体结构没有因此而发生根本性的动摇。
第七章：1864年司法改革的影响。本章从法制现代化的发展、法治国家的建设、社会法律意识的成长三个方面探讨了司法改革的的作用和影响。
结语部分主要从现代化整体历史发展的维度分析了1864年司法改革的影响。笔者认为,对1864年司法改革的评价不仅要看改革的制度设计,更要从长时段的角度分析司法改革的实施及其影响。
本文的创新之处首先在于：基于国内外学术界的相关研究,本文较为全面地梳理了1864年司法改革的起源、发展及影响,从而在一定程度上弥补了学术界对亚历山大二世大改革研究的不足。
其次,本文运用了《1864年司法改革法令》和《俄罗斯帝国法令全集》等原始文献,较为充分的史料使得本文的立论更具说服力。
最后,本文不单单从法律的发展本身来探讨1864年司法改革,而是将其置于社会变革和现代化整体历史发展的维度来透视司法改革。这是研究方法上的创新。
The Russian Great Reforms is one of the most significant political events in Russian history. Many historians both outside and at home have discussed it. After the defeat of the Cremean War, Tsar Alexander II proposes reforms in order to change Russian disadvantaged positon in Europe. After the Emancipation of serfdom, Alexander II has implemented Education Reform, Local Self-government Reform, Judicial Reform, Financial Reform and Military Reform. A series of significant reforms marked a "Great Reforms" period in Russian history. Great Reforms was the outset of Russian modernization. It was also the basis of modern Russian transformation.
One of the most important reforms of Alexander II was the Judicial Reform of 1864. The new court system is based on modern principles of European jurisprudence. Judicial independence, open trial, adversary principle, jury trial and independent bar were introduced into Russia. Russian judiciary has become more and more mature. There lacked monographic study on Russian Judicial Reform at home. I will try my best to systematically study Russian Judicial Reform based on existing documents.
I believe Judicial Reform was the basis of Russian Rechtsstaat to promote modem Russian transformation. Concretely speaking, corruption and inefficient judicial management were the main evil of Russian judiciary prior to 1864. In order to improve Russian judicial management, Russian Tsars reformed Russian judiciary. PeterⅠ's Judicial Reform, CatherineⅡ's Local Management Reform and Nicholas I' Law Codification were attempts to reform Russian judiciary. Despite the various attempts, the old court system remained inept and unjust. After Tsar Alexander II succeeded, the Emancipation Proclamation in 1861 necessitated the creation of new court system. In 1864, under the promotion of enlightened bureaucrats, Alexander II promulgated a decree and implemented the Judicial Reform.
The innovations of Russian Judicial Reform were:relative separation of administrative power and judicial power, oral court proceedings, trial by jury, adversary principle, open trial and introduction of self-government bar. In place of the old complex system of courts, five sets of tribunals were created. New courts included the volost's court, the justice of the peace, the okrug court, the judicial chamber and the Senate. Well-managed procuracy, appeal system, judicial management charged by the Senate and the ministry of justice were also created.
The most important innovations of Judicial Reform were jury system and lawyer system. Russian jury system is borrowed from England and France. Jury decided the case during the jury trial by a single majority principle. The judicial oath, the final questions for jury and the moralization of guilt played important role in jury trial. Reform signaled the participation of more Russians in the judicial system than ever before. The jury achieved a high degree of success and expanded throughout Russia. It was perhaps the most radical part of Judicial Reform.
Modern Russian lawyers included sworn attorneys, lawyers-in-training and private attorneys. How to protect individual rights was the main task of lawyers. They enjoyed the relative freedom of speech. Modern lawyers were self-government.
According to reformers, Judicial Reform aimed to transform Russian into a country under the rule of law. However, when Judicial Reform started to be implemented, Tsar and many high rank officials found that most principles and institutions introduced by Judicial Reform threatened their traditional autocratic power. Some one began to attack reform. In the 70th and 80th of 19century, with the change of Russian political environment, Russian government tried to lower the effects of Judicial Reform by direct and indirect counter-reforms. "Regulations on Measures for the Defense of the Governmental Order and of Public Safety" in 1881 and Land Captain system in 1889 were especially important. As many of the other Great Reforms fell short of their intended goals, so too did the Judicial Reform. However, counter-reforms were unable to change the fundamental structure of reforms. The Judicial Reform played an important role in perfecting of Russian law, promoting political transformation and training people's legal consciousness in late Imperial Russia. Reform helped Russian economic and social transformation.
I believe that the counter-reforms took place primarily because the new court system was incompatible with the patterns of Russian autocracy. The Judicial Refom unleashed forces on Russian society that the autocracy was unwilling to accept.
Using archival sources, this study examines the origin, contents, implementation and effects of Russian Judicial Refonn in 1864. Concretely speaking:
ChapterⅠ:Historical Legacy. This chapter briefly sketched the court system prior to 1864. When one looks at the old court system, one readily sees that Russia's legal institutions were in desperate need of reform. Tsars from Kievan Rus to Nicholas I tried their best to improve Russian judicial management. Their efforts were the basis of the Judicial Reform in 1864.
ChapterⅡ:The Judicial Reform of 1864. This chapter discussed the background, preparation, promulgation and innovations of the Judicial Refonn. Corrupt judges, a confusing array of courts, court instances and a cumbersome bureaucracy, all of them lent an air of arbitrariness to the administration of justice in Russia. Yet in a society where the majority of people lived under serfdom and then had few legal rights, those in power saw little need for a new judicial system. The Emancipation Proclamation in 1861 changed all that. The abolition of serfdom necessitated the creation of new court system. Under the promotion of some enlightened bureaucrats, Tsar AlexanderⅡdecided to implement judicial reform. The innovations of Judicial Reform were relative judicial independence, oral court proceedings etc.
ChapterⅢ:Judicial Reform and the Judicial Transformation in Late Imperial Russia. This chapter analyzed Russian new judiciary in Russia. With the implementation of Judicial Reform, new court instances were created, procuracy was more mature, better appeal system was introduced and judicial management was innovated.
ChapterⅣ:On the creation of Russian jury system and its practice. This chapter started from the origin of jury system, it discussed the introduction of Russian jury system, social composition of Russian jury, jury trial and how jury decided the case. Lastly, this chapter analyzed the effects of Russian jury system.
ChapterⅤ:On Modern Russian lawyer system. This chapter firstly sketched the origin and development of Russian lawyer. With the introduction of publicity of court proceedings and open testimony in court, the new system created a role for legal experts to act as representatives in court. Yong dedicated lawyers-in-training and sworn attorneys flocked to the legal profession. There were also many private attorneys in late Imperial Russia. Many used the new court system to champion the rights of the individual and advance the concepts of fair and equitable justice. This chapter will also discuss Russian lawyer's ethics.
Chapter VI:Counter-reforms in late Imperial Russia. This chapter discussed why reformer's goals were not realized. The new court structure and the principles upon which it was based were a radical departure from the past, as were others of AlexanderⅡ's Great Reforms. At best, the new legal institutions enjoyed only a few years of peace. Beginning in the early 1870's, the government embarked upon a policy that attacked the new court system and its officials. They used indirect measures of pressure on court officials as well as direct legislation to rescind many of the original reforms. However, the fundamental structure of Russian Judicial Reform was not changed.
ChapterⅦ:The Effects of Judicial Reform. This chapter sheds further light on the nature of Russia's legal institutions and the role they played in the social transformation and political development that were occurring in Russian society in late Russian Empire.
In conclusion part, it assesses the Judicial Reform in 1864 from the historical development. I believe, we should study Judicial Reform on the basis of its institution, as well as its implementation and its role in society.
The innovations of this paper are:firstly, this paper systematically studied the origin, process and effects of Russian Judicial Reform in 1864. Secondly, the conclusion is based on the analysis of original documents. Lastly, my study is based on the context of social and historicial development.
1864年沙皇亚历山大二世颁布实施的司法改革被誉为大改革中最为成功的改革。改革创建了以欧洲司法模式为蓝本的新司法体制。司法独立、审判公开、辩诉原则、陪审团审判、律师制度等全新的制度和理念引入俄国,俄国从此有了一套可以与欧洲发达国家相媲美的司法制度。但国内学术界对司法改革缺乏专题研究,研究的论文也相当少。基于此,本文拟在现有材料的基础上,全面系统地探讨亚历山大二世的司法改革。这是本文选题的出发点。
本文的基本观点是：司法改革为俄国法治国家的建设奠定了基础,推动了晚期帝俄经济及社会的转型。具体来讲：1864年司法改革之前,俄国司法中普遍存在的管理效率低下、腐败等成为沙皇政府司法管理体制中的一大弊病。实质上,如何提高俄国的司法管理水平成为历代沙皇追求的一大目标。彼得一世的司法改革、叶卡特琳娜二世的地方管理体制变革、尼古拉一世时期的法典编撰都是沙皇政府变革俄国司法制度的尝试,但司法体制中存在的弊端直到1864年司法改革之前仍然没能得到有效解决。沙皇亚历山大二世上台之后,农奴制的废除进一步凸显出司法改革的必要性和紧迫性。在开明官僚的推动下,决意提高俄国司法管理水平的亚历山大二世决定推行司法改革。1864年,沙皇签署法令,正式开始实施司法改革。
1864年司法改革的主要创新之处在于：司法权与行政权的相对分离,口头辩诉原则的引入,陪审制的建立,对抗式诉讼模式的确立,律师及律师协会的引入,审判公开的实行等。改革创建了乡——县——司法区——省——中央的五级法院建制,完善了检察制度,创立了较为完善的上诉体制,形成了司法部和参政院联合监管下的司法管理体制。
但改革最大的创新在于陪审制度和律师制度的创立。俄国陪审制是在吸收英、法模式的基础上创建的。陪审团主要通过简单多数原则来裁决,陪审团的裁决过程受司法宣誓、法官的问题列表制度、社会伦理道德等因素的影响。陪审制的引入是人民参与司法的典型体现,在俄国法制史上有着重要的意义。
近代俄国的律师主要分为宣誓律师、实习律师和私人律师。律师是代表当事人维护个人权利的,他们享有言论自由。他们的管理由自治的律师协会负责。可以说,司法改革创建的律师制度对于维护专制制度下的个人权利有着重要的作用。
司法改革的目标是推动俄国走上法治国家的道路。但司法的独立,司法权与行政权的分离对沙皇的专制权力产生了极大的威胁,使得司法改革逐渐成为保守派攻击的对象。19世纪70年代以后,随着俄国政治环境的变化,沙皇政府开始采取直接和间接的措施来减低司法改革的影响力,其中最为重要的反改革措施是1881年安全法令的颁布和1889年地区长官制度的建立。改革逐渐走向了反改革。在反改革的影响之下,司法独立遭遇到专制权力强有力的挑战。直到1917年,改革者建立法治国家的目标仍然没有实现。尽管如此,司法改革在推动晚期帝俄社会变革方面起到了非常重要的作用,司法改革加快了晚期帝俄经济及社会转型的步伐。
同亚历山大二世实施的其他改革一样,司法改革的成功也有赖于沙皇专制体制的变革。但沙皇拒绝变革自己手中掌控的专制权力,正因为如此,司法改革也不可能实现俄国法制的真正变革。
本文从国内外学术界对司法改革研究现状的梳理入手,洋细探讨了司法改革的背景,内容,具体的实施及其影响。具体包括以下儿个部分：
第一章：俄国司法体制的历史沿革(9-19世纪上半期)。本章主要分析了自基辅罗斯建国以来俄国的司法改革,以及改革中存在的问题。从俄国司法改革的历史来看,历代沙皇变革俄国司法体制的努力为1864年司法改革奠定了坚实的基础。
第二章：1864年司法改革。本章重点论述了司法改革的背景,改革的准备,改革法令的颁布及改革的创新之处。改革前俄国司法体制中存在的严重弊端凸显了司法改革的必要性,农奴制的废除进一步促使沙皇要下定决心改革俄国的司法制度。亚历山大二世统治时期,在开明官僚的推动下,俄国正式开始实施在历史上有着重要影响的司法改革。
改革的创新之处主要在于司法相对独立、审判公开、口头辩诉等。
第三章：司法改革与晚期帝俄司法体制的变革。本章重点论述了改革后俄国的司法体制,包括法院组织体系的变革,检察制度的完善,上诉体制的建立及司法管理体制的创新。
第四章：近代俄国陪审制的创立及实践。本章从陪审制的起源入手,详细探讨了俄国陪审制的引入,陪审团的社会构成,陪审团的裁决方式及影响陪审团裁决的主要因素,帝俄晚期对陪审制的攻击和维护以及陪审制的影响。
第五章：近代俄国律师制度的形成与发展。本章从俄国律师制度的引入开始分析,重点论述了俄国宣誓律师,实习律师及私人律师的管理。同时,律师的职业道德也是本章关注的重点。
第六章：晚期帝俄司法领域的反改革。本章重点论述了司法改革的成果是如何被篡改的。沙皇政府主要通过直接和间接的反改革措施破坏了司法改革所引入的原则和制度。关键是1881年亚历山大三世安全法令的颁布及后来地区长官制度的建立,部分地破坏了司法改革所确立的司法独立原则,巩固了官僚机构的权力。19世纪80年代司法领域的一系列反改革对改革后的司法体制产生了极其不利的影响。但需要强调的是,司法改革的总体结构没有因此而发生根本性的动摇。
第七章：1864年司法改革的影响。本章从法制现代化的发展、法治国家的建设、社会法律意识的成长三个方面探讨了司法改革的的作用和影响。
结语部分主要从现代化整体历史发展的维度分析了1864年司法改革的影响。笔者认为,对1864年司法改革的评价不仅要看改革的制度设计,更要从长时段的角度分析司法改革的实施及其影响。
本文的创新之处首先在于：基于国内外学术界的相关研究,本文较为全面地梳理了1864年司法改革的起源、发展及影响,从而在一定程度上弥补了学术界对亚历山大二世大改革研究的不足。
其次,本文运用了《1864年司法改革法令》和《俄罗斯帝国法令全集》等原始文献,较为充分的史料使得本文的立论更具说服力。
最后,本文不单单从法律的发展本身来探讨1864年司法改革,而是将其置于社会变革和现代化整体历史发展的维度来透视司法改革。这是研究方法上的创新。
The Russian Great Reforms is one of the most significant political events in Russian history. Many historians both outside and at home have discussed it. After the defeat of the Cremean War, Tsar Alexander II proposes reforms in order to change Russian disadvantaged positon in Europe. After the Emancipation of serfdom, Alexander II has implemented Education Reform, Local Self-government Reform, Judicial Reform, Financial Reform and Military Reform. A series of significant reforms marked a "Great Reforms" period in Russian history. Great Reforms was the outset of Russian modernization. It was also the basis of modern Russian transformation.
One of the most important reforms of Alexander II was the Judicial Reform of 1864. The new court system is based on modern principles of European jurisprudence. Judicial independence, open trial, adversary principle, jury trial and independent bar were introduced into Russia. Russian judiciary has become more and more mature. There lacked monographic study on Russian Judicial Reform at home. I will try my best to systematically study Russian Judicial Reform based on existing documents.
I believe Judicial Reform was the basis of Russian Rechtsstaat to promote modem Russian transformation. Concretely speaking, corruption and inefficient judicial management were the main evil of Russian judiciary prior to 1864. In order to improve Russian judicial management, Russian Tsars reformed Russian judiciary. PeterⅠ's Judicial Reform, CatherineⅡ's Local Management Reform and Nicholas I' Law Codification were attempts to reform Russian judiciary. Despite the various attempts, the old court system remained inept and unjust. After Tsar Alexander II succeeded, the Emancipation Proclamation in 1861 necessitated the creation of new court system. In 1864, under the promotion of enlightened bureaucrats, Alexander II promulgated a decree and implemented the Judicial Reform.
The innovations of Russian Judicial Reform were:relative separation of administrative power and judicial power, oral court proceedings, trial by jury, adversary principle, open trial and introduction of self-government bar. In place of the old complex system of courts, five sets of tribunals were created. New courts included the volost's court, the justice of the peace, the okrug court, the judicial chamber and the Senate. Well-managed procuracy, appeal system, judicial management charged by the Senate and the ministry of justice were also created.
The most important innovations of Judicial Reform were jury system and lawyer system. Russian jury system is borrowed from England and France. Jury decided the case during the jury trial by a single majority principle. The judicial oath, the final questions for jury and the moralization of guilt played important role in jury trial. Reform signaled the participation of more Russians in the judicial system than ever before. The jury achieved a high degree of success and expanded throughout Russia. It was perhaps the most radical part of Judicial Reform.
Modern Russian lawyers included sworn attorneys, lawyers-in-training and private attorneys. How to protect individual rights was the main task of lawyers. They enjoyed the relative freedom of speech. Modern lawyers were self-government.
According to reformers, Judicial Reform aimed to transform Russian into a country under the rule of law. However, when Judicial Reform started to be implemented, Tsar and many high rank officials found that most principles and institutions introduced by Judicial Reform threatened their traditional autocratic power. Some one began to attack reform. In the 70th and 80th of 19century, with the change of Russian political environment, Russian government tried to lower the effects of Judicial Reform by direct and indirect counter-reforms. "Regulations on Measures for the Defense of the Governmental Order and of Public Safety" in 1881 and Land Captain system in 1889 were especially important. As many of the other Great Reforms fell short of their intended goals, so too did the Judicial Reform. However, counter-reforms were unable to change the fundamental structure of reforms. The Judicial Reform played an important role in perfecting of Russian law, promoting political transformation and training people's legal consciousness in late Imperial Russia. Reform helped Russian economic and social transformation.
I believe that the counter-reforms took place primarily because the new court system was incompatible with the patterns of Russian autocracy. The Judicial Refom unleashed forces on Russian society that the autocracy was unwilling to accept.
Using archival sources, this study examines the origin, contents, implementation and effects of Russian Judicial Refonn in 1864. Concretely speaking:
ChapterⅠ:Historical Legacy. This chapter briefly sketched the court system prior to 1864. When one looks at the old court system, one readily sees that Russia's legal institutions were in desperate need of reform. Tsars from Kievan Rus to Nicholas I tried their best to improve Russian judicial management. Their efforts were the basis of the Judicial Reform in 1864.
ChapterⅡ:The Judicial Reform of 1864. This chapter discussed the background, preparation, promulgation and innovations of the Judicial Refonn. Corrupt judges, a confusing array of courts, court instances and a cumbersome bureaucracy, all of them lent an air of arbitrariness to the administration of justice in Russia. Yet in a society where the majority of people lived under serfdom and then had few legal rights, those in power saw little need for a new judicial system. The Emancipation Proclamation in 1861 changed all that. The abolition of serfdom necessitated the creation of new court system. Under the promotion of some enlightened bureaucrats, Tsar AlexanderⅡdecided to implement judicial reform. The innovations of Judicial Reform were relative judicial independence, oral court proceedings etc.
ChapterⅢ:Judicial Reform and the Judicial Transformation in Late Imperial Russia. This chapter analyzed Russian new judiciary in Russia. With the implementation of Judicial Reform, new court instances were created, procuracy was more mature, better appeal system was introduced and judicial management was innovated.
ChapterⅣ:On the creation of Russian jury system and its practice. This chapter started from the origin of jury system, it discussed the introduction of Russian jury system, social composition of Russian jury, jury trial and how jury decided the case. Lastly, this chapter analyzed the effects of Russian jury system.
ChapterⅤ:On Modern Russian lawyer system. This chapter firstly sketched the origin and development of Russian lawyer. With the introduction of publicity of court proceedings and open testimony in court, the new system created a role for legal experts to act as representatives in court. Yong dedicated lawyers-in-training and sworn attorneys flocked to the legal profession. There were also many private attorneys in late Imperial Russia. Many used the new court system to champion the rights of the individual and advance the concepts of fair and equitable justice. This chapter will also discuss Russian lawyer's ethics.
Chapter VI:Counter-reforms in late Imperial Russia. This chapter discussed why reformer's goals were not realized. The new court structure and the principles upon which it was based were a radical departure from the past, as were others of AlexanderⅡ's Great Reforms. At best, the new legal institutions enjoyed only a few years of peace. Beginning in the early 1870's, the government embarked upon a policy that attacked the new court system and its officials. They used indirect measures of pressure on court officials as well as direct legislation to rescind many of the original reforms. However, the fundamental structure of Russian Judicial Reform was not changed.
ChapterⅦ:The Effects of Judicial Reform. This chapter sheds further light on the nature of Russia's legal institutions and the role they played in the social transformation and political development that were occurring in Russian society in late Russian Empire.
In conclusion part, it assesses the Judicial Reform in 1864 from the historical development. I believe, we should study Judicial Reform on the basis of its institution, as well as its implementation and its role in society.
The innovations of this paper are:firstly, this paper systematically studied the origin, process and effects of Russian Judicial Reform in 1864. Secondly, the conclusion is based on the analysis of original documents. Lastly, my study is based on the context of social and historicial development.
引文
①#12
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③W.Wagner, Marriage, Property, and Law in Late Imperial Russia. Oxford, Clarendon Press,1994.p.2.
④R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness, p.254.
①[美]彼得·布劳,马歇尔·梅耶：《现代社会中的科层制》,南京：学林出版社,2001：2.
②金自宁：《作为中介的官僚和官僚制——从一种特殊的视角考察》,《政治与法律》,1998(3)：50.
①郭响宏：《十九世纪早期俄国官僚制度与官僚阶层问题述论》,《陕西教育学院学报》,2006(2)：58.
②W.M.Pinter, The Evolutionof Civil Officaildom,1775-1855. In Russian Officialdom:The Bureaucratization of Russian Society from the Seventeenth to the Twentieth Century. Edited by W.M.Pinter and D.K.Rowney, The Macmillan Press.1980. p.223.
①W.B.Lincoln, In the Vanguard of Reform:Russia's enlightened bureaucrats,1825-1861. DeKalb, Northern Illinois University Press,1982.p.63.
①关于K.п.波别多诺斯采夫,这里要做以简单介绍。K.п.波别多诺斯采夫(1827-1905)是亚历山大三世和尼古拉二世统治时期有影响的大臣之一。他曾就读于圣彼得堡奥登堡法学院,对俄国民法和司法制度有一定研究。波别多诺斯采夫对1864年司法改革计划的制定做出了贡献。后来逐渐变成了一个保守的政治哲学家和官僚。参见K.P. Pobedonostsev. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/465622/Konstantin-Petrovich-Pobedonostsev查于2010年10月20日
②R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.p.258.
①李桂英：《论亲王康斯坦丁·尼古拉耶维奇在 1861年改革中的作用》,《长备大学学报》2009(7)：73.
①W.B.Lincoln, In the Vanguard of Reform:Russia's enlightened bureaucrats,1825-1861. p.146.
②R. Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.pp.215,246.
①参见A.J.Violette,"Judicial Reforms in the Russian Navy during the 'Era of Great Reforms':The Reform Act of 1867 and the Abolition of Corporal Punishment. "The Slavonic and East European Review,56.4.1978. pp.586-603.
④W.B.Lincoln, In the Vanguard of Reform:Russia's enlightened bureaucrats,1825-1861.p.149.
②W.B.Lincoln,"TheCircle of the Grand DuchnessYelena Pavlovna,1847-1861."Slavonic and East Europe Review. Vol.XLVIII No.2.1970.p.382.
③R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.pp.229-230.
① R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.p.230.
③ R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.p.230.
②R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.p.232.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.23.
③C.C.Wilson, Basic Principles Of 1862:the Judicial system, a Translation and Commentary, pp.102-112.
④B.L.Levin-Stankevich, "Historical Development of Law in Russia and the Soviet Union." in The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History. Edited by J.L.Wieczynski. XIX. Gulf Breeze, Academic International Press.1981.p.77.
⑤W.E.Mosse, Alexander II and the Modernization of Russia. New York, Collier Books,1962.p.74.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.24.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.26.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.26.
①S.Kucherov,Courts, Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.29.
①[苏联]B.B.卡芬加乌兹,H.и.巴甫连科主编,郭奇格等译：《彼得一世的改革》上册,北京：商务印书馆,1997：38586.
③D.Christian," The Political Ideals of Michael Speransky." Slavonic and East European Review.54.2.1976. pp.203-204.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.32.
①C.C. Wilson, Basic Principles Of 1862:the Judicial system, a Translation and Commentary.pp.102-103.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.35.
⑤S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.35.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.37.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.37.
①宋世杰等著：《外国刑事诉讼法比较研究》,北京：中国法制出版社,2006：47.
①[意]贝卡里亚著：黄风译：《论犯罪与刑罚》,北京：中国法制出版社,2002：23.
②C.C.Wilson, Basic Principles Of 1862:the Judicial system, a Translation and Commentary.pp.102-103.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.40.
②[法]米歇尔·福柯.刘北成,杨远婴译：《规训与惩罚：监狱的诞生》,北京：三联书店,2003：107.
⑤S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.39.
⑥W.B.Lincoln, The Great Reforms:Autocracy, Bureaucracy, and the Politics of Change.Dekalb, Northern Illinois University Press.1990.pp.121-125.
⑦S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.40.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.39.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.29.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.40.
⑤S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.40.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars. pp.41-42.
②陈卫东,张月满：《对抗式诉讼模式研究》,《中国法学》2009(5):85.
①[苏]扎伊翁契科夫斯基著,叔明译：《俄国农奴制度的废除》,北京：三联书店,1957：134.
②[苏]扎伊翁契科夫斯基著,叔明译：《俄国农奴制度的废除》,北京：三联书店,1957：134.
①#12
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.89.
③D.M.Wallace. Russia. Kessinger Publishing.2004. http://www.enotes.com/russia-text/chapter-xxxiii---new-law-courts.①查于2010年11月15日.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.88.
⑤D.M.Wallace. Russia. http://www.enotes.com/russia-text/chapter-xxxiii---new-law-courts.②查于2010年11月15日.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.92.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.95.
⑤S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.93.
⑥S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.92.
⑦S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.94.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Three Tsars.pp.50,203,230-235.
①S.M.Kazantsev, "The Judicial Reform of 1864 and the Procuracy." In Reforming Justice in Russia,1864-1996. Edited by P.H.Solomon,Jr.New York. M.E.Sharpe, Inc.1997. p.44.
②S.M.Kazantsev, "The Judicial Reform of 1864 and the Procuracy."p.45.
③[苏联]B.B.卡芬加乌兹,H.и.巴甫连科主编,郭奇格等译：《彼得一世的改革》上册,北京：商务印书馆,1997:479.
④张寿民：《俄罗斯法律发达史》,北京：法律出版社,2000:78-79.
①S.M.Kazantsev, "The Judicial Reform of 1864 and the Procuracy."p.47.
①张寿民：《俄罗斯法律发达史》,北京：法律出版社,2000：80.
②S.M.Kazantsev,"The Judicial Reform of 1864 and the Procuracy."p.48.
②张寿民：《俄罗斯法律发达史》,北京：法律出版社,2000：80.
④S.M.Kazantsev, "The Judicial Reform of 1864 and the Procuracy."p.50.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.95.
②C.C.Wilson, Basic Principles OF 1862:the Judicial system:a Translation and Commentary. pp.102-117.
③张寿民：《俄罗斯法律发达史》,北京：法律出版社,2000：81.
④S.M.Kazantsev, "The Judicial Reform of 1864 and the Procuracy."p.56.
②S.M.Kazantsev, "The Judicial Reform of 1864 and the Procuracy."p.57.
①J.Merryman, The Civil Law Tradition. Stanford,1969. p.42.
①R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.pp.276-277.
②R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.pp.277-278.
①B.L.Levin-Stankevich, Cassation, Judicial Interpretation and the Develompent of Civil and Criminal Law in Russia,1864-1917. State University of New York. Unpublished Doctor Paper.1984.p.178.
②B.L.Levin-Stankevich, Cassation, Judicial Interpretation and the Develompent of Civil and Criminal Law in Russia,1864-1917.p.178.
①B.L.Levin-Stankevich,Cassatio,Jusicial Interpretation and Develompent of Civil and Criminal Law in Russia,1864-1917.p.184.
①B.L.Levin-Stankevich, Cassation, Judicial Interpretation and the Develompent of Civil and Criminal Law in Russia,1864-1917.p.190.
①屠茂芹：《残酷的天才——陀思妥耶夫斯基》,西安：太白文艺出版社,1998：54.
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③陈业宏、唐鸣：《中外司法制度比较》,北京：,商务印书馆,2000：175.
④本杰明·卡普兰：《陪审制度》。哈罗德·伯曼编,陈若桓译：《美国法律讲话》,北京：三联书店,1988：35.
①施鹏鹏：《陪审制研究》,北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008：9.
②施鹏鹏：《陪审制研究》,北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008：11.
③关于雅典民众参与司法的概况,参见应克复等著：《西方民主史》,北京：中国社会科学出版社,1997：2-51.
④关于古罗马的民众会议诉讼制度,参见[意]朱塞佩·格罗索著,黄风译：《罗马法史》,北京：中国政法大学出版社,1994：269-270.
⑤施鹏鹏：《陪审制研究》,北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008：9.
⑥李红海：《亨利二世改革与英国普通法》。《中外法学》,1996(6)：64.
⑦Maximus A. Lesser, The Historical Development of the Jury System. Kessinger Publishing, LLC,2008.P124.
⑦冷水审判法即将当事人扔进池塘或河流中,若沉入水底,说明“被上帝接纳,”判其无罪,否则判其有罪。
⑧[美]哈罗德·J·伯尔曼著,贺卫方等译：《法律与革命：西方法律传统的形成》,北京：中国大百科全书出版社,1993：544、545.
①Maximus A. Lesser, The Historical Development of the Jury System.p.143.
②[美]琼·雅各比著,周叶谦等译：《美国检察官研究》,北京：中国检察出版社,1990：171.
③李秋月,《浅谈西方国家的陪审制度》,《当代法学》2002(2)：112.
④[美]伯纳德·施瓦茨著,王军等译：《美国法律史》,北京：中国政法大学出版社,1990：32.
⑤[法]卡斯东·斯特法尼、乔治·勒瓦索、贝尔纳·布洛克著,罗结珍译：《法国刑事诉讼法精义》(上册),北京：中国政法大学出版社,1999：408.
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⑦参见王钺著：《罗斯法典》译注。P68. S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.53.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.54.
①H.Spencer,Social Statics or the Conditions Essential to Human Happiness.New York.2009.p.289.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.pp.54-55.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.pp.54-55.
①A.K.Afanas'ev, Jurors and Jury Trials in Imperial Russia,1866-1885. in Russia's Great Reforms,1855-1881.p.221.
①D.M.Wallace, Russia on the Eve of War and Revolution. Princeton, Princeton University Press.1984.p.89.
①Corpus Juris Secundum, Vol.39. St.Paul,1976.p.448.
②The Oxford English Dictionary,2nd. Vol.Ⅵ. Oxford.1989.
③Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionay. Springerfield.1987.
④Corpus Juris Secundum, Vol.67. St.Paul,1978.p.5.
⑤[美]哈罗德·J·伯尔曼著,贺卫方等译：《法律与革命：西方法律传统的形成》,北京：中国大百科全书出版社,1993：566-68.
⑥G.Fedotov, The Russian Religious Mind. Vol.1. Cambridge,1946.pp.275-295.
①J.M.Donovan, Juries and the Transformation of Criminal Justice in France in the Nineteenth & Twentieth Centuries. Chapel Hill, N.C.University of North Carolina Press,2010. p.12.
②施鹏鹏：《陪审制研究》,北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008：148.
③施鹏鹏：《陪审制研究》,北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008：148.
①[美]波斯纳著,苏力译：《法理学问题》,北京：中国政法大学出版社,1994：59.
①#12
②K.F.Taylor, In the Theater of Criminal Justice. Princeton,1993.pp.37,64.
③http://www.nlr.ru/e-res/law r/search.php.查于2010年12月5日。
④G.N.Bhat, "The Moralization of Guilt in Late Imperial Russian Trial by Jury:The Early Reform Era." Law and History Review,15.1.1997.p.91.
③G.N.Bhat, The Moralization of Guilt in Late Imperial Russian Trial by Jury:The Early Reform Era.p.105.
④G.N.Bhat, The Moralization of Guilt in Late Imperial Russian Trial by Jury:The Early Reform Era.pp.105-106.
①G.N.Bhat, The Moralization of Guilt in Late Imperial Russian Trial by Jury:The Early Reform Era.p.107.
②G.N.Bhat, The Moralization of Guilt in Late Imperial Russian Trial by Jury:The Early Reform Era.p.108.
③J.Bergman, Vera Zasulich, a Biography. Stanford, Stanford University Press.1983. pp.40,44.
①J.Bergman, Vera Zasulich, a Biography.pp.45-47.
②J.Bergman, Vera Zasulich, a Biography.p.49.
①J.Bergman, Vera Zasulich, a Biography.pp.47-49.
②S.Kucherov, "The Case of Vera Zasulich."Russian Review.11.2.1952.pp.91-92.
③J.Bergman, Vera Zasulich, a Biography.p.51.
④G.N.Bhat, The Moralization of Guilt in Late Imperial Russian Trial by Jury:The Early Reform Era.p.111.
① S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.pp.61-62.
② S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.pp.61-62.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.64.
②ЛC3.ToM.7.No.4396.http://www.nlr.ru/e-res/law_r/search.php.查于2010年12月6日。
①J.W.Atwell, "The Russian Jury. "The Slavic and East European Review.ol.53.1975.pp.51-52.
②J.W.Atwell, The Russian Jury. p.52.
①[法]托克维尔著,董果良译：《论美国的民主》上卷,北京：商务印书馆,1995：356、359.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.73.
③S.Kucherov,Courts.Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.73.
④#12
②IIC3.ToM.41No.43978.参见http://www.nlr.ru/e-res/law_r/search.php.查于2010年12月6日。
①中共中央马克思恩格斯列宁斯大林著作编译局译,《马克思恩格斯全集》第6卷,北京：人民出版社,1961：151-152.
②中共中央马克思恩格斯列宁斯大林著作编译局编译,《列宁全集》第22卷,北京：人民出版社,1990：76-77.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.80.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.81.
⑤#12
⑥ЛC3. Tom.18.No.14991. http://www.nlr.ru/e-res/law_r/search.php.查于2010年12月6日。
①J.W.Atwell, The Russian Jury. p.58.
②D.C.Dussel, Russian Judicial Reforms and Counter-reforms:1864-1914.p.69.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.85.
①崔卓兰主编：《律师制度》,长春：吉林大学出版社,2001：4.
①[美]约翰.麦赞恩著,刘听、胡凝译：《法律的故事》,南京：江苏人民出版社,1998：105、416.
②世界著名法典汉译从书编委会编：《十二铜表法》,北京：法律出版社,2000：5.
③[美]约翰.麦赞恩著,刘听、胡凝译：《法律的故事》,南京：江苏人民出版社,1998：154.
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⑥崔卓兰主编：《律师制度》,长春：吉林大学出版社,2001:10.
⑦谢佑平：《社会秩序与律师职业一律师织业角色的社会定位》,北京：法律出版社,1998：11.
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②崔卓兰主编：《律师制度》,长春：吉林大学出版社,2001：12.
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②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.110.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.111.
④[俄]果戈理著,陈殿兴等译：《死魂灵》,长沙：湖南人民出版社,1987：439-442.
①[俄]萨尔蒂科夫-谢德林著,斯庸译：《波谢洪尼耶遗风》,上海：上海译文出版社,1981：160-62.
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③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.114.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.114.
⑤S.Kucherov,Courts,Lowyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.115.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.118.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.117.
(?)S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.118.
S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.119.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.132.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.133.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.134.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.pp.145-148.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.141.
①ЛC3. ToM49.No.53575.http://www.nlr.ru/e-res/law r/search.php查于2010年12月9日。
②ЛC3. ToM49.No.53575.http://www.nlr.ru/e-res/law r/search.php查于2010年12月9日。
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.158.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.pp.163-164.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.165.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.166.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.167.
④#12
⑤S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.167.
①曹维安：《俄国史新论》,北京：中国社会科学出版社,2002：11.
②R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness. pp.270-72.
①B.Pares, A History of Russia. New York. Knopf.1953.pp.378-380.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.pp.86-87.
①S.Kucherov,Courts.Lawvers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.97.
③S.Kucherov,Courts.Lawvers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.98.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.99.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.100.
②[苏]米·尼·波克罗夫斯基,贝璋衡等译：《俄国历史概要》(上册),北京：商务印书馆,1994：14344.
③A.Leroy-Beaulieu, The Empire of the Tsars and the Russians:The Institutions.pp.277-278.
④[美]尼古拉·梁赞诺夫斯基,马克·斯坦伯格著,杨烨,卿文辉主译：《俄罗斯史》,2007：347.
⑤R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.p.130.
⑥H.J.Berman, Justice in Russia:An Interpretation of Soviet Law. Cambridge, Havard UP.1950.pp.150-152.
①[美]E.博登海默著作,邓正来等译：《法理学——法哲学及其方法》,北京：华夏出版社,1987：137.
②J.Mayda, Francois Geny and Modern Jurisprudence. Baton Rouge,1978.pp.39-41.
⑤W.G.Wagner, Civil Law, Individual Rights and Judicial Activism in Late Imperial Russia.In Reforming Justice in Russia,1864-1996. Edited by P.H.Solomon,Jr.New York. M.E.Sharpe, Inc.1997. p.21-36.
① H.J.Berman, The Rule of Law and the Law-Based State. With Special Reference to the Soviet Union. In D.D.Barry. Toward the "Rule of Law "in Russia? Political and Legal Reform in the Transition Period.New York. Armonk.1992.pp.43-60.
①[俄]鲍里斯·尼古拉耶维奇·米罗诺夫：《俄国社会史》下卷,济南：山东大学出版社2006：310.
②R.Wortman, "Russian Monarchy and the Rule of Law:New Considerations of the Court Reform of 1864.' Kritika.6.1.2005.p.164.
③[古希腊]亚里士多德著,吴寿彭译：《政治学》,北京：商务印书馆,1997：167-171.
④马长山著,《国家、市民社会与法治》,北京：商务印书馆,2002：101.
⑤马长山著,《国家、市民社会与法治》,北京：商务印书馆,2002：105.
①刘军宁,“从法治国到法治”,《经济民主与经济自由》,刘军宁等编：北京：三联书店,1997：96.
②邵建东：《德国‘法治国家’理论‘与实践的经验及教训——兼及对‘法治江苏’建设的启示。》《江海学刊》,2005(1)：104.
③[俄]B.B.拉扎列夫主编, 王哲等译：《法与国家的一般理论》,北京：法律出版社,1999：346.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.302.
(?)W.G.Wagner, "The Trojan Mare:Women's Rights and Civil Rights in Late Imperial Russia."In Civil Rights in Imperial Russia. Edited by O.Crisp and L.Edmondson. Oxford.1989.pp.65-84.
(?)W.G.Wagner, Civil Law, Individual Rights and Judicial Activism in Late Imperial Russia.p.26.
①W.G.Wagner, Civil Law, Individual Rights and Judicial Activism in Late Imperial Russia.p.26.
②B.L.Levin-Stankevich, Cassation, Judicial Interpretation and the Develompent of Civil and Criminal Law in Russia,1864-1917.pp.292-293.
①转引自[美]H.W.埃尔曼著,贺卫方等译：《比较法律文化》,北京：三联书店,1990：20.
②[美]哈罗德J.伯尔曼著,梁治平译：《法律与宗教》第二版,北京：中国政法大学出版社,2003：20-30.
①[俄]B.B.拉扎列夫主编,王哲等译：《法与国家的一般理论》,北京：法律出版社,1999：35.
②参见沈宗灵主编：《法理学》,北京：高等教育出版社,1994：234-36.
①[法]米歇尔·福柯,谢强,马月译：《知识考古学》,北京：三联书店,1998：70.
②P.Goodrich, Legal Discourse:Studies in Linguistics,Rhetoric and Legal Analysis. London, Macmillan.1987.pp.144-145.
②[德]汉斯-格奥尔格·加达默尔著,洪汉鼎译：《真理’与方法：哲学诠释学的基本特征》上卷, 上海：上海译文出版社,1999：423.
③[法]米歇尔·福柯,刘北成,杨远婴译：《规训与惩罚：监狱的诞生》,北京：三联书店,2003：90.
④[法]米歇尔·福柯,刘北成,杨远婴译：《规训与惩罚：监狱的诞生》,北京：三联书店,2003：90.
①[苏]M.巴赫金著,白备仁,晓河译：《小说理论》,石家庄：河北教育出版社,1998：132-33.
②[苏]M.巴赫金著,白备仁,晓河译：《小说理论》,石家庄：河北教育出版社,1998：137.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.95.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.312.
①J.Neuberger, Popular Legal Culture. In Reforming Justice in Russia,1864-1996. Edited by P.H. Solomon, Jr.New York. M.E.Sharpe, Inc.1997. p.232.
④J.Neuberger, Popular Legal Culture.p.234..
①J.Neuberger, Popular Legal Culture.p.244.
②J.Neuberger, Popular Legal Culture.p.240.
③J.Neuberger, Popular Legal Culture.p.240
④J.Neuberger, Popular Legal Culture.p.239.
⑤J.Neuberger, Popular Legal Culture.p.239.
⑥J.Neuberger, Popular Legal Culture.p.234.
⑦M.Levin, The Making of the Soviet System:Essays in the Social History of Interwar Russia. New York.1985.p.72.
①C.Frierson, "'I must always answer to the law..':Rules and Response at the Reformed Volost'Court."Slavonic and East European Review.75.2.1997.p.328.
②J.Burbank, Legal Culture, Citizenship, and Peasant Jurisprudence:Perspectives from the Early Twentieth Century. In Reforming Justice in Russia,1864-1996. Edited by P.H.Solomon,Jr.New York. M.E.Sharpe, Inc.1997. p.95.
③J.Burbank, Legal Culture, Citizenship, and Peasant Jurisprudence:Perspectives from the Early Twentieth Century.p.95.
④J.Burbank, Legal Culture, Citizenship, and Peasant Jurisprudence:Perspectives from the Early Twentieth Century.p.96.
⑤B.B.Farnsworh, " The Litigious Daughter-in-Law:Family Relations in Rural Russia in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century." Slavic Review.45.1.1986.p.51.
①C.A.Frierson, Of Red Roosters, Revenge, and the Search for Justice:Rural Arson in European Russia in the Late Imperial Era. In Reforming Justice in Russia,1864-1996. Edited by P.H.Solomon,Jr.New York. M.E.Sharpe, Inc.1997. p.109.
②C.A.Frierson, Of Red Roosters, Revenge, and the Search for Justice:Rural Arson in European Russia in the Late Imperial Era. p.110.
①C.A.Frierson, Of Red Roosters, Revenge, and the Search for Justice:Rural Arson in European Russia in the Late Imperial Era.p.110
②C.A.Frierson, Of Red Roosters, Revenge, and the Search for Justice:Rural Arson in European Russia in the Late Imperial Era.p.116.
③C.A.Frierson, Of Red Roosters, Revenge, and the Search for Justice:Rural Arson in European Russia in the Late Imperial Era.p.116
④C.A.Frierson, Of Red Roosters, Revenge, and the Search for Justice:Rural Arson in European Russia in the Late Imperial Era.p.l 17.
①C.A.Frierson, Of Red Roosters, Revenge, and the Search for Justice:Rural Arson in European Russia in the Late Imperial Era.p.124.
①中共中央马克思恩格斯列宁斯大林著作编译局译：《列宁全集》第10卷,北京：人民出版社,1958：353.
②中共中央马克思恩格斯列宁斯大林著作编译局译：《列宁全集》第29卷,北京：人民出版社,1956：180.
①Gordon B. Smith, Reforming the Russian legal system. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1996.p.147.
②S.J.Reynolds,"Drawing upon the Past:Jury Trials in Modern Russia." In Reforming Justice in Russia,1864-1996.Edited by P.H.Solomon,Jr. New York, M.E.Sharpe,Inc.1997. p.378.
①[美]C.E.布莱克著,段小光译：《现代化的动力》,成都：四川人民出版社,1988： 11.
②罗荣渠：《现代化新论》,北京：北京大学出版社,1993：16-17.
③钱乘旦、杨豫、陈晓律：《世界现代化进程》,南京：南京大学出版社,1997：1-3.
①L.G..Zakharova, "From Reform 'from above' to Revolution "from below.'" In Reform in Modern Russian History: Progress or Cycles? Edited and Translated by T.Taranovski. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.1995.p.124.
②L.G..Zakharova, "From Reform 'from above' to Revolution 'from below.'" In Reform in Modern Russian History: Progress or Cycles? P.365.
③A.J.Rieber, "Alexander Ⅱ:A Revisionist View." The Journal of Modern History.43.1.1971.p.54.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.312..
②M.Kovalevsky, Russian Political Institutions. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.1902.p.239.
①A.Leroy-Beaulieu, The Empire of the Tsars and the Russians:The Institutions.p.382.
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②W.Wagner,"Tsarist Legal Policies at the End of the Nineteenth Century:A Study in Inconsistency,"Slavonic and East European Review,Vol.14,no.3(July,1976):pp.371-394.
①李桂英：《亚历山大二世1861年农民改革研究》,吉林大学博士论文,2008年6月。
②邵丽英：《改良的命运：俄国地方自治改革史》,北京：社会科学文献出版社,2000年。
③陶慧芬：《俄国近代改革史》,北京,中国社会科学出版社,2007：210-213.张寿民：《俄罗斯法律发达史》,北京：法律出版社,2000：73-82.
①范纯：《论俄罗斯的司法改革》,《俄罗斯中亚东欧研究》,2007(1)：19-24.
①S.J.Reynolds,"Drawing upon the Past:Jury Trials in Modern Russia." In Reforming Justice in Russia,1864-1996. Edited by P.H.Solomon,Jr. New York, M.E.Sharpe,Inc.1997.pp.374-396.
①C.C.Wilson, Basic Principles OF 1862:the Judicial system:a Translation and Commentary. Unpublished Master Paper.University of Minnesota,1997.p.6.
(?)S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars. Connecticut, Greenwood Press, reprinted,1974.
①R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.1976.
②B.L.Levin-Stankevich,"The Transfer of Legal Technology and Culture:Law Professionals in Tsarist Russia." In Russia's Missing Middle Class:The Professions in Russian History. Edited by H.D.Balzer. New York, M.E. Sharpe, Inc.1996.
③W.GWagner, Marriage, Property, and Law in Late Imperial Russia. Oxford, Clarendon Press,1996
④G.N.Bhat, "The Moralization of Guilt in Late Imperial Russian Trial by Jury:The Early Reform Era." Law and History Review,15:1,1997.pp.77-113.
⑤J.Burbank, "A Question of Dignity:Peasant Legal Culture in Late Imperial Russia."Continuity and Change,10.3.1995.P391-404.J.Burbank, Russian Peasants Go to Court:Legal Culture in the Countryside,1905-1917. Bloomington.2004.
⑥G.D.Cameron, "Law and Lawyers under the Tsars,"in The Soviet Lawyer and His System:A Historical and Bibliographic Study. Vol.Ⅲ.University of Michigan,1978.J.Burbank, "Discipline and Punishment in the Moscow Bar Association," Russian Review.54.1.1995. pp.44-64.
①[德]哈贝马斯：《公共领域的结构转型》,曹东,王晓宇,刘北城,宋伟杰译,上海：学林出版社,1999：32,84-85.
⑦J.Burbank, "An Imperial Rights Regime:Law and Citizenship in the Russian Empire." Kritika:Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History.7,3.2006.pp.397-431.
⑧F.B.Kaiser, Die Russische Justizreform von 1864 [achtzehnhundertvierundsechzig]:zur Geschichte d. russ. Justiz von Katharina Ⅱ. bis1917. Brill,1972.
①J. Baberowsi,Autokratie und Justiz:zum Verhailtnis von Rechtsstaatlichkeit und Ruckstandigkeit im ausgehenden Zarenreich1864-1914. Frankfurt am Main:V. Klostermann,1996.
②孙成木等主编：《俄国通史简编》(上、下),北京,人民出版社,1986年。
③刘祖熙：《改革和革命：俄国现代化研究(1861-1917)》,北京：北京大学出版社,2000年。曹维安：《俄国史新论——影响俄国历史发展的基本问题》,北京：中国社会科学出版社,2002年。王云龙：《现代化的特殊性道路：沙皇俄国最后60年社会转型历程解析》,北京：商务印书馆,2004年。陶慧芬：《俄国近代改革史》,北京：中国社会科学出版社,2007年。
④张寿民：《俄罗斯法律发达史》,北京：法律出版社,2000年。
⑤刘祖熙：《改革和革命：俄国现代化研究(1861-1917)》,北京：北京大学出版社,2000：198-202.
①张寿民：《俄罗斯法律发达史》,北京：法律出版社,2000：8.
②J.Berman,Justice in Russia:An Interpretation of Soviet Law. Cambridge, Harward UP,1950.p.123.
①[美]哈罗德·J·伯尔曼著,贺卫方等译：《法律与革命：西方法律传统的形成》,北京：中国大百科全书出版社,1993：2.
②S.Kucherov, "Indigenous and Foreign Influence on the Early Russian Legal Heritage." Slavic Review. 31.2.1972.pp.257-282.
②[俄]瓦·奥·克柳切夫斯基著,张草纫等译：《俄国史教程》第一卷,北京：商务印书馆,1992：210.
(?)H.J.Berman,Justice in Russia:An Interpretation of Soviet Low.P127-128.
③参见王钺著：《罗斯法典》译注,兰州：兰州大学出版社,1983年.
④曹维安：《俄国史新论——影响俄国历史发展的基本问题》,北京：中国社会科学出版社,2002：166.
①张寿民：《俄罗斯法律发达史》,北京：法律出版社,2000：31.
②曹维安：《俄国史新论——影响俄国历史发展的基本问题》,北京：中国社会科学出版社,2002：171.
③[苏联]Б.Б.卡芬加乌兹,H.и.巴甫连科主编,郭奇格等译：《彼得一世的改革》上册,北京：商务印书馆,1997：471.
④[苏联]Б.Б.卡芬加乌兹,H.и.巴甫连科主编,郭奇格等译：《彼得一世的改革》上册,北京：商务印书馆,1997：475.
①W.Wagner,"Tsarist Legal Policies at the End of the Nineteenth Century:A Study in Inconsistency,"Slavonic and East European Review,Vol.14,no.3(July,1976):pp.371-394.
①李桂英：《亚历山大二世1861年农民改革研究》,吉林大学博士论文,2008年6月。
②邵丽英：《改良的命运：俄国地方自治改革史》,北京：社会科学文献出版社,2000年。
③陶慧芬：《俄国近代改革史》,北京,中国社会科学出版社,2007：210-213.张寿民：《俄罗斯法律发达史》,北京：法律出版社,2000：73-82.
①参见崔敏主编：《刑事诉讼法教程》,北京：中国人民公安大学出版社,2002：16-17.
②所谓“法定证据”制度,是指法律就诉讼活动中可以采用的各种证据的证明力做出了明确的规定,法官在认定案件事实时必须严格遵守这些规则,没有自由裁量权。16世纪以来,欧洲大陆的许多国家都在司法实践中采用这种制度。参见何家弘：《对法定证据制度的再认识与证据采信标准的规范化》,《中国法学》2005(3)：144-151.
③[苏联]B.B.卡芬乌兹H.и.巴甫连科主编,郭奇格等译：《彼得一世的改革》上册,北京：商务印书馆,1997：486.
④[苏联]B.B.卡芬乌兹H.и.巴甫连科主编,郭奇格等译：《彼得一世的改革》上册,北京：商务印书馆,1997：486.
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②张寿民：《俄罗斯法律发达史》,北京：法律出版社,2000：73.
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① R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.pp.54-56.
①张寿民：《俄罗斯法律发达史》,北京：法律出版社,2000：80.
③ J.Blum,Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century.p.431.
④"Marc Raeff, "The Well-Ordered Police State and the Development of Modernity in Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century Europe." American Historical Review,80.5,1975. pp.1229-1230.
①G.Vernadsky, A Source Book for Russian History.Vol.II.Yale Press,1972. p.404.
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②B.Dmytryshyn,Imperial Russia,A Source Book,1700-1917.New York,1990.pp.75—76.
③M.T.Florinsky,Russia:a History and an Interpretation.Vol.I.New York,1967.p.548.
①R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.pp.39-40.
②Marc Raeff, Michael Speransky:Statesman of Imperial Russia,1772-1839. The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff, 1957.pp.55-80.
③D.W.Edwards, "Count Joseph Marie de Maistre and Russian Educational Policy,1803-1828." Slavic Review, 36.1.1977. pp.57-62.
③Marc Raeff, Michael Speransky:Statesman of Imperial Russia,1772-1839.pp.334-335.
①参见张寿民：《俄罗斯法律发达史》,北京：法律出版社,2000：52-53.
①B.L.Levin-Stankevich,"The Transfer of Legal Technology and Culture:Law Professionals in Tsarist Russia." In Russia's Missing Middle Class:The Professions in Russian History. Edited by H.D.Balzer. p.225.
③L.Schapiro, Nationalism and Rationalism in Russian Nineteenth Century Political Thought. New Haven, Yale University Press,1967.p.6.
①B.L.Levin-Stankevich,"The Transfer of Legal Technology and Culture:Law Professionals in Tsarist Russia." In Russia's Missing Middle Class:The Professions in Russian History. Edited by H.D.Balzer. p.226.
②J.T.Flynn, The University Reform of Alexander I,1892-1835. Washington,D.C. Catholic University Press,1988.pp.216-40.
③B.L.Levin-Stankevich,"The Transfer of Legal Technology and Culture:Law Professionals in Tsarist Russia." In Russia's Missing Middle Class:The Professions in Russian History. Edited by H.D. Balzer. p.226.
①A.GMazour, The First Russian Revolution,1825:Its origins, development, and significance. Stanford, Stanford University Press,1961.p.207.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.10.
③G.A.Hosking, Russia:People and Empire,1552-1917.Harvard University Press,2001.p.145.
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①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.9.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.8.
③R.Wortman, The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.p.68-69.
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②[俄]鲍里斯·尼古拉耶维奇·米罗诺夫：《俄国社会史》下卷,济南：山东大学出版社：2006：53.
③S.Kutscheroff, "Administration of Justice Under Nicholas I of Russia. "American Slavic and East European Review,7.2.1948.p.137.
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⑤R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.p.14.
①S.Kutscheroff, Administration of Justice Under Nicholas I of Russia, p.131.
②S.Kutscheroff, Administration of Justice Under Nicholas I of Russia.p.131.
③S.Kutscheroff, Administration of Justice Under Nicholas I of Russia.p.130.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.7.
⑤S.Kutscheroff, Administration of Justice Under Nicholas I of Russia.p.131.
⑥S. Kutscheroff, Administration of Justice Under Nicholas I of Russia.p.131.
①《果戈理选集》第二卷,北京：人民文学出版社,1984：251.
①S.Kutscheroff, Administration of Justice Under Nicholas I of Russia.p.131.
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③S.Kutscheroff, Administration of Justice Under Nicholas I of Russia.p.137.
①S.Kutscheroff, Administration of Justice Under Nicholas Ⅰ of Russia.pp.135-136.
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③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.3.
④S. Kutscheroff, Administration of Justice Under Nicholas I of Russia.p.129.
①[俄]鲍里斯·尼古拉耶维奇·米罗诺夫：《俄国社会史》下卷,济南：山东大学出版社2006：48.
②[俄]鲍里斯·尼古拉耶维奇·米罗诺夫：《俄国社会史》下卷,济南：山东大学出版社2006：48.
③[苏]涅奇金娜：《苏联史》第二卷第二分册,北京：三联书店,1959：132.
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②[俄]赫尔著,项星耀译：《往事与随想》上册,北京：人民文学出版社,1993:205.
③S.Kutscheroff, Administration of Justice Under Nicholas I of Russia.p.135.
④S.Kutscheroff, Administration of Justice Under Nicholas I of Russia.p.134.
⑤S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.22.
①[俄]鲍里斯·尼古拉耶维奇·米罗诺夫：《俄国社会史》,上卷,济南：山东大学出版社,2006：405.
③W.Wagner, Marriage, Property, and Law in Late Imperial Russia. Oxford, Clarendon Press,1994.p.2.
④R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness, p.254.
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②金自宁：《作为中介的官僚和官僚制——从一种特殊的视角考察》,《政治与法律》,1998(3)：50.
①郭响宏：《十九世纪早期俄国官僚制度与官僚阶层问题述论》,《陕西教育学院学报》,2006(2)：58.
②W.M.Pinter, The Evolutionof Civil Officaildom,1775-1855. In Russian Officialdom:The Bureaucratization of Russian Society from the Seventeenth to the Twentieth Century. Edited by W.M.Pinter and D.K.Rowney, The Macmillan Press.1980. p.223.
①W.B.Lincoln, In the Vanguard of Reform:Russia's enlightened bureaucrats,1825-1861. DeKalb, Northern Illinois University Press,1982.p.63.
①关于K.п.波别多诺斯采夫,这里要做以简单介绍。K.п.波别多诺斯采夫(1827-1905)是亚历山大三世和尼古拉二世统治时期有影响的大臣之一。他曾就读于圣彼得堡奥登堡法学院,对俄国民法和司法制度有一定研究。波别多诺斯采夫对1864年司法改革计划的制定做出了贡献。后来逐渐变成了一个保守的政治哲学家和官僚。参见K.P. Pobedonostsev. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/465622/Konstantin-Petrovich-Pobedonostsev查于2010年10月20日
②R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.p.258.
①李桂英：《论亲王康斯坦丁·尼古拉耶维奇在 1861年改革中的作用》,《长备大学学报》2009(7)：73.
①W.B.Lincoln, In the Vanguard of Reform:Russia's enlightened bureaucrats,1825-1861. p.146.
②R. Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.pp.215,246.
①参见A.J.Violette,"Judicial Reforms in the Russian Navy during the 'Era of Great Reforms':The Reform Act of 1867 and the Abolition of Corporal Punishment. "The Slavonic and East European Review,56.4.1978. pp.586-603.
④W.B.Lincoln, In the Vanguard of Reform:Russia's enlightened bureaucrats,1825-1861.p.149.
②W.B.Lincoln,"TheCircle of the Grand DuchnessYelena Pavlovna,1847-1861."Slavonic and East Europe Review. Vol.XLVIII No.2.1970.p.382.
③R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.pp.229-230.
① R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.p.230.
③ R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.p.230.
②R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.p.232.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.23.
③C.C.Wilson, Basic Principles Of 1862:the Judicial system, a Translation and Commentary, pp.102-112.
④B.L.Levin-Stankevich, "Historical Development of Law in Russia and the Soviet Union." in The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History. Edited by J.L.Wieczynski. XIX. Gulf Breeze, Academic International Press.1981.p.77.
⑤W.E.Mosse, Alexander II and the Modernization of Russia. New York, Collier Books,1962.p.74.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.24.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.26.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.26.
①S.Kucherov,Courts, Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.29.
①[苏联]B.B.卡芬加乌兹,H.и.巴甫连科主编,郭奇格等译：《彼得一世的改革》上册,北京：商务印书馆,1997：38586.
③D.Christian," The Political Ideals of Michael Speransky." Slavonic and East European Review.54.2.1976. pp.203-204.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.32.
①C.C. Wilson, Basic Principles Of 1862:the Judicial system, a Translation and Commentary.pp.102-103.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.35.
⑤S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.35.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.37.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.37.
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②C.C.Wilson, Basic Principles Of 1862:the Judicial system, a Translation and Commentary.pp.102-103.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.40.
②[法]米歇尔·福柯.刘北成,杨远婴译：《规训与惩罚：监狱的诞生》,北京：三联书店,2003：107.
⑤S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.39.
⑥W.B.Lincoln, The Great Reforms:Autocracy, Bureaucracy, and the Politics of Change.Dekalb, Northern Illinois University Press.1990.pp.121-125.
⑦S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.40.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.39.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.29.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.40.
⑤S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.40.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars. pp.41-42.
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①#12
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.89.
③D.M.Wallace. Russia. Kessinger Publishing.2004. http://www.enotes.com/russia-text/chapter-xxxiii---new-law-courts.①查于2010年11月15日.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.88.
⑤D.M.Wallace. Russia. http://www.enotes.com/russia-text/chapter-xxxiii---new-law-courts.②查于2010年11月15日.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.92.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.95.
⑤S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.93.
⑥S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.92.
⑦S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.94.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Three Tsars.pp.50,203,230-235.
①S.M.Kazantsev, "The Judicial Reform of 1864 and the Procuracy." In Reforming Justice in Russia,1864-1996. Edited by P.H.Solomon,Jr.New York. M.E.Sharpe, Inc.1997. p.44.
②S.M.Kazantsev, "The Judicial Reform of 1864 and the Procuracy."p.45.
③[苏联]B.B.卡芬加乌兹,H.и.巴甫连科主编,郭奇格等译：《彼得一世的改革》上册,北京：商务印书馆,1997:479.
④张寿民：《俄罗斯法律发达史》,北京：法律出版社,2000:78-79.
①S.M.Kazantsev, "The Judicial Reform of 1864 and the Procuracy."p.47.
①张寿民：《俄罗斯法律发达史》,北京：法律出版社,2000：80.
②S.M.Kazantsev,"The Judicial Reform of 1864 and the Procuracy."p.48.
②张寿民：《俄罗斯法律发达史》,北京：法律出版社,2000：80.
④S.M.Kazantsev, "The Judicial Reform of 1864 and the Procuracy."p.50.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.95.
②C.C.Wilson, Basic Principles OF 1862:the Judicial system:a Translation and Commentary. pp.102-117.
③张寿民：《俄罗斯法律发达史》,北京：法律出版社,2000：81.
④S.M.Kazantsev, "The Judicial Reform of 1864 and the Procuracy."p.56.
②S.M.Kazantsev, "The Judicial Reform of 1864 and the Procuracy."p.57.
①J.Merryman, The Civil Law Tradition. Stanford,1969. p.42.
①R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.pp.276-277.
②R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.pp.277-278.
①B.L.Levin-Stankevich, Cassation, Judicial Interpretation and the Develompent of Civil and Criminal Law in Russia,1864-1917. State University of New York. Unpublished Doctor Paper.1984.p.178.
②B.L.Levin-Stankevich, Cassation, Judicial Interpretation and the Develompent of Civil and Criminal Law in Russia,1864-1917.p.178.
①B.L.Levin-Stankevich,Cassatio,Jusicial Interpretation and Develompent of Civil and Criminal Law in Russia,1864-1917.p.184.
①B.L.Levin-Stankevich, Cassation, Judicial Interpretation and the Develompent of Civil and Criminal Law in Russia,1864-1917.p.190.
①屠茂芹：《残酷的天才——陀思妥耶夫斯基》,西安：太白文艺出版社,1998：54.
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③陈业宏、唐鸣：《中外司法制度比较》,北京：,商务印书馆,2000：175.
④本杰明·卡普兰：《陪审制度》。哈罗德·伯曼编,陈若桓译：《美国法律讲话》,北京：三联书店,1988：35.
①施鹏鹏：《陪审制研究》,北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008：9.
②施鹏鹏：《陪审制研究》,北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008：11.
③关于雅典民众参与司法的概况,参见应克复等著：《西方民主史》,北京：中国社会科学出版社,1997：2-51.
④关于古罗马的民众会议诉讼制度,参见[意]朱塞佩·格罗索著,黄风译：《罗马法史》,北京：中国政法大学出版社,1994：269-270.
⑤施鹏鹏：《陪审制研究》,北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008：9.
⑥李红海：《亨利二世改革与英国普通法》。《中外法学》,1996(6)：64.
⑦Maximus A. Lesser, The Historical Development of the Jury System. Kessinger Publishing, LLC,2008.P124.
⑦冷水审判法即将当事人扔进池塘或河流中,若沉入水底,说明“被上帝接纳,”判其无罪,否则判其有罪。
⑧[美]哈罗德·J·伯尔曼著,贺卫方等译：《法律与革命：西方法律传统的形成》,北京：中国大百科全书出版社,1993：544、545.
①Maximus A. Lesser, The Historical Development of the Jury System.p.143.
②[美]琼·雅各比著,周叶谦等译：《美国检察官研究》,北京：中国检察出版社,1990：171.
③李秋月,《浅谈西方国家的陪审制度》,《当代法学》2002(2)：112.
④[美]伯纳德·施瓦茨著,王军等译：《美国法律史》,北京：中国政法大学出版社,1990：32.
⑤[法]卡斯东·斯特法尼、乔治·勒瓦索、贝尔纳·布洛克著,罗结珍译：《法国刑事诉讼法精义》(上册),北京：中国政法大学出版社,1999：408.
⑥[德]克劳思·罗科信著,吴丽琪译：《刑事诉讼法》,北京：法律出版社,2003：624-25.
⑦参见王钺著：《罗斯法典》译注。P68. S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.53.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.54.
①H.Spencer,Social Statics or the Conditions Essential to Human Happiness.New York.2009.p.289.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.pp.54-55.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.pp.54-55.
①A.K.Afanas'ev, Jurors and Jury Trials in Imperial Russia,1866-1885. in Russia's Great Reforms,1855-1881.p.221.
①D.M.Wallace, Russia on the Eve of War and Revolution. Princeton, Princeton University Press.1984.p.89.
①Corpus Juris Secundum, Vol.39. St.Paul,1976.p.448.
②The Oxford English Dictionary,2nd. Vol.Ⅵ. Oxford.1989.
③Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionay. Springerfield.1987.
④Corpus Juris Secundum, Vol.67. St.Paul,1978.p.5.
⑤[美]哈罗德·J·伯尔曼著,贺卫方等译：《法律与革命：西方法律传统的形成》,北京：中国大百科全书出版社,1993：566-68.
⑥G.Fedotov, The Russian Religious Mind. Vol.1. Cambridge,1946.pp.275-295.
①J.M.Donovan, Juries and the Transformation of Criminal Justice in France in the Nineteenth & Twentieth Centuries. Chapel Hill, N.C.University of North Carolina Press,2010. p.12.
②施鹏鹏：《陪审制研究》,北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008：148.
③施鹏鹏：《陪审制研究》,北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008：148.
①[美]波斯纳著,苏力译：《法理学问题》,北京：中国政法大学出版社,1994：59.
①#12
②K.F.Taylor, In the Theater of Criminal Justice. Princeton,1993.pp.37,64.
③http://www.nlr.ru/e-res/law r/search.php.查于2010年12月5日。
④G.N.Bhat, "The Moralization of Guilt in Late Imperial Russian Trial by Jury:The Early Reform Era." Law and History Review,15.1.1997.p.91.
③G.N.Bhat, The Moralization of Guilt in Late Imperial Russian Trial by Jury:The Early Reform Era.p.105.
④G.N.Bhat, The Moralization of Guilt in Late Imperial Russian Trial by Jury:The Early Reform Era.pp.105-106.
①G.N.Bhat, The Moralization of Guilt in Late Imperial Russian Trial by Jury:The Early Reform Era.p.107.
②G.N.Bhat, The Moralization of Guilt in Late Imperial Russian Trial by Jury:The Early Reform Era.p.108.
③J.Bergman, Vera Zasulich, a Biography. Stanford, Stanford University Press.1983. pp.40,44.
①J.Bergman, Vera Zasulich, a Biography.pp.45-47.
②J.Bergman, Vera Zasulich, a Biography.p.49.
①J.Bergman, Vera Zasulich, a Biography.pp.47-49.
②S.Kucherov, "The Case of Vera Zasulich."Russian Review.11.2.1952.pp.91-92.
③J.Bergman, Vera Zasulich, a Biography.p.51.
④G.N.Bhat, The Moralization of Guilt in Late Imperial Russian Trial by Jury:The Early Reform Era.p.111.
① S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.pp.61-62.
② S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.pp.61-62.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.64.
②ЛC3.ToM.7.No.4396.http://www.nlr.ru/e-res/law_r/search.php.查于2010年12月6日。
①J.W.Atwell, "The Russian Jury. "The Slavic and East European Review.ol.53.1975.pp.51-52.
②J.W.Atwell, The Russian Jury. p.52.
①[法]托克维尔著,董果良译：《论美国的民主》上卷,北京：商务印书馆,1995：356、359.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.73.
③S.Kucherov,Courts.Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.73.
④#12
②IIC3.ToM.41No.43978.参见http://www.nlr.ru/e-res/law_r/search.php.查于2010年12月6日。
①中共中央马克思恩格斯列宁斯大林著作编译局译,《马克思恩格斯全集》第6卷,北京：人民出版社,1961：151-152.
②中共中央马克思恩格斯列宁斯大林著作编译局编译,《列宁全集》第22卷,北京：人民出版社,1990：76-77.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.80.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.81.
⑤#12
⑥ЛC3. Tom.18.No.14991. http://www.nlr.ru/e-res/law_r/search.php.查于2010年12月6日。
①J.W.Atwell, The Russian Jury. p.58.
②D.C.Dussel, Russian Judicial Reforms and Counter-reforms:1864-1914.p.69.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.85.
①崔卓兰主编：《律师制度》,长春：吉林大学出版社,2001：4.
①[美]约翰.麦赞恩著,刘听、胡凝译：《法律的故事》,南京：江苏人民出版社,1998：105、416.
②世界著名法典汉译从书编委会编：《十二铜表法》,北京：法律出版社,2000：5.
③[美]约翰.麦赞恩著,刘听、胡凝译：《法律的故事》,南京：江苏人民出版社,1998：154.
④司莉：《律师职业属性论》,北京：中国政法大学出版社,2006：28.
⑤崔卓兰主编：《律师制度》,长春：吉林大学出版社,2001：10.
⑥崔卓兰主编：《律师制度》,长春：吉林大学出版社,2001:10.
⑦谢佑平：《社会秩序与律师职业一律师织业角色的社会定位》,北京：法律出版社,1998：11.
①宫秀丽：《近代早期英国律师阶层的兴起及律师参政》,《学习与探索》,2005(6)：181.
②崔卓兰主编：《律师制度》,长春：吉林大学出版社,2001：12.
③何勤华主编：《英国法律发达史》,北京：法律出版社,1999：70.
④张千帆著：《西方宪政体系》(上册·美国宪法),北京：中国政法大学出版社,2000：708.
①何勤华主编：《法国法律发达史》,北京：法律出版社,2000：121.
②李华辉：《法国律师制度》,(台湾)《法学从刊》,2002(2)：107-111.
③石毅主编：《中外律师制度综观》,北京：群众出版社,2000：255.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.110.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.111.
④[俄]果戈理著,陈殿兴等译：《死魂灵》,长沙：湖南人民出版社,1987：439-442.
①[俄]萨尔蒂科夫-谢德林著,斯庸译：《波谢洪尼耶遗风》,上海：上海译文出版社,1981：160-62.
②[俄]萨尔蒂科夫-谢德林著,斯庸译：《波谢洪尼耶遗风》,上海：上海译文出版社,1981：52.
①"Peter the Great in England," in The Book of Days:The book of days, a miscellany of popular antiquities. Author: R.Chambers.Part 1. Kessinger Publishing,2004. p.175.
②ЛC3. Tom.13.No.9989.http://www.nlr.ru/e-res/law r/search.php查于2010年12月9日。
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.114.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.114.
⑤S.Kucherov,Courts,Lowyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.115.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.118.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.117.
(?)S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.118.
S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.119.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.132.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.133.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.134.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.pp.145-148.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.141.
①ЛC3. ToM49.No.53575.http://www.nlr.ru/e-res/law r/search.php查于2010年12月9日。
②ЛC3. ToM49.No.53575.http://www.nlr.ru/e-res/law r/search.php查于2010年12月9日。
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.158.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.pp.163-164.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.165.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.166.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.167.
④#12
⑤S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.167.
①曹维安：《俄国史新论》,北京：中国社会科学出版社,2002：11.
②R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness. pp.270-72.
①B.Pares, A History of Russia. New York. Knopf.1953.pp.378-380.
②S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.pp.86-87.
①S.Kucherov,Courts.Lawvers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.97.
③S.Kucherov,Courts.Lawvers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.98.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.99.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.100.
②[苏]米·尼·波克罗夫斯基,贝璋衡等译：《俄国历史概要》(上册),北京：商务印书馆,1994：14344.
③A.Leroy-Beaulieu, The Empire of the Tsars and the Russians:The Institutions.pp.277-278.
④[美]尼古拉·梁赞诺夫斯基,马克·斯坦伯格著,杨烨,卿文辉主译：《俄罗斯史》,2007：347.
⑤R.Wortman,The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.p.130.
⑥H.J.Berman, Justice in Russia:An Interpretation of Soviet Law. Cambridge, Havard UP.1950.pp.150-152.
①[美]E.博登海默著作,邓正来等译：《法理学——法哲学及其方法》,北京：华夏出版社,1987：137.
②J.Mayda, Francois Geny and Modern Jurisprudence. Baton Rouge,1978.pp.39-41.
⑤W.G.Wagner, Civil Law, Individual Rights and Judicial Activism in Late Imperial Russia.In Reforming Justice in Russia,1864-1996. Edited by P.H.Solomon,Jr.New York. M.E.Sharpe, Inc.1997. p.21-36.
① H.J.Berman, The Rule of Law and the Law-Based State. With Special Reference to the Soviet Union. In D.D.Barry. Toward the "Rule of Law "in Russia? Political and Legal Reform in the Transition Period.New York. Armonk.1992.pp.43-60.
①[俄]鲍里斯·尼古拉耶维奇·米罗诺夫：《俄国社会史》下卷,济南：山东大学出版社2006：310.
②R.Wortman, "Russian Monarchy and the Rule of Law:New Considerations of the Court Reform of 1864.' Kritika.6.1.2005.p.164.
③[古希腊]亚里士多德著,吴寿彭译：《政治学》,北京：商务印书馆,1997：167-171.
④马长山著,《国家、市民社会与法治》,北京：商务印书馆,2002：101.
⑤马长山著,《国家、市民社会与法治》,北京：商务印书馆,2002：105.
①刘军宁,“从法治国到法治”,《经济民主与经济自由》,刘军宁等编：北京：三联书店,1997：96.
②邵建东：《德国‘法治国家’理论‘与实践的经验及教训——兼及对‘法治江苏’建设的启示。》《江海学刊》,2005(1)：104.
③[俄]B.B.拉扎列夫主编, 王哲等译：《法与国家的一般理论》,北京：法律出版社,1999：346.
①S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.302.
(?)W.G.Wagner, "The Trojan Mare:Women's Rights and Civil Rights in Late Imperial Russia."In Civil Rights in Imperial Russia. Edited by O.Crisp and L.Edmondson. Oxford.1989.pp.65-84.
(?)W.G.Wagner, Civil Law, Individual Rights and Judicial Activism in Late Imperial Russia.p.26.
①W.G.Wagner, Civil Law, Individual Rights and Judicial Activism in Late Imperial Russia.p.26.
②B.L.Levin-Stankevich, Cassation, Judicial Interpretation and the Develompent of Civil and Criminal Law in Russia,1864-1917.pp.292-293.
①转引自[美]H.W.埃尔曼著,贺卫方等译：《比较法律文化》,北京：三联书店,1990：20.
②[美]哈罗德J.伯尔曼著,梁治平译：《法律与宗教》第二版,北京：中国政法大学出版社,2003：20-30.
①[俄]B.B.拉扎列夫主编,王哲等译：《法与国家的一般理论》,北京：法律出版社,1999：35.
②参见沈宗灵主编：《法理学》,北京：高等教育出版社,1994：234-36.
①[法]米歇尔·福柯,谢强,马月译：《知识考古学》,北京：三联书店,1998：70.
②P.Goodrich, Legal Discourse:Studies in Linguistics,Rhetoric and Legal Analysis. London, Macmillan.1987.pp.144-145.
②[德]汉斯-格奥尔格·加达默尔著,洪汉鼎译：《真理’与方法：哲学诠释学的基本特征》上卷, 上海：上海译文出版社,1999：423.
③[法]米歇尔·福柯,刘北成,杨远婴译：《规训与惩罚：监狱的诞生》,北京：三联书店,2003：90.
④[法]米歇尔·福柯,刘北成,杨远婴译：《规训与惩罚：监狱的诞生》,北京：三联书店,2003：90.
①[苏]M.巴赫金著,白备仁,晓河译：《小说理论》,石家庄：河北教育出版社,1998：132-33.
②[苏]M.巴赫金著,白备仁,晓河译：《小说理论》,石家庄：河北教育出版社,1998：137.
③S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.95.
④S.Kucherov,Courts,Lawyers and Trials under the Last Three Tsars.p.312.
①J.Neuberger, Popular Legal Culture. In Reforming Justice in Russia,1864-1996. Edited by P.H. Solomon, Jr.New York. M.E.Sharpe, Inc.1997. p.232.
④J.Neuberger, Popular Legal Culture.p.234..
①J.Neuberger, Popular Legal Culture.p.244.
②J.Neuberger, Popular Legal Culture.p.240.
③J.Neuberger, Popular Legal Culture.p.240
④J.Neuberger, Popular Legal Culture.p.239.
⑤J.Neuberger, Popular Legal Culture.p.239.
⑥J.Neuberger, Popular Legal Culture.p.234.
⑦M.Levin, The Making of the Soviet System:Essays in the Social History of Interwar Russia. New York.1985.p.72.
①C.Frierson, "'I must always answer to the law..':Rules and Response at the Reformed Volost'Court."Slavonic and East European Review.75.2.1997.p.328.
②J.Burbank, Legal Culture, Citizenship, and Peasant Jurisprudence:Perspectives from the Early Twentieth Century. In Reforming Justice in Russia,1864-1996. Edited by P.H.Solomon,Jr.New York. M.E.Sharpe, Inc.1997. p.95.
③J.Burbank, Legal Culture, Citizenship, and Peasant Jurisprudence:Perspectives from the Early Twentieth Century.p.95.
④J.Burbank, Legal Culture, Citizenship, and Peasant Jurisprudence:Perspectives from the Early Twentieth Century.p.96.
⑤B.B.Farnsworh, " The Litigious Daughter-in-Law:Family Relations in Rural Russia in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century." Slavic Review.45.1.1986.p.51.
①C.A.Frierson, Of Red Roosters, Revenge, and the Search for Justice:Rural Arson in European Russia in the Late Imperial Era. In Reforming Justice in Russia,1864-1996. Edited by P.H.Solomon,Jr.New York. M.E.Sharpe, Inc.1997. p.109.
②C.A.Frierson, Of Red Roosters, Revenge, and the Search for Justice:Rural Arson in European Russia in the Late Imperial Era. p.110.
①C.A.Frierson, Of Red Roosters, Revenge, and the Search for Justice:Rural Arson in European Russia in the Late Imperial Era.p.110
②C.A.Frierson, Of Red Roosters, Revenge, and the Search for Justice:Rural Arson in European Russia in the Late Imperial Era.p.116.
③C.A.Frierson, Of Red Roosters, Revenge, and the Search for Justice:Rural Arson in European Russia in the Late Imperial Era.p.116
④C.A.Frierson, Of Red Roosters, Revenge, and the Search for Justice:Rural Arson in European Russia in the Late Imperial Era.p.l 17.
①C.A.Frierson, Of Red Roosters, Revenge, and the Search for Justice:Rural Arson in European Russia in the Late Imperial Era.p.124.
①中共中央马克思恩格斯列宁斯大林著作编译局译：《列宁全集》第10卷,北京：人民出版社,1958：353.
②中共中央马克思恩格斯列宁斯大林著作编译局译：《列宁全集》第29卷,北京：人民出版社,1956：180.
①Gordon B. Smith, Reforming the Russian legal system. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1996.p.147.
②S.J.Reynolds,"Drawing upon the Past:Jury Trials in Modern Russia." In Reforming Justice in Russia,1864-1996.Edited by P.H.Solomon,Jr. New York, M.E.Sharpe,Inc.1997. p.378.
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②罗荣渠：《现代化新论》,北京：北京大学出版社,1993：16-17.
③钱乘旦、杨豫、陈晓律：《世界现代化进程》,南京：南京大学出版社,1997：1-3.
①L.G..Zakharova, "From Reform 'from above' to Revolution "from below.'" In Reform in Modern Russian History: Progress or Cycles? Edited and Translated by T.Taranovski. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.1995.p.124.
②L.G..Zakharova, "From Reform 'from above' to Revolution 'from below.'" In Reform in Modern Russian History: Progress or Cycles? P.365.
③A.J.Rieber, "Alexander Ⅱ:A Revisionist View." The Journal of Modern History.43.1.1971.p.54.
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②M.Kovalevsky, Russian Political Institutions. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.1902.p.239.
①A.Leroy-Beaulieu, The Empire of the Tsars and the Russians:The Institutions.p.382.
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