国际贸易中的知识产权限制研究
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摘要
国际贸易中的知识产权限制包括合理使用、强制许可、法定许可、权利穷竭和竞争法对知识产权滥用的规制等方面。它们属于控制性规则,是调整知识产权持有者与知识产权使用者利益平衡的重要社会工具,也是有关国家在国际知识产权保护领域争论的焦点问题之一。本文旨在以TRIPS协定为中心,对国际贸易中的知识产权限制进行较系统的研究,力图同时从理论和实证方面对其进行深入的理解,探究其发展规律。除引言和结语外,本文共分为五章。
     在引言部分,本文首先分析了关于知识产权限制的不同学术观点,认为知识产权限制不同于知识产权的权利界限,明确了本文所研究的知识产权限制是对已取得的知识产权专有权的减损性划界,属于知识产权的特殊权利界限。同时,认为知识产权限制属于控制性规则,它们以知识产权制度及具体知识产权的存在为前提,其目的是调整已经存在的知识产权与其他正当利益之间的关系。此外,结合WTO知识产权争端解决案例和全球公共健康危机,阐明对国际贸易中的知识产权限制进行研究的必要性,并对国际贸易中的知识产权限制进行了分类。
     第一章对国际贸易中的知识产权限制的历史与现状进行了研究。在历史分析部分,对早期的知识产权法包括英国1624年《垄断法案》和1709年《安妮法》等进行了研究,认为在现代知识产权制度诞生之时,知识产权限制已在法律中占有一席之地,但当时知识产权限制制度是相对单薄和不发达的,同时分析了这种现象的原因。在现状分析部分,首先阐明当代国际知识产权保护的两条主线及其融合,指出TRIPS协定将WIPO基础性公约纳入其中,从而将国际贸易体系与知识产权国际保护体系融为一体,并明确本文所讨论的国际贸易中的知识产权,是从这个意义出发的。然后以TRIPS协定为中心,从国际条约角度较系统地梳理了国际贸易中的知识产权限制,包括合理使用、强制许可、法定许可、权利穷竭、竞争法对知识产权滥用的规制等。
     第二章对国际贸易中的知识产权限制进行了理论分析。从洛克的劳动财产权学说、黑格尔的财产人格权学说和现代制度经济学等视角审视了将知识产权作为私权加以保护的必要性,认为知识产权限制是平衡私权与公共利益的有效方式。对知识产权的限制首先来自对权利进行限制的普遍原理。同时,本文认为民法领域的所有权社会化理论不宜直接作为知识产权限制的理论基础,因为研究表明,知识产权与所有权在历史演变过程的地位和角色有较大的不同。现代经济学理论关于知识产权限制的论证更有说明力。此外,探讨了竞争法对于知识产权的限制作用,分析了竞争法意义上的垄断与作为知识产权构造上的“合法垄断”的联系与区别。本章还分析并指出了贸易因素在知识产权制度产生过程中的重要作用,认为在某种意义上,没有贸易就没有知识产权,在贸易不发达的社会中,也难以存在发达的知识产权制度,因此,知识产权具有贸易属性。从国际法效力来源角度看,知识产权保护与国际贸易的联姻增强了国际知识产权条约的拘束力,并且分析了这种结合对于知识产权限制的影响。
     第三章对国际贸易中的专利权限制进行了研究。首先以加拿大药品专利保护案为例,分析了TRIPS协定第三十条,并对判定专利权例外的“三步检验法”进行了评析,认为具有实质操作意义的主要是后两步,即“正常利用”和“正当利益”标准,而“三步检验法”中的第一步,即“有限的例外”标准更多地可以被理解为对于专利权例外的总的要求。然后以全球性公共健康问题的解决为中心,对国际贸易中的专利强制许可进行了系统研究;阐述了专利强制许可的演变史,认为从历史发展总体上看,专利强制许可的适用条件趋于严格,TRIPS协定第三十一条是这种趋势的体现之一;由于全球公共健康危机日益严重,专利强制许可的适用条件在TRIPS协定第三十一条的基础上有所松动,这是多种原因造成的,但并未从根本上改变专利强制许可的发展趋势。此外,还研究了专利权穷竭和专利产品平行进口问题。在本章中,结合专利权例外、专利强制许可、专利权穷竭等论述,分析了我国相关专利法律法规中的不足之处,提出了若干立法建议。
     第四章对国际贸易中的商标权限制进行了研究。首先对商标合理使用进行了国际法和比较法视角的研究,阐释了TRIPS协定第十七条的结构,分析比较了美国和欧洲有关国家对于商标合理使用的规定,认为比较完善的商标合理使用制度应当同时包含“说明性合理使用”和“被提及的合理使用”,并对我国商标合理使用制度的完善提出了一些建议。在本章中,还分析了商标权利穷竭和商标产品平行进口问题,并从理论上对权利穷竭制度进行了思考,认为分析权利穷竭及与之相关的平行进口是否合法,应当从权利穷竭制度的目的出发。
     第五章对国际贸易中的版权限制进行了研究。首先以《美国版权法》第110(5)节案为例,研究了TRIPS协定第十三条及版权合理使用问题,在分析国际版权法的协调时,对TRIPS协定第十三条和伯尔尼公约中的“较小例外”之间的关系提出了自己的观点。同时,对版权领域的“三步检验法”也作了评析,认为该“三步检验法”中具有实际操作意义的也主要是后两步,即“正常利用”和“正当利益”标准。此外,还结合《美国版权法》第110(5)节案分析了版权例外与版权集体管理的关系,指出版权集体管理制度交易成本降低,版权例外与限制的范围就有缩小的趋势。在本章中,还对国际贸易中的版权法定许可、强制许可和版权权利穷竭及版权产品平行进口等问题进行了研究。
     总之,国际贸易中的知识产权限制,是调整知识产权持有者与知识产权使用者利益平衡的重要社会工具,也是平衡经济发展水平不同、文化传统各异的条约成员利益的法律手段。合理的知识产权限制,可以使知识产品得到最大限度的利用,这对于知识产权制度基本目标的实现决不亚于知识产权本身。
The limitations on intellectual property rights in international trade include fair use, compulsory license, statutory license, exhaustion of rights and regulations from the competition law. They are regulative rules, which help balance the interests of holders and users of intellectual property rights. They are also the key issues which developed countries and developing countries have negotiated for a long time. The purpose of this dissertation is to explore the rules of the limitations on intellectual property rights in international trade. Besides introduction and conclusion, this dissertation includes five chapters.
     In introduction, different views about the limitations on intellectual property rights are analyzed. The limitations on intellectual property rights are different from the scope of intellectual property rights. They are regulative rules, the purpose of which is to regulate the relations between intellectual property rights and other legitimate interests. The necessity of the limitations on intellectual property rights is studied on the basis of the WTO dispute settlement cases and the global public health crisis. The limitations on intellectual property rights are also classed in introduction.
     In chapter 1, the history and status quo are studied about the limitations on intellectual property rights in international trade. In the part of the history, early intellectual property laws including The Statute of Monopolies in 1624 and The Statute of Anne in 1709 are studied. The birth of modern intellectual property regime saw the limitations on intellectual property rights. But at the initial stage of the regime, the limitations on intellectual property rights were undeveloped, which was determined by the role of intellectual property rights in property rights system and social economy. In the part of status quo, the two main lines and their interactions in modern international intellectual property protection are studied. Then the limitations on intellectual property rights, including fair use, compulsory license, statutory license, exhaustion of rights and regulations from the competition law, are analyzed from the prospect of international treaties.
     In chapter 2, the theories of the limitations on intellectual property rights are studied. Intellectual property rights are regarded as private rights and this is the result of the development of the society. In the history of legal development, it was supported by various theories. The system of the limitations on intellectual property rights is an important mechanism in international trade to balance the interests of intellectual property rights holders and intellectual property rights users. It is also an important legal method to balance the interests of the nations which have great diversities in economic development and in cultural traditions. As the nature of intellectual property rights is concerned, besides the personal rights, property rights and human rights which have been studied in the current literatures, intellectual property rights also have the nature of trade. In the birth and development of intellectual property rights, trade played an important role. In the current intellectual property rights regime, an important feature is the marriage between international trade and intellectual property rights. The purpose of the marriage is to enhance the binding force of international intellectual property treaties.
     In chapter 3, the limitations on patent rights in international trade are studied. First, Article 30 of the TRIPS Agreement is analyzed combined with Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products case in the WTO. The first step of the so-called 'three step test' is in fact a general requirement and other two steps really do the testing job. Then compulsory license of patent is analyzed. From the view of history, the use of compulsory license has become more difficult and Article 31 of the TRIPS Agreement is the embodiment of this trend. This situation is slightly changed because of the global public health crisis and it is caused by many factors. But this does not change the trend of compulsory license of patent. China's Patent Law should be modified so as to concord with Doha Declaration, General Council's Decision and the Amendment of Article 31 of TRIPS Agreement. The Methods of Compulsory License of Patent Concerning Public Health by China's National Intellectual Property Bureau has its shortcomings. In this chapter, the exhaustion of patent rights and parallel importation are also studied.
     In chapter 4, the limitations on trademark rights are studied. First, the fair use of the trademark is analyzed from the view of international law and comparative law. The structure of Article 17 of the TRIPS Agreement is expounded. The fair use of trademark includes both 'descriptive fair use' and 'nominative fair use'. China's Trademark Law should be modified as far as the fair use of trademark is concerned. In this chapter, the exhaustion of trademark rights and parallel importation are also studied. National exhaustion has full legal reasons, but international exhaustion does not.
     In chapter 5, the limitations on copyright in international trade are studied. Article 13 of the TRIPS Agreement is analyzed combined with United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act case in the WTO. The first step of the so-called 'three step test' is in fact a general requirement and other two steps really do the testing job. The relationship between copyright exceptions and collective administration of copyright is also studied. In this chapter, compulsory license, statutory license and exhaustion of copyright are also analyzed.
     In sum, the limitations of intellectual property rights in international trade are regulative rules. They are changed with the development of the economy and culture. The limitations on intellectual property rights in international trade balance the interests of intellectual property rights holders and users. They play an important role in the realization of the goal of intellectual property regime.
引文
1 郑成思:《知识产权法》,法律出版社1997年版,第425-427页。
    2 参见李玉香:《知识产权权利限制制度的法律完善》,载《人民司法》2004年第6期。
    3 参见袁秀挺、郭芬:《知识产权的法律限制体系》,载《电子知识产权》2003年第10期。
    4 参见郑成思:《私权、知识产权与物权的权利限制》,载《法学》2004年第9期。
    5 参见吴汉东、胡开忠:《无形财产权制度研究》,法律出版社2001年版。
    6 参见冯晓青:《论知识产权的若干限制》,载《中国人民大学学报》2004年第1期。
    7 United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel, WT/DS160/R.
    8 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, Report of the Panel, WT/DS114/R.
    9 European Communities-Protection of Trademarks and Geographical Indications for Agricultural Products and Foodstuffs, Report of the Panel, WT/DS174/R.
    10 参见张乃根:《TRIPS协定:理论与实践》,上海人民出版社2005年版:张乃根:《论TRIPS 协议的例外条款》,载《浙江社会科学》2006年第3期;张乃根:《试析TRIPS协定第31条修正案及其重大意义》,载《世界贸易组织动态与研究》2006年第5期。
    11 参见林秀芹:《TRIPS协议第31条研究》,厦门大学学位论文,2003年。
    12 参见王先林:《知识产权与反垄断法:知识产权滥用的反垄断问题研究》,法律出版社2001年版。
    13 参见余翔:《实质性差别——美国商标权耗尽与平行进口法律演变及现行准则》,载《国际贸易》2001年第3期;余翔:《法无定法——美国专利权穷竭与产品平行进口立法及判例分析》,载《国际贸易》2000年第12期。
    14 Ted Hagelin, The Experimental Use Exemption to Patent Infringement: Information on Ice, Competition on Hold, 58 Fla. L. Rev. 483(2006).
    15 Obijiofor Aginam, Between Life and Profit: Global Governance and the Trilogy of Human Rights, Public Health and Pharmaceutical Patents, 31 N.C.J. Int'l L. & Com. Reg. 901 (2006).
    16 World Health Organization, WTO Agreements and Public Health, World Health Organization, 2002.
    17 European Communities-Protection of Trademarks and Geographical Indications for Agricultural Products and Foodstuffs, Report of the Panel, WT/DS174/R.
    18 Paul Goldstein, International Copyright: Principles, Law, and Practice, New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
    19 Frederick M. Abbott & David J.Gerber, Public Policy and Global Technological Integration, Kluwer Law International, 1997.
    20 Joseph J. Basista, Lynda J. Zadra-Symes, Using U.S. Intellectual Property Rights to Prevent Parallel Imports, E.I.P.R. 1998, 20(6), 219-225.
    21 Carsten. Fink (Editor), Intellectual Property Protection: Effects on Market Structure, Trade and Foreign Direct Investment, World Bank Publications, 2004.
    22 Un Millennium Project Staff, Trade for Development. Earthscan Publications, 2005.
    23 Ruth L. Okediji, The International Relations of Intellectual Property: Narratives of Developing Country Participation in the Global Intellectual Property System, 7 Sing. J. Int'l & Comp. L. 315(2003).
    24 Susan Sell, Private Power, Public Law, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
    25 Robert L Ostergard, Development Dilemma: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property Rights in the International System. LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC, 2002.
    1 以近年来国外期刊发表的学术论文为例,称知识产权限制或知识产权行使的限制的包括(但不限于): Elizabeth I. Winston, Why Sell What You Can License? Contracting Around Statutory Protection of Intellectual Property, 14 Geo. Mason L. Rev. 93(2006); Joseph P. Bauer, Refusals to Deal with Competitors by Owners of Patents and Copyrights: Reflections on The Image Technical and Xerox Decisions, 55 DePaul L. Rev. 1211(2006); R. Polk Wagner, Information Wants to Be Free: Intellectual Property and The Mythologies of Control, 103 Colum. L. Rev. 995(2003); James Boyle, A Politics of Intellectual Property: Environmentalism for The Net? 47 Duke L. J. 87(1997); Darren E. Donnelly, Parallel Trade And International Harmonization of The Exhaustion of Rights Doctrine, 13 Santa Clara Computer & High Tech. L. J. 445(1997); Dan Hunter, Culture War, 83 Tex. L. Rev. 1105(2005).以近年来国内期刊发表的学术论文为例,称“知识产权限制”的包括(但不限于):彭礼堂、郝珺:《知识产权限制问题的法理探讨》,载《科技进步与对策》2006年第2期:古祖雪:《论国际技术贸易中的知识产权限制》,载《电子知识产权》2005年第5期;称“知识产权的权利限制”或“知识产权权利限制”的包括:刘芝秀:《知识产权的权利限制探析》,载《科技与法律》2005年第2期;杨利华:《知识产权权利限制的特征及其合理性探析》,载《湘潭大学学报》(哲学社会科学版)2004年第6期;郑成思:《私权、知识产权与物权的权利限制》,载《法学》2004年第9期;李玉香:《知识产权权利限制制度的法律完善》,载《人民司法》2004年第6期。(以上为笔者所作的不完全统计)
    2 参见冯晓青:《论知识产权的若干限制》,载《中国人民大学学报》2004年第1期。
    3 参见李玉香:《知识产权权利限制制度的法律完善》,载《人民司法》2004年第6期。
    4 郑成思:《私权、知识产权与物权的权利限制》,载《法学》2004年第9期。
    5 郑成思:《知识产权法》,法律出版社1997年版,第425-427页。
    6 袁秀挺、郭芬:《知识产权的法律限制体系》,载《电子知识产权》2003年第10期。
    7 李琛:《论知识产权法的体系化》,北京大学出版社2005年版,第83页。
    8 李琛:《论知识产权法的体系化》,北京大学出版社2005年版,第84页。
    9 参见郑成思主编:《知识产权保护实务全书》,中国言实出版社1995年版,第6页。
    10 李琛:《论知识产权法的体系化》,北京大学出版社2005年版,第84页。
    11 英文全称为“Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property”,以下简称《巴黎公约》。
    12 英文全称为“Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works”,以下简称《伯尔尼公约》。
    13 分别参见《巴黎公约》第四条之二、第六条第三款和《伯尔尼公约》第五条第二款。
    14 张乃根:《国际贸易的知识产权法》,复旦大学出版社1999年版,第123页。
    15 参见刘春茂主编:《中国民法学·知识产权》,中国人民公安大学出版社1997年版,第10-11页。
    16 参见曹新明主编:《知识产权法学》,人民法院出版社和中国人民公安大学出版社2003年版,第6页。
    17 See Richard A. Posner, Do We Have Too Many Intellectual Property Rights? 9 Marq. Intell. Prop. L. Rev. 173, 175(2005).
    18 The Statute of Monopolies, An Act concerning Monopolies, and Dispensation with penal laws, etc. Jac. I., c. 3. s6. available at http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/lipa/patents/English_Statute1623.pdf(last visited 2007-3-4).
    19 The Statute of Anne, "An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by Vesting the Copies of Printed Books in the Authors or Purchasers of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned." 8 Ann., ch. 19(1710), available at http://www.copyrighthistory.com/anne.html. (last visited 2007-3-4).
    20 U. S. Const., art. I, § 8, cl. 8.
    21 在中国知识产权法学界,对于知识产权的“客体”和“对象”是否为同一概念有不同意见,如刘春田教授主张知识产权的“对象”是“知识”本身,即创造性智力成果和工商业标记;而知识产权的“客体”是指基于对知识产权的对象控制、利用和支配行为而产生的利益关系或社会关系,是法律保护的内容。参见刘春田主编:《知识产权法》,中国人民大学出版社2000年版,第6-7页。但目前多数学者在指称创造性智力成果和工商业标记时,采用的称谓为“知识产权的客体”,并一般对知识产权“客体”和“对象”不作区分。参 见陶鑫良、袁真富:《知识产权法总论》,知识产权出版社2005年版,第98-99页。本文所称的知识产权客体从通说,即知识产权制度所保护的创造性智力成果和工商业标记。
    22 Richard A. Posner, Do We Have Too Many Intellectual Property Rights? 9 Marq. Intell. Prop. L. Rev. 173, 175(2005).
    23 Richard A. Posner, Do We Have Too Many Intellectual Property Rights? 9 Marq. Intell. Prop. L. Rev. 173, 175(2005).
    24 参见袁秀挺、郭芬:《知识产权的法律限制体系》,载《电子知识产权》2003年第10期。
    25 例如,美国著名版权学者,斯坦福大学教授保罗·戈尔茨坦(Paul Goldstein)在论及版权限制时指出,“版权使用豁免和法定许可的作用在于减弱专有权,以平衡版权所有人的经济利益和版权使用人的利益,包括经济利益和其他利益。”Paul Goldstein,International Copyright: Principles, Law, and Practice, New York: Oxford University Press,2001,pp292-293.
    26 郑成思:《私权、知识产权与物权的权利限制》,载《法学》2004年第9期。
    27 竞争法有狭义和广义之分,狭义上的竞争法主要是指反垄断法,广义上的竞争法除反垄断法以外,还包括反不正当竞争法。本文是在狭义上使用竞争法这个概念的。
    28 See John R. Searle, Speech Act, Cambridge University Press, 1969, pp33-42.
    29 John R. Searle, Speech Act, Cambridge University Press, 1969, p33.
    30 John R. Searle, Speech Act, Cambridge University Press, 1969, p33.
    31 John R. Searle, Speech Act, Cambridge University Press, 1969, pp33-34.
    32 John R. Searle, Speech Act, Cambridge University Press, 1969, p 34.
    33 当然,对于知识产权的地域性和时间性特点是否为构成性规则,是可以继续研究和讨论的,本文借鉴这一规则的分类,主要目的是提供理解知识产权限制的一种新的角度。
    34 如中国《著作权法》第一条:“为保护文学、艺术和科学作品作者的著作权,以及与著作权有关的权益……根据宪法制定本法。”《专利法》第一条:“为了保护发明创造专利权……特制定本法。”《商标法》第一条:“为了加强商标管理,保护商标专用权……特制定本法。”
    35 The Statute of Monopolies, An Act concerning Monopolies, and Dispensation with penal laws, etc. Jac. I., c. 3. s6. available at http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/lipa/patents/English_Statute1623.pdf(last visited 2007-3-4).
    36 The Statute of Anne, "An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by Vesting the Copies of Printed Books in the Authors or Purchasers of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned." 8 Ann., ch. 19(1710), available at http://www.copyrighthistory.com/anne.html. (last visited 2007-3-4)
    37 Gyles v. Wilcox, [1740] 27 Eng. Rep. 682(Ch.).
    38 参见吴汉东:《著作权合理使用制度研究》,中国政法大学出版社1996年版,第14页。
    39 Ruth Okediji, Toward an International Fair Use Doctrine, 39 Colum. J. Transnat'l L. 75, 101 (2000).
    40 详细论述可见本文第三章第二节。
    41 英文全称为“World Intellectual Property Organization”,以下简称WIPO。
    42 英文全称为“General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade”,以下简称GATT。
    43 英文全称为“Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights”,以下简称TRIPS协定。
    44 参见万鄂湘主编:《国际知识产权法》,湖北人民出版社2001年版,第18页以下。
    45 其他条件诸如“不与作品的正常利用相冲突”,“不应不合理地损害权利持有人的正当利益”,根据不同种类的知识产权,表述略有差异,但基本结构都是一致的。事实上,这些条文的模板都是《伯尔尼公约》第九条第二款。
    46 如中国为了适应加入WTO的需要,分别于2000年和2001年修改了《著作权法》、《专利法》和《商标法》,在《著作权法》中缩小了合理使用的范围,在《专利法》中提高了强制许可的门槛,等等。
    47 按照本文对于法律法规的统一表述,《美国版权法》第110(5)节应表述为《美国版权法》第一百一十条第五项。但为了行文的简洁,在该案中,直接将其写为《美国版权法》第110(5)节,这与通常文献中的表述也是一致的,下同。
    48 United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel, WT/DS 160/R, Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, Report of the Panel, WT/DS114/R. 关于该两案例较详细的中文介绍,可以参见王火灿编著:《WTO与知识产权争端》,上海人民出版社2001年版。在案情介绍方面,本文以专家组报告原文(英文)为基础,但借鉴了该书中某些表述,以下不再一一说明。
    49 European Communities-Protection of Trademarks and Geographical Indications for Agricultural Products and Foodstuffs, Report of the Panel, WT/DS174/R.
    50 冯洁菡:《公共健康危机、药品的可及性及其平行进口》,载《法律适用》2004年第12期。在撒哈拉以南的非洲,仅2005年一年就有240万成年人和儿童死于爱滋病。See James Thuo Gathii, How Necessity May Preclude State Responsibility For Compulsory Licensing Under The TRIPS Agreement, 31 N.C.J. Int'l L. & Com. Reg. 943, 957(2006).
    51 周俊强:《与公共健康危机有关的知识产权国际保护》,载《中国法学》2005年第1期。
    52 周俊强:《与公共健康危机有关的知识产权国际保护》,载《中国法学》2005年第1期。
    53 尽管造成公共健康危机的原因很多,但对发展中国家来说,得不到相应的药品以及药品价格的昂贵是其中重要的原因。See Frederick M. Abbott, Compulsory Licensing for Public Health: A Guide and Model Documents for Implementation of the Doha Declaration Paragraph 6 Decision. World Bank Publications, 2005, p 1.
    54 Doha WTO Ministerial, Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, Adopted On 14 November 2001,WT/MIN(01)/DEC/2.另可参见贺小勇:《WTO<多哈宣言>“第6条款问题”之研析》,载《法学评论》2004年第6期。
    55 Decision of the General Council 30 August 2003, Implementation of Paragraph 6 of the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health,WT/L/540.另可参见贺小勇:《WTO<多哈宣言>“第6条款问题”之研析》,载《法学评论》2004年第6期。
    56 Implementation of Paragraph 11 of the General Council Decesion of 30 August 2003 on the Implementation of Paragraph 6 of the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health: proposal for a Decision on an Amendment to the TRIPS Agreement, (IP/C/41, 6 December 2005).
    57 张乃根:《试析TRIPS协定第31条修正案及其重大意义》,《世界贸易组织动态与研究》,2006年第5期。
    58 对于这种使用的名称有多种,但相比而言,称为“专利的合理使用”还是比较合适的,它与版权和商标合理使用的特征是一致的。在国外文献中,也有学者持类似的观点,可参阅Richard A. Posner, Do We Have Too Many Intellectual Property Rights? 9 Marq. Intell. Prop. L. Rev. 173, 175(2005)。本文下面章节中所称的“专利权例外”和“专利权的合理使用”是在相同含义上使用的。
    59 根据TRIPS协定第九条,WTO成员应当遵守《伯尔尼公约》附件。
    60 Darren E. Donnelly, Parallel Trade And International Harmonization of The Exhaustion of Rights Doctrine, 13 Santa Clara Computer & High Tech. L.J. 445, 447(1997).
    61 也有人将“平行进口”称为“灰色市场”,但是美国第三巡回区法院在Weil Ceramics & Glass,Inc.v.Dash案中同意“灰色市场”的称呼可能有失公正,法院指出,“被告认为‘灰色市场’的称呼可能不公正地暗示这是由进口商从事的邪恶(nefarious)的事业,更准确的称呼是‘平行进口’。我们同意‘平行进口’是更准确和更好的术语,因为它防止了引起偏见的暗示。”See Robert A. Caplen, Recent Trends Underscoring International Trade Commission Review of Initial Determinations And Federal Circuit Appeals From Final Commission Determinations Under Section 337 of The Tariff Act of 1930, 17 Fordham Intell. Prop. Media & Ent. L.J. 337, n237(2007).
    62 Joseph Kohler, Recht Des Markenschutzes (1884).
    63 See Thomas Hiebert, Parallel Importation in U.S. Trademark Law, Greenwood Press, 1994, p29.
    64 Entscheidungen des Reichsgerichts in Zivilsachen [RGZ] 50, 229 (F.R.G.). See also Carl Baudenbacher, Trademark Law and Parallel Imports in a Globalized World—Recent Developments in Europe with Special Regard to the Legal Situation in The United States, 22 Fordham Int'l L.J. 645, 659-660(1999).
    65 Carl Baudenbacher, Trademark Law and Parallel Imports in a Globalized World—Recent Developments in Europe with Special Regard to the Legal Situation in The United States, 22 Fordham Int'l L.J. 645, 659-660(1999).
    66 Sebastian Int'l, Inc. v. Consumer Contacts (PTY) Ltd., 847 F.2d 1093, 1096 (3d Cir. 1988).
    67 相关的案例可见本文第五章第二节。
    68 See The Statute of Monopolies, An Act concerning Monopolies, and Dispensation with penal laws, etc. Jac. I., c. 3. s6. available at http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/lipa/patents/English_Statute1623.pdf(last visited 2007-3-4)
    69 Jay Dratler, Jr, Alice in Wonderland Meets the U.S. Patent System, 38 Akron L. Rev.299,302 (2005)
    70 Case COMP/C-3/37.792, Microsoft, Commission Decision of 24 Mar 2004, available at http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/competition/antitrust/cases/decisions/37792/en.pdf (last visited 2007-3-10)
    71 在此需要指出,为了突出研究重点,本文在第三章、第四章、第五章分别对国际贸易中最重要的知识产权即专利权、商标权、版权进行了较为系统的研究。但从国际贸易中知识产权的种类来说,并不仅限于这三种知识产权,如TRIPS协定第三十九条规定的“未公开信息”等,也存在进行限制的问题;此外,考虑到TRIPS协定第二十六条第二款与第三十条的类似性,也不另作专门研究,而着重研究TRIPS协定第三十条;在版权与相关权领域;则着重研究版权。总之,本文力图做到研究的系统性,但又考虑突出重点。
    1 虽然西方学者对于专利制度的起源作了大量的研究,但至今对于专利的起源仍有很多值得探索的空间和不十分清楚的地方。参见汤宗舜:《专利法教程》,法律出版社2003年版,第7页。另可参见Adam Mossoff, Rethinking the Development of Patents: An Intellectual History 1550-1800, 52 Hastings L. J. 1255, 1259-66(2001).
    2 曾海帆编著:《专利制度发展简史》,湖南省专利管理局和湖南省科技情报研究所,1985年,第1页。
    3 (日)吉藤幸朔:《专利法概论》,宋永林、魏启学译,专利文献出版社1990年6月第1版,第17页。
    4 Ikechi Mgbeoji, The "Terminator" Patent and Its Discontents: Rethinking the Normative Deficit in Utility Test of Modern Patent Law, 17 St. Thomas L. Rev. 95, 104(2004).
    5 参见(日)吉藤幸朔:《专利法概论》,宋永林、魏启学译,专利文献出版社1990年6月第1版,第17页。
    6 See generally Frank Prager, Brunelleschi's Patent, 28 J. Patent Office Soc'y 109 (1946); Gustina Scaglia, Brunelleschi: Studies of His Technology and Inventions (Cambridge Press 1970), also see Ikechi Mgbeoji, The "Terminator" Patent and Its Discontents: Rethinking the Normative Deficit in Utility Test of Modern Patent Law, 17 St. Thomas L. Rev. 95, 104-105(2004).
    7 Ikechi Mgbeoji, The "Terminator" Patent and Its Discontents: Rethinking the Normative Deficit in Utility Test of Modern Patent Law, 17 St. Thomas L. Rev. 95,105(2004).
    8 〔日〕吉藤幸朔:《专利法概论》,宋永林、魏启学译,专利文献出版社1990年6月第1版,第17页。
    9 "Every person who shall build any new and ingenious device in this City, not previously made in our Commonwealth, shall give notice of it to the office of our General Welfare Board when it has been reduced to perfection so that it can be used and operated. It being forbidden to every other person in any of our territories and towns to make any further device conforming with and similar to said one, without the consent and license of the author, for the term of ten years. And if anybody builds it in violation hereof, the aforesaid author and inventor shall be entitled to have him summoned before any magistrate the said infringer shall be constrained to pay him [one] hundred ducats; and the device shall be destroyed at once." 1 Steven P. Ladas, Patents, Trademarks, and Related Rights: National and International Protection, 1975, pp6-7.
    10 〔日〕吉藤幸朔:《专利法概论》,宋永林、魏启学译,专利文献出版社1990年6月第1版,第17页。
    11 〔日〕吉藤幸朔:《专利法概论》,宋永林、魏启学译,专利文献出版社1990年6月第1版,第17页。
    12 曾海帆编著:《专利制度发展简史》,湖南省专利管理局和湖南省科技情报研究所1985年版,第4页。
    13 汤宗舜:《专利法教程》,法律出版社2003年版,第8页。
    14 The Statute of Monopolies, AnAct concerning Monopolies, and Dispensation with penal laws, etc. Jac. I., c. 3. available at http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/lipa/patents/English_Statute1623.pdf (last visited 2007-3-4).
    15 "Provided also, and be it declared and enacted, that any Declaration before-mentioned shall not extend to any Letters Patents and Grants of Privilege for the Term of fourteen Years or under, hereafter to be made, of the sole Working or Making of any manner of new Manufactures within this Realm, to the true and first Inventor and Inventors of such Manufactures, which others at the Time of Making such Letters Patents and Grants shall not use, so as also they be not contrary to the Law, nor mischievous to the State, by raising Prices of Commodities at home, or Hurt of Trade, or generally inconvenient; the said fourteen Years to be accounted from the Date of the first Letters Patents, or Grant of such Privilege, hereafter to be made, but that the same shall be of such Force as they should be, if this Act had never been made, and of none other." Jac. I., c. 3. s6, available at http://ipmall.info/hosted_resources/lipa/patents/English_Statute1623.pdf (last visited 2007-3-4).
    16 也有学者将“垄断法案”称为“专卖条例”或“垄断条例”。1852年该“专卖条例”作了较大的修改,简化了专利申请手续。〔日〕吉藤幸朔:《专利法概论》,宋永林、魏启学译,北京:专利文献出版社1990年6月第1版,第20页。
    17 Curtis Cook, Patents, Profits and Power: How Intellectual Property Rules The Global Economy. Connecticut: Kogan Page, 2002, p 1.
    18 J.W.Gordon, Compulsory Licenses, London: Stevens and Sons Ltd, 1899, p 165. 转引自林秀芹:《TRIPS协议第31条研究》,厦门大学学位论文,2003年。
    19 Robert Patrick Merges, Patent Law and Policy(2d ed. 1997). 转引自王奕:《我国专利强制许可问题之研究》,中国政法大学学位论文,2005年。
    20 参见[德]M·雷炳德:《著作权法》,张恩民译,法律出版社2005年版,第16页。
    21 [德]M·雷炳德:《著作权法》,张恩民译,法律出版社2005年版,第16页。另可参见Holger Postel, The Fair Use Doctrine In The U. S. American Copyright Act And Similar Regulations In The German Law, 5 Chi.-Kent J. Intell. Prop 142 (2006).
    22 郑成思:《知识产权论》,法律出版社2003年版,第22页。
    23 Catherine Seville, Literary Copyright Reform in Early Victorian England: The Framing of the 1842 Copyright Act. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999, p3.
    24 [英]G·昂温,P·S·昂温:《外国出版史》,陈生铮译,中国书籍出版社1988年版,第17页。
    25 徐言:《中英两国早期版权保护的比较研究》,载郑胜利主编:《北大知识产权评论》第2卷,法律出版社2004年版,第186页。
    26 [英]G·昂温,P·S·昂温:《外国出版史》,陈生铮译,中国书籍出版社1988年版,第17页。
    27 See Catherine Seville, Literary Copyright Reform in Early Victorian England: The Framing of the 1842 Copyright Act. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999, p 3.
    28 See Catherine Seville, Literary Copyright Reform in Early Victorian England: The Framing of the 1842 Copyright Act. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999, p 3.
    29 世界知识产权组织编著:《知识产权纵横谈》,张寅虎等译,世界知识出版社1992年版,第26页。
    30 Catherine Seville, Literary Copyright Reform in Early Victorian England: The Framing of the 1842 Copyright Act. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999, p 3.
    31 沈仁干、钟颖科:《著作权法概论》,商务印书馆2003年版,第54页。
    32 由于翻译的原因,国内学者著述有的称其为《安娜法》,如郑成思:《知识产权论》,法律出版社2003年版;有的称其为《安娜法令》,如沈仁干、钟颖科:《著作权法概论》,商务印书馆2003年版。
    33 The Statute of Anne, "An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by Vesting the Copies of Printed Books in the Authors or Purchasers of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned." 8 Ann., ch. 19 (1710), available at http://www.copyrighthistory.com/anne.html. (last visited 2007-3-4).
    34 The Statute of Anne, "An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by Vesting the Copies of Printed Books in the Authors or Purchasers of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned." 8 Ann., ch. 19 (1710), available at http://www.copyrighthistory.com/anne.html. (last visited 2007-3-4).
    35 L.Ray Patterson & Stanley W. Lindberg, The Nature of Copyright: A Law of Users' Rights, Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1991, p29.
    36 See L. Ray Patterson & Stanley W. Lindberg, The Nature of Copyright: A Law of Users' Rights, Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1991, p30.
    37 Gyles v. Wilcox, [1740]27 Eng. Rep. 682(Ch. ).
    38 吴汉东:《著作权合理使用制度研究》,中国政法大学出版社1996年版,第14页。
    39 事实上,在英国早期的版权立法活动中,也有人(Talfourd)很有远见地提出了成文法的“合理使用”条款,但没有成功。See Catherine Seville, Literary Copyright Reform in Early Victorian England: The Framing of the 1842 Copyright Act. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999, p221.
    40 Curtis Cook, Patents, Profits and Power: How Intellectual Property Rules The Global Economy. Connecticut: Kogan Page, 2002, p 45.
    41 万鄂湘主编:《国际知识产权法》,湖北人民出版社2001年版,第354页。
    42 世界知识产权组织编著:《知识产权纵横谈》,张寅虎等译,世界知识出版社1992年版, 第23页。
    43 郑成思:《知识产权论》,法律出版社2003年版,第9页。
    44 世界知识产权组织编著:《知识产权纵横谈》,张寅虎等译,世界知识出版社1992年版,第23页。
    45 Curtis Cook, Patents, Profits and Power: How Intellectual Property Rules The Global Economy. Connecticut: Kogan Page, 2002, pp15-16.
    46 例如,在版权领域,意大利于1843年分别与奥地利和法国签订了双边保护协定,法国也于19世纪中叶分别与英国、比利时等20多个国家签订了双边保护协定。据统计,到1886年《保护文学艺术作品伯尔尼公约》缔结之前,这种双边协定在欧洲已达30多个,在一定程度上暂时满足了两个国家之间相互保护版权、促进知识产品输出的需要。参见古祖雪:《国际知识产权法》,法律出版社2002年版,第28页。或者参见Daniel J. Gervais, The Internationalization of Intellectual Property: New Challenges from the Very Old and the Very New, 12 Fordham Intell. Prop. Media & Ent. L.J. 929, 934(2002)
    47 Arpad Bogsch, Brief History of the First 25 Years of the World Intellectual Property Organization, the International Bureau of Intellectual Property, Geneva, 1992, p31.
    48 《世界版权公约》是由联合国教科文组织管理的,但从条约的数量和影响力而言,将国际知识产权的保护认定为两条主线而不是三条,是合理的。关于国际性知识产权组织,可以参见G. Bruce Doern, Global Change and Intellectual Property Agencies: An Institutional Perspective, in Science, Technology, and the International Political Economy, Pinter, 1999.
    49 万鄂湘主编:《国际知识产权法》,湖北人民出版社2001年版,第15—16页。
    50 http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ (2007-3-1) (stating that "all 24 treaties administered by WIPO and the WIPO Convention")
    51 http://www.wipo.int/members/en/member_states.jsp (2007-3-1)
    52 See Daniel Gervais, The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History and Analysis, London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1998.
    53 如无特别说明,本文中的TRIPS协定的中文译本均采自国家知识产权条法司编:《最新专利国际条约汇编》(上),知识产权出版社2002年版,第136-174页,译校者为汤宗舜,下同。
    54 分别是“总则和基本原则”(第一部分)、“关于知识产权的备有、范围和使用的标准”(第二部分)、“知识产权执法”(第三部分)和“知识产权的获得和维持及有关的当事人间程序”(第四部分)。
    55 张乃根主编:《新编国际经济法导论》,复旦大学出版社2002年版,第256页。
    56 Paul Salmon, Cooperation between The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and The World Trade Organization (WTO), 17 St. John's J. Legal Comment. 429, 434(2003).
    57 Paul Salmon, Cooperation between The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and The World Trade Organization (WTO), 17 St. John's J. Legal Comment. 429, 434(2003).
    58 http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ShowResults.jsp?lang=en&treaty_id=15. (2007年3月3日)
    59 Paul Salmon, Cooperation between The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and The World Trade Organization (WTO), 17 St. John's J. Legal Comment. 429, 434(2003).
    60 http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ShowResults.jsp?lang=en&treaty_id=2. (2007年3月3日)
    61 See Daniel Gervais, The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History and Analysis, London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1998, pp25-26.
    62 以下如无特别指明,伯尔尼公约即指伯尔尼公约(1971)。本文所采用的中文译本是WIPO公布的伯尔尼公约(1971)中文本,参见http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/treaties/zh/docs/berne.doc(最后查阅时间2007年3月3日)
    63 该部分对于伯尔尼公约有关条款内容的描述是概括性的,加入了笔者自己的理解,不完全是直接引用WIPO公布的中文本。
    64 本文所采用的《罗马公约》中文译本是WIPO公布的《罗马公约》中文本,参见http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/treaties/zh/docs/rome.doc(最后查阅时间2007年3月3日)
    65 参见郑成思:《版权法》,中国人民大学出版社1997年版,第413页。
    66 本译文基本采用了国家知识产权条法司编:《最新专利国际条约汇编》(上)中的译文,但将原译文中的“合法”改为“正当”,下同。
    67 See Daniel Gervais, The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History and Analysis, London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1998, p112.
    68 以下如无特别指明,《巴黎公约》即指《巴黎公约》(1967)。本文所采用的中文译本是WIPO公布的《巴黎公约》(1967)中文本,参见http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/treaties/zh/docs/paris.doc(最后查阅时间2007年3月3日)
    69 1857年的布朗诉达志公司一案被认为是关于临时过境限制的最早案例之一。在该案中,美国专利权人控告停在波士顿港口的一法国商船侵犯其专利权。美国最高法院认为,尽管从原则上说,进入了一国境内就应该遵守东道国的法律,但是,在这个临时过境的船上使用专利技术,对美国专利权人来说,造成的损失是微乎其微的,而且,判定专利侵权可能会给美国对外关系造成不良影响。因此,美国最高法院判定专利侵权不成立。参见程永顺、罗李华:《专利侵权判定——中美法律与案例比较研究》,专利文献出版社1998年版,第295页。
    70 程永顺、罗李华:《专利侵权判定——中美法律与案例比较研究》,专利文献出版社1998 年版,第295页。
    71 刘剑文:《TRIPS视野下中国知识产权制度研究》,人民出版社2003年版,第247页。
    72 本译文基本采用了国家知识产权条法司编:《最新专利国际条约汇编》(上)中的译文,但将原译文中的“合法”改为“正当”,下同。原因见本文第三章第一节。
    73 《巴黎公约》第五条A款第(二)项。
    74 《巴黎公约》第五条A款第(三)项。
    75 《巴黎公约》第五条A款第(四)项。
    76 See Peter Burger, The Berne Convention: Its History and Its Key Role in the Future, 3 J. L. & Tech. 1 (1988).
    77 See WIPO GLOSSARY OF THE TERMS OF THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT AND NEIGHBORING RIGHTS 243, 1980 (World Intellectual Property Organization, 1980).
    78 TRIPS协定第三十一条(b)项和(f)项分别是关于专利强制许可适用的前提条件限制和市场地域限制。
    1 参见刘春茂主编:《中国民法学·知识产权》,中国人民公安大学出版社1997年版,第7页;张俊浩主编:《民法学原理》,中国政法大学出版社1997年版,第461页;彭万林主编:《民法学》,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第379页。
    2 参见吴汉东、胡开忠:《无形财产权制度研究》,法律出版社2001年版。
    3 参见刘春田:《知识财产权解析》,载《中国社会科学》2003年第4期。
    4 TRIPS协定序言第4段要求世贸组织成员承认“知识产权为私权”。有的学者认为,这是在知识产权国际公约中,“第一次明确界定了知识产权的本质属性,即以私权名义强调知识财产私有的法律形式。这一规定不仅说明了知识产权在私法领域中的地位,而且厘清了知识产权与相关法律制度的差异。”吴汉东:《知识产权的私权与人权属性》,载《法学研究》2003年第3期。
    5 参见第一章第一节。
    6 事实上,所有权也有其发展和演化过程。摩尔根在《古代社会》中指出:“财产的观念在人类心灵中是慢慢形成的,它在漫长的岁月中一直处于初萌的薄弱状态。它萌芽于蒙昧阶段,并需要这个阶段和继起的野蛮阶段的一切经验来助长它,使人的头脑有所准备,以便于接受这种观念的操纵。对财产的欲望超乎其他一切欲望之上,这就是文明伊始的标志。”参见摩尔根:《古代社会》(上册),商务印书馆1995年版,第6页。
    7 周枬:《罗马法原论》,商务印书馆1994年版,第276页。
    8 优士丁尼:《法学阶梯》,徐国栋译,中国政法大学出版社1999年版,第127页。
    9 在优士丁尼的《法学阶梯》中,与我们现在认为的知识产权能挂上钩的是这样一段话:“字母,就算是用金子写成,也添附于纸和羊皮纸,完全如同被建造的房屋和被播种的植物通常添附于土地一样。因此,如果蒂丘斯在你的纸或羊皮纸上写了一首诗,一段历史或一篇演说,对这一整体,不是蒂丘斯,而是你将被判定为所有人。但如果你对蒂丘斯要求你的书卷或羊皮纸,也不打算偿付书写的费用,蒂丘斯当然可借助于恶意诈欺的抗辩保护自己,只要他是善意地获得了这些纸或羊皮纸的占有。”这里,似乎有那么一点保护创作者利益的影子,但仅仅是影子而已。
    10 洛克:《政府论》(下篇),叶启芳、藿菊农译,商务印书馆1964年版,第6页。
    11 洛克:《政府论》(下篇),叶启芳、藿菊农译,商务印书馆1964年版,第19页。
    12 易继明:《评财产权劳动学说》,《法学研究》2000年第3期。
    13 Justin Hughes, The Philosophy of Intellectual Property, 77 Geo. L.J. 287, 331(1988).
    14 张乃根:《西方法哲学史纲》,中国政法大学出版社1993年版,第148页。
    15 [美]E.博登海默:《法理学:法律哲学与法律方法》,邓正来译,中国政法大学出版社1999版,第80-81页。
    16 黑格尔:《法哲学原理》,范扬、张企泰译,商务印书馆1961年版,第76页。
    17 姚岷:《黑格尔法哲学中的知识产权思想》,载《电子知识产权》2003年第6期,第61页。
    18 [美]E.博登海默:《法理学:法律哲学与法律方法》,邓正来译,中国政法大学出版社1999版,第82页。
    19 参见黑格尔:《法哲学原理》,范扬、张企泰译,商务印书馆1961年版,第54-55页。
    20 黑格尔:《法哲学原理》,范扬、张企泰译,商务印书馆1961年版,第50页。
    21 李扬、肖志远等:《知识产权基础理论和前沿问题》,法律出版社2004年版,第65页。
    22 黑格尔:《法哲学原理》,范扬、张企泰译,商务印书馆1961年版,第76页。
    23 黑格尔:《法哲学原理》,范扬、张企泰译,商务印书馆1961年版,第51页。
    24 黑格尔:《法哲学原理》,范扬、张企泰译,商务印书馆1961年版,第51-52页。
    25 黑格尔:《法哲学原理》,范扬、张企泰译,商务印书馆1961年版,第77页。
    26 Garrett Hardin, The Tragedy of the Commons, 162 Science 1243 (1968).
    27 [美]罗伯特·考特,托马斯·尤伦:《法和经济学》,张军等译,上海三联书店和上海人民出版社1994年版,第252—255页。
    28 参见张乃根:《法经济学——经济学视野里的法律现象》,中国政法大学出版社2003年版,第323页。
    29 这里的“私人”和“公共”与所有权理论中的“私有”和“公有”是不同的概念。前者是根据物品使用性质作为分类标准,而后者是以所有权的主体为标准进行的分类。
    30 梁小民编著:《微观经济学》,中国社会科学出版社1996版,第505页。
    31 梁小民编著:《微观经济学》,中国社会科学出版社1996版,第505页。
    32 梁小民编著:《微观经济学》,中国社会科学出版社1996版,第505-506页。
    33 UNCTAD secretariat, The TRIPS Agreement and Developing Countries, 1996, p13.
    34 See Edwin C. Hettinger, Justifying Intellectual Property, 18 Phil. & Pub. Aff. 31, 34 (1989).
    35 托马斯·杰斐逊:《杰斐逊选集》,朱曾汶译,商务印书馆版1999年版,第598页。亦可参阅John Tehranian, All Rights Reserved? Reassessing Copyright And Patent Enforcement In The Digital Age, 72 U. Cin. L. Rev. 45(2003).
    36 黑格尔:《法哲学原理》,范扬、张企泰译,商务印书馆1961年版,第76页。
    37 See Peter Drahos, The Regulation of Public Goods, 7 J. Int'l Econ. L. 321, 324-25 (2004). 当然也有学者持反对意见,See Adam D. Moore, Intellectual Property, Innovation, and Social Progress: The Case Against Incentive Based Arguments, 26 Hamline L. Rev. 601, 603 (2003).
    38 转引自金海军:《知识产权私权论》,中国人民大学出版社2004年版,第37页。
    39 参见吴汉东:《知识产权的私权与人权属性》,载《法学研究》2003年第3期。
    40 See James Boyle, A Manifesto On WIPO And The Future Of Intellectual Property, Duke L. & Tech. Rev. 9(2004).
    41 李玉香:《知识产权权利限制制度的法律完善》,载《人民司法》2004年第6期。
    42 吴汉东:《关于知识产权私权属性的再认识——兼评“知识产权公权化”理论》,载《社会科学》2005年第10期。
    43 康德:《法的形而上学原理——权利的科学》,沈叔平译,商务印书馆1991年版,第40页。
    44 康德:《法的形而上学原理——权利的科学》,沈叔平译,商务印书馆1991年版,第40页。
    45 [美]E.博登海默:《法理学:法律哲学与法律方法》,邓正来译,中国政法大学出版社1999版,第281页。
    46 [美]E.博登海默:《法理学:法律哲学与法律方法》,邓正来译,中国政法大学出版社1999版,第281-282页。
    47 程萍:《财产所有权的保护与限制》,中国人民公安大学出版社2006年版,前言第2页。我认为可以这样理解:所有权是法律赋予的,而法律是社会共同体的公意,法律不应允许个人利益高于社会利益,故而可以对所有权进行适当的限制,但这种限制必须有利于更有效地利用财产。
    48 1791年的法国专利法是个例外。根据1791年1月7日颁布的法国专利法,“每一个新的思想,如果其实现或发展对社会有用,那么就基本上属于构思它的人,在本质上,如果工业发明不被认为是其创造者的财产的话,那么就是对人权的违反。”Meir Perez Pugatch, Edward Elagar (ed.), The Intellectual Property Debate, 2006, p.3. Also See Frank D. Prager, A History of Intellectual Property From 1545 to 1787, 26 J. Pat. Off. Soc'y 711, 756-57 (1944).不过,四年以后,法国改变了它对于知识产权的自然法观点,而且,“也没有其他国家支持这个观点,即认为发明者对于他或她的发明具有自然的、内在的所有权。”Edward C. Walterscheid, The Nature of the Intellectual Property Clause: A Study In Historical Perspective (Part 1), 83 J. Pat. & Trademark Off. Soc'y 763, n44 (2001).
    49 参见联合国经济和社会事务部、贸发会议秘书处和世界知识产权组织国际局:《专利制度的作用——专利制度在向发展中国家转让技术中的作用》,中国对外翻译出版公司第二编译室译,中国对外翻译出版公司1985年版,第91-92页。
    50 参见联合国经济和社会事务部、贸发会议秘书处和世界知识产权组织国际局:《专利制度的作用——专利制度在向发展中国家转让技术中的作用》,中国对外翻译出版公司第二编译室译,中国对外翻译出版公司1985年版,第91-92页。
    51 UNCTAD secretariat, The TRIPS Agreement and Developing Countries, 1996, p13.
    52 See Michael W. Carroll, One For All: The Problem of Uniformity Cost in Intellectual Property Law, 55 Am. U. L. Rev. 845, 851(2006).
    53 [美]罗伯特·考特、托马斯·尤伦:《法和经济学》,张军等译,上海三联书店和上海人民出版社1994年版,第185页。亦可参阅Mark A. Lemley, Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding, 83 Tex. L. Rev. 1031 (2005).
    54 竞争法有狭义和广义之分,狭义上的竞争法主要是指反垄断法,广义上的竞争法除反垄断法以外,还包括反不正当竞争法。本文是在狭义上使用竞争法这个概念的。
    55 Jay Dratler, Jr, Alice in Wonderland Meets the U.S. Patent System, 38 Akron L. Rev. p302
    56 但是,在这方面,专利是最为典型的,反垄断法主要针对的也是专利领域的反竞争行为。当然,版权和商标领域垄断的可能也是存在的,例如,对于版权集体管理组织的行为,就常常为竞争法所关注。再如,微软垄断案也与版权相关。
    57 日本《禁止私人垄断及确保公正交易法》,载尚明主编:《主要国家(地区)反垄断法律汇编》,法律出版社2004年版,第439页。
    58 http://www.h2o-china.com/news/40455.html. (2006年11月19日)
    59 有关案例的介绍和评析,可以参见王先林:《知识产权与反垄断法:知识产权滥用的反垄断问题研究》,法律出版社2001年版。
    60 [美]罗伯特·考特、托马斯·尤伦:《法和经济学》,张军等译,上海三联书店和上海人民出版社1994年版。
    61 Edward G. Biester Ⅲ, Ground Rules and Hot Topics in Antitrust and Intellectual Property, 228-JUN N.J. Law. 18,19(2004).
    62 秦冬青:《知识产权滥用的反垄断法规制》,吉林大学学位论文,2005年。
    63 This guidelines are available at www.usdoj.gov/atr/public/guidelines/ipguide.htm. 中文参见《美国知识产权许可反托拉斯指南》,载尚明主编:《主要国家(地区)反垄断法律汇编》,法律出版社2004年版,第250-281页。下同。
    64 《美国知识产权许可反托拉斯指南》,载尚明主编:《主要国家(地区)反垄断法律汇编》,法律出版社2004年版,第254页。
    65 《美国知识产权许可反托拉斯指南》,载尚明主编:《主要国家(地区)反垄断法律汇编》,法律出版社2004年版,第254页。
    66 古祖雪:《论国际技术贸易中的知识产权限制》,载《电子知识产权》2005年第5期。
    67 Frederick M. Abbott, Are The Competition Rules in The WTO TRIPS Agreement Adequate? 7 J. Int'l Econ. L. 687, 688(2004).
    68 Document MTN, GNG/NG11/W/45 dated October 27, 1989. 转引自孔祥俊:《WTO知识产权协定及其国内适用》,法律出版社2002年版,第340页。
    69 Communication from India of 10 July 1989 MTN. GNG./NG11/W/37 sub. 2 and Ⅵ.
    70 Frederick M. Abbott, Are The Competition Rules in The WTO TRIPS Agreement Adequate? 7 J. Int'l Econ. L. 687, 692(2004).
    71 See Frederick M. Abbott, Are The Competition Rules in The WTO TRIPS Agreement Adequate? 7 J. Int'l Econ. L. 687, 688(2004).
    72 《技术进出口管理条例》第二十九条规定:技术进口合同中,不得含有下列限制性条款:(一)要求受让人接受并非技术进口必不可少的附带条件,包括购买非必需的技术、原材料、产品、设备或者服务;(二)要求受让人为专利权有效期限届满或者专利权被宣布无效的技术支付使用费或者承担相关义务;(三)限制受让人改进让与人提供的技术或者限制受让人使用所改进的技术;(四)限制受让人从其他来源获得与让与人提供的技术类似的技术或者与其竞争的技术;(五)不合理地限制受让人购买原材料、零部件、产品或者设备的渠道或者来源;(六)不合理地限制受让人产品的生产数量、品种或者销售价格。(七)不合理地限制受让人利用进口的技术生产产品的出口渠道。
    73 《德国反对限制竞争法》,载尚明主编:《主要国家(地区)反垄断法律汇编》,法律出版社2004年版,第10页。
    74 Edward G. Biester Ⅲ, Ground Rules and Hot Topics in Antitrust and Intellectual Property, 228-JUN N.J. Law. 18, 19(2004).
    75 王先林:《知识产权与反垄断法:知识产权滥用的反垄断问题研究》,法律出版社2001年版,第112页。
    76 《美国知识产权许可反托拉斯指南》,载尚明主编:《主要国家(地区)反垄断法律汇编》,法律出版社2004年版,第253页。但也有学者对此持保留态度,他们指出,对将国内竞争法中的有关原则、规则直接运用到国际竞争法中,或者直接以国内竞争法来处理以国际为背景的竞争法与知识产权的关系,是并不必然合适的。就国内竞争法而言,其竞争政策的制定以严格的经济学论证为前提。根据经济学理论,不完全竞争(包括完全垄断)的市场结构与完全竞争的市场结构相比,效率会受到损失。那么国际背景下的竞争法能否直接套用此分析模式呢?《公共政策与全球技术一体化》的作者提醒读者,在进行社会成本收益分析时,前提是有一个界限明确的社会,否则就谈不上社会成本收益分析。新古典经济学在推导各种市场结构对效率及社会福利的影响时,前提是存在一个界限明确的“社会”。这在具有统一市场的现代国家中,本来是不存在大问题的。然而,一旦范围越出一国国界,情形就马上发生变化。参见Frederick M. Abbott & David J. Gerber, Public Policy and Global Technological Integration, Kluwer Law International, 1997.
    77 参见乔生、陶绪翔:《我国限制知识产权滥用的法律思考》,载《现代法学》2005年第1期。
    78 例如,可以参见刘茂林:《知识产权法的经济分析》,法律出版社1996年版,第144-165页。
    79 以前,技术的因素也被认为是工业革命的根本原因,但已有不少学者对此提出批评意见,如著名史学家费尔南·布罗代尔指出,“技术的因素曾被认为是工业革命关键的关键,如今已经威望大跌……晚近的历史学家拥有扎实的论据,不再认为技术是工业革命的‘原动力’,甚至也不保尔·贝洛什所说的‘导火线’。然而发明一般总是走在工业能力的前面, 也正因为如此,发明往往落空。实际技术应用就其定义而言落后于经济生活的一般运动;它必须等待有明确的、坚决的需要,经过再三请求,然后才介入经济生活。”[法]费尔南·布罗代尔:《15至18世纪的物质文明、经济和资本主义》(第3卷),施康强、顾良译,生活·读书·新知三联书店2002年版,第656页。
    80 郑成思:《知识产权论》,法律出版社2003年版,第6页。
    81 Paul Goldstein, International Copyright: Principles, Law, and Practice, New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, p5.
    82 Paul Goldstein, International Copyright: Principles, Law, and Practice. Oxford University Press, 2001, p5.
    83 Catherine Seville, Literary Copyright Reform in Early Victorian England: The Framing of the 1842 Copyright Act. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999, p 3.
    84 The Statute of Anne, "An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by Vesting the Copies of Printed Books in the Authors or Purchasers of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned." 8 Ann., ch. 19 (1710), available at http://www.copyrighthistory.com/anne.html. (last visited 2007-3-4).
    85 翻译成白话文,即为“我确实是想著成此书,把它珍藏在名山,把它传给志同道合的人,让它在通都大邑之间流传。”
    86 李祖明:《互联网上的版权保护与限制》,经济日报出版社2003年版,第134-135页。
    87 曾陈明汝:《商标法原理》,中国人民大学出版社2003年版,第4页。
    88 曾陈明汝:《商标法原理》,中国人民大学出版社2003年版,第4页。
    89 Sidney A. Diamond, The Historical Development of Trademarks, 65 TMR 265, 269-70 (1975).
    90 Sidney A. Diamond, The Historical Development of Trademarks, 65 TMR 265, 271-72 (1975).
    91 Thomas D. Drescher, The Transformation And Evolution of Trademarks--From Signals to Symbols to Myth, 82 Trademark Rep. 301, 309(1992).
    92 刘春田主编:《知识产权法》,中国人民大学出版社2000年版,第237页。
    93 M. R. Cornish, Intellectual Property, Sweet & Maxwell, 1996, pp516-517, 转引自刘春田主编:《知识产权法》,中国人民大学出版社2000年版,第237页。
    94 黄晖:《驰名商标和著名商标的法律保护》,法律出版社2001年版,第2页。
    95 正如本章第一节所述,对于知识产权的属性,可以从各个不同角度来进行研究和阐释。本节对于知识产权贸易属性的观点是提供更好地理解知识产权制度本质的一个角度和方向,并不排斥从其他角度对于知识产权属性进行研究和阐释。
    96 Curtis Cook, Patents, Profits and Power: How Intellectual Property Rules The Global Economy. Connecticut: Kogan Page, 2002, p 1.
    97 刘剑文:《TRIPS视野下中国知识产权制度研究》,人民出版社2003年版,第5页。
    98 万鄂湘主编:《国际知识产权法》,湖北人民出版社2001年版,第13页。
    99 相应地,早期的知识产权制度只保护本国公民,如1709年的《安妮法》就只保护国内的出版商,See Caroline T. Nguyen, Expansive Copyright Protection For All Time? Avoiding Article I Horizontal Limitations Through The Treaty Power, 106 Colum. L. Rev. 1079, n1(2006)
    100 Robert C. Bird, Defending Intellectual Property Rights In The Bric Economies, 43 Am. Bus. L.J. 317, 320(2006).
    101 刘剑文:《TRIPS视野下中国知识产权制度研究》,人民出版社2003年版,第5页。
    102 汤宗舜:《知识产权的国际保护》,人民法院出版社1999年版,第32-33页。
    103 汤宗舜:《知识产权的国际保护》,人民法院出版社1999年版,第74页。
    104 Paul Goldstein, International Copyright: Principles, Law, and Practice, New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, p 19.
    105 Paul Goldstein, International Copyright: Principles, Law, and Practice, New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, p 19.
    106 Paul Goldstein, International Copyright: Principles, Law, and Practice, New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, p 19.
    107 例如,1994年颁布并于2004年修订的《中华人民共和国对外贸易法》第二条规定:“本法所称对外贸易,是指货物进出口、技术进出口和国际服务贸易。”同时可以参见张乃根:《国际贸易的知识产权法》,复旦大学出版社1999年版,第34页。
    108 张乃根:《国际贸易的知识产权法》,复旦大学出版社1999年版,第34-41页。
    109 张乃根:《国际贸易的知识产权法》,复旦大学出版社1999年版,第34页。
    110 See Robert J. Gutowski, The Marriage of Intellectual Property and International Trade in the TRIPs Agreement: Strange Bedfellows of a Match Made in Heaven?, 47 Buff. L. Rev. 713 (1999).
    111 参见丁祖瑛:《论知识产权国际保护的新体制》,载《厦门大学学报》(哲社版),1998年第1期。
    112 Robert C. Bird, Defending Intellectual Property Rights In The Bric Economies, American Business Law Journal Summer, 2006, p321
    113 Robert C. Bird, Defending Intellectual Property Rights In The Bric Economies, American Business Law Journal Summer, 2006, p321
    114 古祖雪:《国际知识产权法》,法律出版社2002年版,第37页。
    115 See Susan K.Sell, Private Power, Public Law., USA: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
    116 See Monique L. Cordray, GATT v. WIPO, 76 J. PAT. & TRADEMARK OFE SOC'Y 121 (1994)
    117 Daniel Gervais, The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History and Analysis, London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1998, p11.
    118 Daniel Gervais, The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History and Analysis, London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1998, p12。
    119 Daniel Gervais, The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History and Analysis, London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1998, p13。
    120 See Keith Stolte, OFAC: Hands Off Intellectual Property Rights, 4 J. Intell. Prop. L. 25, 25(1996)
    121 第二次中期审评会后发表的部长宣言所确定的未来的谈判范围显然已经与1986年的“部长宣言”完全不同了,该范围与后来达成的TRIPS协定已经相当接近,参见Daniel Gervais, The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History and Analysis, London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1998, pp13-14。
    122 Robert C. Bird, Defending Intellectual Property Rights In The Bric Economies, 43 Am. Bus. L.J. 317, 322(2006).
    123 Robert C. Bird, Defending Intellectual Property Rights In The Bric Economies, 43 Am. Bus. L.J. 317, 324(2006).
    124 吉维斯用相当的篇幅描绘了“主席草案”修改的细节,足见作者对“主席草案”的作用充分肯定。
    125 See Susan K. Sell, Intellectual Property and Public Policy in Historical Perspective: Contestation and Settlement, 38 Loy. L.A.L. Rev. 267 (2004)
    126 对于国际条约的效力来源,可以有不同的解释。从法律经济学角度,我认为从根本上来说,条约能够得到遵守是因为对缔约国都有利可图,这是条约缔约国遵守条约的经济原因。遵守条约对缔约国产生的利益越大,国家遵守该条约的动力越大,自觉性越高;反之亦然:违反条约对缔约国产生的成本越高,国家违反该条约的阻力越大,违约的可能性越小。
    127 See Peter Drahos, John Braithwaite, Information Feudalism: Who Owns the Knowledge Economy? 2002, p11
    128 See Margaret Chon, Intellectual Property And The Development Divid, 27 Cardozo L. Rev. 2821, 2840 (2006)
    129 参见本文第三章、第四章和第五章对TRIPS协定第十三条、第十七条和第三十条的分析。
    130 参见TRIPS协定第一条第一款,关于“有效实施”义务的详细阐述可参见张乃根:《论TRIPS协议义务》,载《浙江社会科学》2002年第5期。
    131 See Peter K. Yu, Currents And Crosscurrents In The International Intellectual Property Regime, 38 Loy. L.A.L. Rev. 323, 324(2004)
    132 当然,不少发达国家的学者也持这种观点。可以参阅Margaret Chon, Intellectual Property And The Development Divid, 27 Cardozo L. Rev. 2821, 2823(2006).
    133 See, e.g. James Boyle, The Second Enclosure Movement and the Construction of the Public Domain, 66 Law & Contemp. Probs. 33 (2003).
    134 当然,也有学者认为,TRTPS协定既难以建立也难以维持。See Brigtte Binker, Why The Current Global Intellectual Property Framework Under TRIPS Is Not Working, 10 Intell. Prop. L. Bull. 143, 162(2006).
    135 See James Thuo Gathii, How Necessity May Preclude State Responsibility For Compulsory Licensing Under The Trips Agreement, 31 N.C.J. Int'l L. & Com. Reg. 943, 955(2006).
    1 See Ted Hagelin, The Experimental Use Exemption To Patent Infringement: Information On Ice, Competition On Hold, 58 Fla. L. Rev. 483(2006); Steven J. Grossman, Experimental Use or Fair Use as a Defense to Patent Infringement, 30 IDEA 243 (1990).
    2 See Kyla Harriel, Prior User Rights in a First-to-Invent Patent System: Why Not? 36 IDEA 543(1996); Who's On First?--The Trade Secret Prior User or a Subsequent Patentee, 76 J. PAT. & TRADEMARK OFF. SOC'Y 401, (1994).
    3 程永顺、罗李华:《专利侵权判定——中美法律与案例比较研究》,专利文献出版社1998年版,第295页。
    4 刘剑文:《TRIPS视野下中国知识产权制度研究》,人民出版社2003年版,第247页。
    5 Daniel Gervais, The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History and Analysis, London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1998, p158. See also Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, Annex 6. 中文译文引自张乃根:《TRIPS协定:理论与实践》,上海人民出版社2005年版,第167页。
    6 《伯尔尼公约》第九条第二款规定:“本同盟成员国法律得允许在某些特殊情况下复制上述作品,只要这种复制不损害作品的正常使用也不致无故侵害作者的合法利益。”
    7 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, Report of the Panel, WT/DS114/R, para1.1.
    8 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, Report of the Panel, WT/DS114/R, para1.3.
    9 "It is not an infringement of a patent for any person to make, construct, use or sell the patented invention solely for uses reasonably related to the development and submission of information required under any law of Canada, a province or a country other than Canada that regulates the manufacture, construction, use or sale of any product." 该法条的中文译文引自:王火灿编著:《WTO与知识产权争端》,上海人民出版社2001年版,第87页。
    10 "It is not an infringement of a patent for any person who makes, constructs, uses or sells a patented invention in accordance with subsection (1) to make, construct or use the invention, during the applicable period provided for by the regulations, for the manufacture and storage of articles intended for sale after the date on which the term of the patent expires." 该法条的中文译文引自:王火灿编著:《WTO与知识产权争端》,上海人民出版社2001年版,第88页。
    11 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, Report of the Panel, WT/DS114/R, para7.13.
    12 参见余民才等编著:《国际法教学参考书》,中国人民大学出版社2002年版,第376—377页。
    13 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, Report of the Panel, WT/DS114/R, para7.14.
    14 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.14.
    15 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.15.
    16 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.20.
    17 参见Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.21.
    18 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.27.
    19 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products WT/DS114/R, para7.28.
    20 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products WT/DS114/R, para7.28.
    21 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products WT/DS114/R, para7.29.
    22 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products Report of the Panel, para7.29.
    23 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products Report of the Panel, Annex 6.
    24 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products WT/DS114/R, Annex 6, 该草案的中文译文来自张乃根:《TRIPS协定:理论与实践》,上海人民出版社2005年版,第167页。
    25 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, Annex 6.
    26 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, Annex 6.
    27 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, Annex 6.
    28 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.30.
    29 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.30.
    30 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products RWT/DS114/R, para7.31.
    31 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products WT/DS114/R, para7.31, para7.32.
    32 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products WT/DS114/R, para7.34.
    33 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products WT/DS114/R, para7.34.
    34 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products WT/DS114/R, para7.45.
    35 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products WT/DS114/R, para7.50.
    36 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products WT/DS114/R, para7.51.
    37 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products WT/DS114/R, para7.52.
    38 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.53.
    39 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.54.
    40 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.55.
    41 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.56.
    42 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.57.
    43 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.59.
    44 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.63.
    45 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.66.
    46 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.68.
    47 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.69.
    48 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.72.
    49 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.74.
    50 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.77.
    51 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.78.
    52 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.79.
    53 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.82.
    54 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.83.
    55 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.20.
    56 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para7.49
    57 只能认为,在理解的方向是“狭小的例外”,但仅仅提供一种理解的方向而已。
    58 Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, Report of the Panel, WT/DS114/R, para7.68.
    59 《美国专利法》第271.(e).(1)规定:“在美国制造、利用和销售某专利产品,完全是为了合理利用、开发和递交与根据管制药品或兽医生物产品制造、利用或销售的联邦法律有关的信息,则不构成侵权。”这一法律规定被称为“波拉例外”。参见张玉卿主编《WTO法律大辞典》,法律出版社2006年,词条“波拉例外”(胡滨斌撰写、张乃根校)。
    60 同上注词条“波拉例外”。
    61 http://www.sipo.gov.cn/sipo/tz/gz/200608/P020060808327106040484.pdf.
    62 有人把这称为“生命和利润”之争,See Obijiofor Aginam, Between Life And Profit: Global Governance And The Trilogy Of Human Rights, Public Health And Pharmaceutical Patents, 31 N.C.J. Int'l L. & Com. Reg. 901, 903(2006).
    63 即《巴黎公约》第五条A款第一项的内容。
    64 [奥地利]博登浩森:《保护工业产权巴黎公约指南》,汤宗舜、段瑞林译,中国人民大学出版社2003年版,第44页。
    65 [奥地利]博登浩森:《保护工业产权巴黎公约指南》,汤宗舜、段瑞林译,中国人民大学出版社2003年版,第46-47页。
    66 郭寿康、左晓东:《专利强制许可制度的利益平衡》,载《知识产权》2006年第2期。
    67 郭寿康、左晓东:《专利强制许可制度的利益平衡》,载《知识产权》2006年第2期。
    68 郭寿康、左晓东:《专利强制许可制度的利益平衡》,载《知识产权》2006年第2期。
    69 1967年《巴黎公约》斯德哥尔摩文本是目前对绝大多数国家有效的文本。
    70 [奥地利]博登浩森:《保护工业产权巴黎公约指南》,汤宗舜、段瑞林译,中国人民大学出 版社2003年版,第48页。
    71 See Kevin W. McCabe, The January 1999 Review of Article 27 of the TRIPs Agreement: Diverging Views of Developed and Developing Countries Toward the Patentability of Biotechnology, 6 J. Intell. Prop. L. 41, 61 (1998).
    72 郑成思:《WTO知识产权协议逐条讲解》,中国方正出版社2001年版,第116页。
    73 World Trade Organization Doha Declaration on TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, Nov. 20, 2001, WT/MIN(01)/DEC/2.
    74 文希凯:《专利保护与强制许可》,载《知识产权》2003年第3期。
    75 James Thuo Gathii,The Legal Status of the Doha Declaration on TRIPS and Public Health Under the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 15Harv. J. L. & Tech. 291, 316 (2002).
    76 贺小勇:《WTO<多哈宣言>“第6条款问题”之研析》,载《法学评论》2004年第6期。
    77 本文关于WTO《总理事会决议》的中文翻译来自中国国家知识产权局网站对于该决议的翻译,http://www.sipo.gov.cn/sipo/xwdt/gwzscqxx/2003/200608/t20060804_106469.htm (最后查阅时间2007年3月1日)。下同。
    78 张乃根:《试析TRIPS协定第31条修正案及其重大意义》,《世界贸易组织动态与研究》,2006年第5期。
    79 《专利法修订草案》第四十九条第二款规定:“流行病的出现、蔓延导致公共健康危机的,构成前款所述国家紧急状态。预防流行病的出现、控制流行病的蔓延或者医治流行病病人,属于前款所述为了公共利益目的的行为。”这是解决《涉及公共健康问题的专利实施强制许可办法》不足的较好方法。
    80 Josef Kohler, Das Recht des Markenschutzes at 190, 412, 446 (1884), and Gerhard Riele, Markenrecht und Parallelimport 19 (1968).
    81 Entscheidungen des Reichsgerichts in Zivilsachen [RGZ] 50, 229 (F.R.G.). 51 RGZ 139, 140-141 30 ⅡC 495, 497(1999), 转引自王春燕:《贸易中知识产权与物权冲突之解决原则——权利穷竭的含义、理论基础及效力范围》,载《中国人民大学学报》2003年第1期。
    82 宁立志:《知识产权的竞争法限制》,武汉大学学位论文,2005年。
    83 参见尹新天:《专利权的保护》,专利文献出版社1998年版,第86页,另可参见ⅡC Vol.29,No3/1998.at 331-335.
    84 Donald P. Harris, TRIPS' Rebound: An Historical Analysis Of How The TRIPS Agreement Can Ricochet Back Against The United States, 25 Nw. J. Int'l L. & Bus. 99,107(2004).
    85 在这一点上,美国专利法和版权法是不同的。See Tait R. Swanson, Combating Gray Market Goods in A Global Market: Comparative Analysis of Intellectual Property Laws and Recommended Strategies, 22 Hous. J. Int'l L. 327, 342 (2000).
    86 Adams v. Burke, 84 U.S. (17 Wall.) 453 (1873).
    87 "[W]hen the patentee, or the person having his rights, sells a machine or instrument whose sole value is in its use, he receives the consideration for its use and he parts with the right to restrict that use." Adams v. Burke, 84 U.S. (17 Wall.) 453, 456 (1873).
    88 149 U.S. 355 (1893).
    89 Keeler v. Standard Folding Bed Co., 157 U.S. 659 (1895).
    90 See Patent Use Restrictions, 75 Harv. L. Rev. 602, 606(1962).
    91 余翔:《法无定法——美国专利权穷竭与产品平行进口立法及判例分析》,载《国际贸易》2000年第12期。
    92 《美国关税法》第三百三十七条又为称为“337条款”,被编入《美国法典》第19编第1337节。
    93 张乃根:《国际贸易的知识产权法》,复旦大学出版社1999年版,第183页。
    94 《美国法典》第19编第1337节,载《美国法典:商业贸易法海关法卷》,《世界各国法律大典》总编译委员会译,中国社会科学出版社1997版,第479页。与专利有关的该条第2款英文原文为“The importation into the United States, the sale for importation, or the sale within the United States after importation by the owner, importer, or consignee, of articles that--(ⅰ) infringe a valid and enforceable United States patent or a valid and enforceable United States copyright registered under Title 17; or (ⅱ) are made, produced, processed, or mined under, or by means of, a process covered by the claims of a valid and enforceable United States patent." 19 U.S.C. § 1337 (2000).
    95 See 266 F. 71, 78 (2d Cir. 1920). See also Tait R. Swanson, Combating Gray Market Goods in A Global Market: Comparative Analysis of Intellectual Property Laws and Recommended Strategies, 22 Hous. J. Int'l L. 327, 343 (2000).
    96 叶京生、董巧新:《知识产权与世界贸易》,立信会计出版社2002年版,第250页。
    97 参见刘立平:《再谈专利权的平行进口与专利权的国际用尽论》,载于《专利法研究》,专利文献出版社1998年版,第66页。
    98 参见刘立平:《再谈专利权的平行进口与专利权的国际用尽论》,载于《专利法研究》,专利文献出版社1998年版,第66页。
    99 汤宗舜:《专利法教程》,法律出版社2003年版,第171页。
    100 Toshiko Takenaka, Harmonizing the Japanese Patent System with Its U.S. Counterpart Through Judge-Made Law: Interaction Between Japanese and U.S. Case Law Developments, 7 Pac. Rim L. & Pol'y J. 249, 269 (1998).
    101 程永顺、罗李华:《专利侵权判定——中美法条与案例比较研究》,专利文献出版社1998年版,第82页。
    102 Darren E. Donnelly, Parallel Trade And International Harmonization of The Exhaustion of Rights Doctrine, 13 Santa Clara Computer & High Tech. L.J. 445, 468-469(1997)
    103 The treaty establishing the European Economic Community, the Treaty of Rome, Mar. 25, 1957, 298 U.N.T.S. 11.
    104 欧洲共同体由欧洲煤钢共同体、欧洲经济共同体、欧洲原子能共同体三部分组成,其中欧洲经济共同体(EEC)是最重要的部分,一般研究欧洲共同体都以欧洲经济共同体为重点。参见曹建明:《欧洲联盟法:从欧洲统一大市场到欧洲经济货币联盟》,浙江人民出版社2000年版,第5页以下。
    105 Treaty Establishing the European Economic Community [EEC Treaty] art. 30.
    106 John E. Somorjai, The Evolution of A Common Market: Limits Imposed On The Protection of National Intellectual Property Rights in The European Economic Community, 9 Int'l Tax & Bus. Law. 431, 431(1992).
    107 Treaty Establishing the European Economic Community [EEC Treaty] art. 36.
    108 See John E. Somorjai, The Evolution of A Common Market: Limits Imposed On The Protection of National Intellectual Property Rights in The European Economic Community, 9 Int'l Tax & Bus. Law. 431, 434(1992).
    109 Darren E. Donnelly, Parallel Trade And International Harmonization of The Exhaustion of Rights Doctrine, 13 Santa Clara Computer & High Tech. L.J. 445, 469-476(1997).
    110 Case 15/74, Centrafram BV v. Sterling Drug Inc., 1974 E.C.R. 1147, [1974] 2 C.M.L.R. 480 (1974).
    111 Sterling Drug, 1974 E.C.R. 1147P7-15.
    112 Case 187/80, Merck & Co. v. Stephar BV, 1981 E.C.R. 2063, [1981] 3 C.M.L.R. 463 (1981).
    113 Cases C-267/95, Merck & Co., Inc. v. Primecrown and C-268/95 Beecham Group plc v. Europharm of Worthington, Ltd., [1997] 1 C.M.L.R. 83 (1996).
    114 See Darren E. Donnelly, Parallel Trade And International Harmonization of The Exhaustion of Rights Doctrine, 13 Santa Clara Computer & High Tech. L.J. 445, 477-478(1997).
    115 http://www.sipo.gov.cn/sipo/tz/gz/200608/P020060808327106040484.pdf. (最后查阅时间2007年1月16日)
    116 我国《专利法》同时规定了专利进口权和专利权穷竭制度。现行《专利法》第十一条规定:“发明和实用新型专利权被授予后,除本法另有规定的以外,任何单位或者个人未经专利权人许可,都不得实施其专利,即不得为生产经营目的制造、使用、许诺销售、销售、进口其专利产品,或者使用其专利方法以及使用、许诺销售、销售、进口依照该专利方法直接获得的产品。外观设计专利权被授予后,任何单位或者个人未经专利权人许可,都不得实施其专利,即不得为生产经营目的制造、销售、进口其外观设计专利产品。”根据这条的规定,专利权人享有进口权。同时,《专利法》第六十三条规定:“有下列情 形之一的,不视为侵犯专利权:(一)专利权人制造、进口或者经专利权人许可而制造、进口的专利产品或者依照专利方法直接获得的产品售出后,使用、许诺销售或者销售该产品的……”这是专利权穷竭的明确表述。在这种情况下,我国法学界对于我国《专利法》是否允许平行进口存在一定争论。不少学者认为,我国《专利法》所持的是地域穷竭态度,专利产品平行进口应当被禁止。参见汤宗舜:《专利法教程》,法律出版社2003年版,第172页;程永顺、罗李华:《专利侵权判定——中美法条与案例比较研究》,专利文献出版社1998年版,第81页。但是,也有一些学者认为,我国《专利法》是允许平行进口的或平行进口应当被允许。参见雷俊生:《中美专利法的比较研究》,载《经济与社会发展》2003年第2期;余翔:《权衡耗尽原则——中国专利权耗尽与平行进口相关分析》,载《国际贸易》2001年第6期。而国家知识产权局的态度似乎是:至今为止,我国《专利法》对于平行进口的态度还是不明确的。国家知识产权局在《关于<中华人民共和国专利法修订草案>(征求意见稿)的说明》指出:“现行专利法第六十三条第一款(一)规定了专利权用尽原则,即……然而,上述规定存在一个没有明确的问题,即所谓‘平行进口’问题”,http://www.sipo.gov.cn/sipo/tz/gz/200608/P020060808327106040484.pdf (最后查阅时间2007年1月16日)
    117 http://www.sipo.gov.cn/sipo/tz/gz/200608/P020060808327106040484.pdf(最后查阅时间2007年1月16日)
    118 《关于<中华人民共和国专利法修订草案>(征求意见稿)的说明》对于允许专利产品平行进口的理由是:“鉴于目前我国的经济实力和科研实力与发达国家相比还有相当差距,高技术领域的专利权绝大多数由外国专利权人掌握,我国的产业发展在相当程度上仍依赖于对国外技术的引进,建议充分利用TRIPS留给各国的自由空间,在专利领域采取允许平行进口行为的做法。此外,允许平行进口使我国在必要时可以从国外进口我国目前尚不能制造或者制造能力不足的专利药品,有利于我国解决有公共健康问题。”http://www.sipo.gov.cn/sipo/tz/gz/200608/P020060808327106040484.pdf(最后查阅时间2007年1月16日)
    119 笔者认为,一国法律对于专利权穷竭是地域性还是国际性的认定,一方面要顾及法理,但更重要的是根据本国的经济贸易发展情况来决定。对于专利产品的平行进口问题,允许和禁止都各有其利弊,应当根据本国现实国情和未来一段时期的发展情况来制定法律,笔者赞成至少在部分领域或在某些特定情形下允许专利产品平行进口,但是否在全部领域允许平行进口,则需要大量细致的调查研究工作和利弊的权衡。事实上,也许在修订后的《专利法》中,将这个问题的决定权留给行政法规等位阶较低的法规来决定更好,这样便于根据情况灵活处理,而《专利法》本身则保持相对的稳定性。毕竟法律是需要稳定性的。
    1 TRIPS协定第十七条的标题即为(商标权)“例外”(Exceptions)。
    2 See Daniel Gervais, The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History and Analysis, London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1998, p112.
    3 See Daniel Gervais, The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History and Analysis, London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1998, p112.
    4 J. Thomas McCarthy, 2 McCarthy on Trademarks and Unfair Competition § 11:45 (4th ed.)(2006).
    5 J. Thomas McCarthy, 2 McCarthy on Trademarks and Unfair Competition § 11:45 (4th ed.)(2006).
    6 Carl Regelmann, Trademark Nominative Fair Use: The Relevance of the "New Kids on the Block Factors" after the Supreme Court KP Permanent Make-Up v. Lasting Impression Decision, 16 DePaul-LCA J. Art & Ent. L. 1,4 (2005).
    7 See Daniel Gervais, The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History and Analysis, London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1998, p112.
    8 European Communities-Protection of Trademarks and Geographical Indications for Agricultural Products and Foodstuffs, Report of the Panel, WT/DS174/R, para7.649.
    9 European Communities-Protection of Trademarks and Geographical Indications for Agricultural Products and Foodstuffs, Report of the Panel, WT/DS174/R, para7.648.
    10 European Communities-Protection of Trademarks and Geographical Indications for Agricultural Products and Foodstuffs, Report of the Panel, WT/DS174/R, para7.650.
    11 Daniel Gervais, The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History and Analysis, London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1998, pp112-113.
    12 Daniel Gervais, The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History and Analysis, London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1998, p113.
    13 European Communities-Protection of Trademarks and Geographical Indications for Agricultural Products and Foodstuffs, Report of the Panel, WT/DS174/R, para7.648.
    14 European Communities-Protection of Trademarks and Geographical Indications for Agricultural Products and Foodstuffs, Report of the Panel, WT/DS174/R, para7.662.
    15 "To make sense of the term 'legitimate interests' in this context, that term must be defined in the way that it is often used in legal discourse-as a normative claim calling for protection of interests that are "justifiable" in the sense that they are supported by relevant public policies or other social norms. "Canada-Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products, WT/DS114/R, para. 7.69.
    16 European Communities-Protection of Trademarks and Geographical Indications for Agricultural Products and Foodstuffs, Report of the Panel, WT/DS174/R, para7.664.
    17 European Communities-Protection of Trademarks and Geographical Indications for Agricultural Products and Foodstuffs, Report of the Panel, WT/DS174/R, para7.671.
    18 European Communities-Protection of Trademarks and Geographical Indications for Agricultural Products and Foodstuffs, Report of the Panel, WT/DS174/R, para7.676.
    19 Carl Regelmann, Trademark Nominative Fair Use: The Relevance of the "New Kids on the Block Factors" after the Supreme Court KP Permanent Make-Up v. Lasting Impression Decision, 16 DePaul-LCA J. Art & Ent. L. 1,4 (2005).
    20 J. Thomas McCarthy, 2 McCarthy on Trademarks and Unfair Competition § 11:45 (4th ed.)(2006).
    21 15 U.S.C. § 1115(b)(4)(2005). "That the use of the name, term, or device charged to be an infringement is a use, otherwise than as a mark, of the party's individual name in his own business, or of the individual name of anyone in privity with such party, or of a term or device which is descriptive of and used fairly and in good faith only to describe the goods or services of such party, or their geographic origin."
    22 KP Permanent Make-Up, Inc. v. Lasting Impression I, Inc., 125 S. Ct. 542, 550, 160 L. Ed. 2d 440, 72 .S.P.Q.2d 1833 (U.S. 2004), quoting Cosmetically Sealed Industries, Inc. v. Chesebrough-Pond's USA Co., 125 F.3d 28, 30, 43 U.S.P.Q.2d 1956 (2d Cir. 1997)
    23 J. Thomas McCarthy, 2 McCarthy on Trademarks and Unfair Competition § 11:45 (4th ed.)(2006).
    24 J. Thomas McCarthy, 2 McCarthy on Trademarks and Unfair Competition § 11:45 (4th ed.)(2006).
    25 Cairns v. Franklin Mint Co., 292 F.3d 1139, 63 U.S.P.Q.2d 1279 (9th Cir. 2002)
    26 New Kids on the Block v. News America Pub., Inc., 971 F.2d 302, 20 Media L. Rep. 1468, 23 U.S.P.Q.2d 1534 (9th Cir. 1992).
    27 4 McCarthy on Trademarks and Unfair Competition § 23:11 (4th ed.)(2006)
    28 971 F.2d 302,309.
    29 New Kids on the Block v. News America Pub., Inc., 971 F.2d 302, 308, 20 Media L. Rep. 1468, 23 U.S.P.Q.2d 1534, 1539 (9th Cir. 1992). Also see 4 McCarthy on Trademarks and Unfair Competition § 23:11 (4th ed.)(2006).
    30 4 McCarthy on Trademarks and Unfair Competition § 23:11 (4th ed.)(2006).
    31 《欧洲共同体商标条例》,http://www.ipsoon.com/faGui/HTML/8983_3.shtml(2007年3月8日查阅)。
    32 黄晖译:《法国知识产权法典(法律部分)》,商务印书馆1999年版,第140页。
    33 卞耀武主编:《当代外国商标法》人民法院出版社2003年版,第200页。
    34 BMW v Deenik, C-63/97 (ECJ, 23.02.1999), para2, para9.
    35 BMW v Deenik, C-63/97 (ECJ, 23.02.1999), para6
    36 BMW v Deenik, C-63/97 (ECJ, 23.02.1999), para8
    37 BMW v Deenik, C-63/97 (ECJ, 23.02.1999), para48
    38 BMW v Deenik, C-63/97 (ECJ, 23.02.1999), para49
    39 BMW v Deenik, C-63/97 (ECJ, 23.02.1999), para50
    40 BMW v Deenik, C-63/97 (ECJ, 23.02.1999), para51
    41 Volkswagenwerk Aktiengesellschaft v. Church, 411 F.2d 350, 161 U.S.P.Q. 769 (9th Cir. 1969).
    42 4 McCarthy on Trademarks and Unfair Competition § 23:11 (4th ed.)(2006).
    43 傅钢:《试论商标的合理使用及实务判断》,载《电子知识产权》2002年第11期。
    44 王岩、庞达:《注册商标如何才能合理使用》,载《法制日报》2002年11月6日第11版。
    45 当然如何命名这两大类型的商标合理使用,是值得研究的,既要符合商标法理,也要兼顾我国国情。
    46 Joseph J. Basista, Lynda J. Zadra-Symes, Using U.S. Intellectual Property Rights to Prevent Parallel Imports, E.I.P.R. 1998, 20(6), 219-225.
    47 参见张乃根:《国际贸易的知识产权法》,复旦大学出版社1999年版,第182-183页。该款的英文全文为“Except as provided in subsection(d) of this section, it shall be unlawful to import into the United States any merchandise of foreign manufacture if such merchandise, or the label, sign, print, package, wrapper, or receptacle, bears a trademark owned by a citizen of, or by a corporation or association created or organized within, the United States, and registered in the Patent and Trademark Office by a person domiciled in the United States, under the provisions of sections 81 to 109 of Title 15, and if a copy of the certificate of registration of such trademark is filed with the Secretary of the Treasury, in the manner provided in section 106 of said Title 15, unless written consent of the owner of such trademark is produced at the time of making entry. " 19U.S.C.A. § 1526 (a)
    48 参见张乃根:《国际贸易的知识产权法》,复旦大学出版社1999年版,第182页。
    49 See Joseph J. Basista, Lynda J. Zadra-Symes, Using U.S. Intellectual Property Rights to Prevent Parallel Imports, E.I.P.R. 1998, 20(6), 219-225.
    50 Lynda J. Oswald, Statutory and Judicial Approaches to Gray Market Goods: The "Material Differences" Standard, 95 Ky. L.J. 107,111 (2006-2007).
    51 Apollinaris Co., Ltd. v. Scherer, 27 F. 18 (C.C.S.D.N.Y. 1886).
    52 余翔:《实质性差别——美国商标权耗尽与平行进口法律演变及现行准则》,载《国际贸易》2001年第3期。
    53 A. Bourjois & Co., Inc. v. Katzel, 275 F. 539 (2d Cir. 1921) rev'd, 260 U.S. 689 (1923).
    54 A. Bourjois & Co., Inc. v. Katzel, 260 U.S. 689, 690.
    55 A. Bourjois & Co., Inc. v. Katzel, 260 U.S. 689, 692.
    56 余翔:《实质性差别——美国商标权耗尽与平行进口法律演变及现行准则》,载《国际贸易》2001年第3期。
    57 王红珊:《平行进口海关规制的研究》,载《华东经济管理》2004年第5期。
    58 K mart Corp. v. Cartier, Inc., 486 U.S. 281 (1988)
    59 张乃根:《国际贸易的知识产权法》,复旦大学出版社1999年版,第207页。
    60 Cindy Wai Chi Wong, Parallel Importation of Trademarked Goods in Hong Kong and China, 34 HKLJ 151, 153(2004).
    61 参见本文第三章第三节。
    62 陈江:《欧共体商标权利国际用尽原则演变过程及对我国的启示》,载《政法论丛》2000年第4期。
    63 王晓晔:《欧共体竞争法》,中国法制出版社2001年版,第191页。
    64 Case16/74 Centrafarm v. Winthrop[1974] E.C.R 1183.
    65 陈江:《欧共体商标权利国际用尽原则演变过程及对我国的启示》,载《政法论丛》2000年第4期。
    66 Silhouette International Schmied Gesellschaft mbH & Co. KG v. Hartlauer Handelsgesellschaft mbH, Case C-355/96, [1998] E.C.R. I-4799, [1998] 2 C.M.L.R. 953.
    67 See James Dilley, The Effect of EC Competition Law on Intellectual Property Valuations: Implications for Corporate Strategies, 4 Or. Rev. Int'l L. 104,161(2002).
    68 Cindy Wai Chi Wong, Parallel Importation of Trademarked Goods in Hong Kong and China, 34 HKLJ 151,157(2004); Christopher Heath, "From 'Parker' to 'BBS' - The Treatment of Parallel Imports of Japan" (1993) 24 ⅡC 179, 180.
    69 Nestle Nihon KK v Sankai Shoten, Tokyo District Court, injunction of 22 Dec 1964, final decision of 29 May 1965, 178 Hanrei Times 199.
    70 参见叶京生、董巧新:《知识产权与世界贸易》,立信会计出版社2002年版,第262页。
    71 MC Kabushiki Kaisha v Shriro Trading Co. Ltd, Osaka District Court, 27 Feb 1970, reported in (1970) 2 ⅡC 326 with comment by S. Kuwata.
    72 Cindy Wai Chi Wong, Parallel Importation of Trademarked Goods in Hong Kong and China, 34 HKLJ 151, 157(2004).
    73 Cindy Wai Chi Wong, Parallel Importation of Trademarked Goods in Hong Kong and China, 34 HKLJ 151, 157(2004).
    74 孙颖:《平行进口与知识产权保护之冲突及其法律调控》,载《政法论坛》(中国政法大学学报)1999年第3期。
    75 参见叶京生、董巧新:《知识产权与世界贸易》,立信会计出版社2002年版,第263页。
    1 吴汉东:《著作权合理使用制度研究》,中国政法大学出版社1996年,前言第1页。
    2 参见本文第一章第一节。
    3 United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel, WT/DS160/R, para1.1.
    4 United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel, WT/DS160/R, para1.2.
    5 United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel, WT/DS160/R, para1.3.
    6 United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel, WT/DS160/R, para2.3.
    7 赵维田:《世贸组织(WTO)的法律制度》,吉林人民出版社2000年版,第47页。
    8 India-Patent Protection for Pharmaceutical and Agricultural Chemical Products, Report of the Panel, WT/DS50/R, para5.18.
    9 参见本文第三章第一节关于加拿大药品专利案的论述。
    10 参见赵维田:《世贸组织(WTO)的法律制度》,吉林人民出版社2000年版,第47页。
    11 参见United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel, WT/DS160/R.
    12 参见United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel, WT/DS160/R.
    13 United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel WT/DS160/R, para6.50。“较小例外”规则至少允许成员国为宗教仪式、军乐队、儿童及成人教育目的规定版权例外。
    14 United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel WT/DS160/R, para6.51.
    15 徐崇利:《<世贸组织协定>的解释制度评析》,载《中外法学》2003年第2期。
    16 United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel WT/DS160/R, para7.1.
    17 Catherine Seville, Literary Copyright Reform in Early Victorian England: The Framing of the 1842 Copyright Act. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999, p 242.
    18 亦可译为“一定”。参见郑成思:《WTO知识产权协议逐条讲解》,中国方正出版社2001年版,第53页。
    19 United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel WT/DS160/R, para6.108, para6.109, para6.110.
    20 United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel WT/DS160/R, para6.108, para6.118.
    21 United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel WT/DS160/R, para6.108, para6.142.
    22 United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel, WT/DS160/R, para6.165-166.
    23 United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel WT/DS160/R, para6.165.
    24 United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel WT/DS160/R, para6.167.
    25 专家组在报告中指出,欧共体应当对《美国版权法》第110(5)节与TRIPS协定以及《伯尔尼公约》(1971)不符合提供初步证据,一旦欧共体就此提供了初步证据,则美国应当举证其《版权法》第110(5)节符合有关的例外规定,否则就要承担败诉的后果。参见United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel WT/DS160/R, para6.16.
    26 See United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel WT/DS160/R, para6.271, para6.272.
    27 Sarah E. Henry, The First International Challenge to U.S. Copyright Law: What Does the WTO Analysis of 17 U.S.C. § 110(5) Mean to The Future of International Harmonization of Copyright Laws under the TRIPS Agreement? 20 Penn St. Int'l L. Rev. 301, 327(2001).
    28 Broadcast Music, Inc. v. Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc, 441U.S.1 (1979). "......although the blanket license fee was set by the licensing agencies rather than by competition among individual copyright owners and although it was a fee for the use of any compositions covered by the license, where the blanket license arrangement accompanied the integration of sales, monitoring and enforcement against unauthorized copyright use, which would present difficult and expensive problems if left to individual users and copyright owners, and where it appeared that the blanket license had provided an acceptable mechanism for at least a large part of the market for the performing rights to copyrighted musical compositions, the issuance of such blanket licenses did not constitute price fixing that was per se unlawful under the antitrust laws."
    29 United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel WT/DS160/R, para6.190.
    30 Paul Goldstein, International Copyright: Principles, Law, and Practice, New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, p 315.
    31 United States-Section 110(5) of The US Copyright Act, Report of the Panel WT/DS160/R, para6.115.
    32 Richard A.Posner, Economic Analysis of Law, Little, Brown and Company 1992, pp.286-287.
    33 See Paul Goldstein, International Copyright: Principles, Law, and Practice, New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, p 309.
    34 See WIPO GLOSSARY OF THE TERMS OF THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT AND NEIGHBORING RIGHTS 243, 1980 (World Intellectual Property Organization, 1980).
    35 Paul Goldstein, International Copyright: Principles, Law, and Practice, New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, p 309.
    36 《伯尔尼公约》第十三条第一款规定:“本同盟每一成员国可就其本国情况对音乐作品作者及允许其歌词与音乐作品一道录音的歌词作者授权对上述音乐作品以及有歌词的音乐作品进行录音的专有权利规定保留及条件;但这类保留及条件之效力严格限于对此作出规定的国家,而且在任何情况下均不得损害作者获得在没有协议情况下由主管当局规定的合理报酬的权利。”
    37 TRIPS协定第十三条是对于版权例外的规定,从TRIPS协定的行文来看,第十三条应当包括版权合理使用和版权法定许可、版权强制许可,这与TRIPS协定第三十条是不同的。TRIPS协定第三十条并不包括专利的强制许可使用,对于专利强制许可使用专由TRIPS协定第三十一条规定,这从第三十一条的注可以看出。该注指出:“‘其他的使用’是指第三十条允许的使用以外的使用。”而TRIPS协定第三十一条为标题“未经权利人许可的其他使用”。
    38 吴汉东、曹新明:《西方诸国著作权法权制度研究》,中国政法大学出版社1998年版,第191页
    39 The Satellite Home Viewer Act of 1988, Pub. L. No. 100-667 102 Stat. 3935, 3949. 可参见李永明、曹兴龙:《中美著作权法定许可制定比较研究》,载《浙江大学学报》(人文社会科 学版)2005年第4期。
    40 The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998, Pub. L. No. 105-304112 Stat. 2860, 2899. 并在1999年经过修正,Pub.L.No.106-44,113 Stat.221.可参见李永明、曹兴龙:《中美著作权法定许可制定比较研究》,载《浙江大学学报》(人文社会科学版)2005年第4期。
    41 The Satellite Home Viewer Improvement Act of 1999, Pub. L. No. 106-113, 113 Stat. 1501,app. I at 1501A-543. 可参见李永明、曹兴龙:《中美著作权法定许可制定比较研究》,载《浙江大学学报》(人文社会科学版)2005年第4期。
    42 The Satellite Home Viewer Improvement Act of 1999, Pub. L. No. 106-113, 113 Stat. 1501, app. I at 1501A-543. 可参见李永明、曹兴龙:《中美著作权法定许可制定比较研究》,载《浙江大学学报》(人文社会科学版)2005年第4期。
    43 The Digital Performance Right in Sound Recordings Act of 1995, Pub. L. No. 104-39, 109 Stat. 336. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998, Pub. L. No. 105-304, 112 Stat. 2860, 2899. 可参见李永明、曹兴龙:《中美著作权法定许可制定比较研究》,载《浙江大学学报》(人文社会科学版)2005年第4期。
    44 参见吴汉东、曹新明:《西方诸国著作权法权制度研究》,中国政法大学出版社1998年版,第191-192页。《德国著作权法与邻接权》的完整中文译本,可以参见[德]M·雷炳德:《著作权法》,张恩民译,法律出版社2005年版,第710页以下。这是《德国著作权法与邻接权法》2003年9月10日最新修订版本。
    45 案例原载于德国马克斯·普兰克学会ⅡC杂志,1981年第1期,第110页。本文中的中文案情介绍来自郑成思:《版权公约、版权保护与版权贸易》,中国人民大学出版社1992年版,第214页以下,笔者作了删节和修改。
    46 当然,在本案中,由于戴卡公司与MCA公司之间实质上的授权许可关系,最后戴卡公司被判定未侵权。参见郑成思:《版权公约、版权保护与版权贸易》,中国人民大学出版社1992年版,第214页以下。
    47 WIPO GLOSSARY OF THE TERMS OF THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT AND NEIGHBORING RIGHTS 50, 1980 (World Intellectual Property Organization, 1980). See also Peter Burger, The Berne Convention: Its History and Its Key Role in the Future, 3 J. L. & Tech. 1, n162 (1988).
    48 参见万鄂湘主编:《国际知识产权法》,湖北人民出版社2001年版,第152页。
    49 参见斯·拉迈阿赫:《强制许可证在发展中国家的实际应用》,载翟一我、陈昭宽主编:《版权讲座——国际版权纵横谈》,东方出版社1991年版,第219-237页;沈仁干、钟颖科:《著作权法概论》,商务印书馆2003年版,第188-195页。
    50 参见本文第一章第三节。
    51 See Peter Burger, The Berne Convention: Its History and Its Key Role in the Future, 3 J. L. & Tech. 1 (1988).
    52 Peter K. Yu, Currents and Crosscurrents in the International Intellectual Property Regime, 38 Loy. L.A.L. Rev. 323, 341(2004).
    53 See Peter Burger, The Berne Convention: Its History and Its Key Role in the Future, 3 J. L. & Tech. 1 (1988).
    54 郑成思:《知识产权论》,法律出版社2003年版,第487页。
    55 郑成思:《知识产权法》,法律出版社1997年版,第433页。
    56 吴汉东:《著作权合理使用制度研究》,中国政法大学出版社1996年版,第229页。
    57 参见钟瑞栋:《版权穷竭制度的法哲学思考》,载郑胜利主编:《北大知识产权评论》第2卷,法律出版社2004年版,第129页。
    58 参见郑成思:《知识产权法》,法律出版社1997年版,第432页。
    59 大部分学者认为,在版权方面,地域性原则同样存在。根据《伯尔尼公约》规定:享有国民待遇的作者在公约任何成员国所得到的版权,均须依照“权利要求地法”,而不应依赖“作品来源地法”去保护。版权独立性原则所表明的是:虽然《伯尔尼公约》实行的是“自动保护原则”,但并没有因此就突破了版权的地域性特点。参见孙颖:《平行进口与知识产权保护之冲突及其法律调控》,载《政法论坛》(中国政法大学学报)1999年第3期。至于对于平行进口的态度之不同,是各国出于经济文化发展和贸易需要而规定的,并不必然是理论演绎的结果。
    60 17 U.S.C.§109(a),该条的中文翻译参见孙新强、于改之译:《美国版权法》,中国人民大学出版社2002年版,第15-16页。
    61 Joseph J. Basista, Lynda J. Zadra-Symes, Using U.S. Intellectual Property Rights to Prevent Parallel Imports, E.I.P.R. 1998, 20(6), 219-225.
    62 17 U.S.C.A.§602,该条的中文翻译参见孙新强、于改之译:《美国版权法》,中国人民大学出版社2002年版,第77页。
    63 17 U.S.C.A. §602.
    64 38 F.3d 477, 32 U.S.P.Q. 2d 1512 (9th Cir. 1994), cert. denied, 514 U.S. 1004, 131 L. Ed. 2d 197, 115 S. Ct 1315 (1995).
    65 847 F.2d 1093 (3d Cir. 1988).
    66 847 F.2d 1093, 1099(3d Cir. 1988).
    67 523 U.S. 135 (1998).
    68 See Alexis Gonzalez, Why The Supreme Court Said Yes to the First Sale Doctrine in Quality King Distributors, Inc. v. L'anza Research International, Inc, 8 U. Miami Bus. L. Rev. 29(1999); Christopher Morris, Quality King Distributors, Inc. v. L'anza Research International, 14 Berkeley Tech. L.J. 65(1999); Jeremy M. Klass, Competing with Oneself: The U.S. Supreme Court Strikes a Blow against U.S. Intellectual Property Rights Owners in Quality King Distributors, Inc. v. L'anza Research Int'l., Inc, 13 Temp. Int'l & Comp. L.J. 411(1999); Andrew B. Chen, Shopping the Gray Market: The Aftermath of the Supreme Court's Decision in Quality King Distributors, Inc. v. L'anza Research International, Inc. 19 Loy. L.A. Ent. L.J. 573(1999); Kristine Boylan, Life after Quality King: A Proposal for Evaluating Gray Market Activities under the Fair Use Doctrine, 27 AIPLA Q.J. 109(1999). William Richelieu, Gray Days Ahead?: The Impact of Quality King Distributors, Inc. v. L'anza Research International, Inc. 27 Pepp. L. Rev. 827, 838(2000).
    69 [美]林达·扎德拉、约瑟夫·巴塞斯达:《运用美国知识产权阻止平行进口》,张今译,载《外国法译评》2000年第1期。
    70 UMG Recordings, Inc. v. Norwalk Distribs., No. SACV 02-1188 DOC, 2003 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 26302 (C.D. Cal. Mar. 13, 2003).
    71 Darren E. Donnelly, Parallel Trade And International Harmonization of The Exhaustion of Rights Doctrine, 13 Santa Clara Computer & High Tech. L.J. 445, 468-469(1997).
    72 Case 78/70, Deutsche Grammophon GmbH v. METRO-SB Grossmarkte GmbH & Co., 1971 E.C.R. 487, [1971] C.M.L.R. 631.
    73 Deutsche Grammophon, 1971 E.C.R. 487 p 11-12.
    74 See Darren E. Donnelly, Parallel Trade And International Harmonization of The Exhaustion of Rights Doctrine, 13 Santa Clara Computer & High Tech. L.J. 445, 472(1997).
    75 Cases 55 and 57/80, 1981 E.C.R. 174, [1981] 2 C.M.L.R. 44 (1981).
    76 参见严捷:《版权平行进口问题及其经济学角度的思考》,载《华东政法学院学报》2003年第2期。
    77 See Matthew Burgess, Lewis Evans, Parallel Importation and Service Quality: An Empirical. Investigation of Competition between DVDs and Cinemas in New Zealand, 1 J. Competition L. & Econ. 747, n6(2005).
    78 这一改变曾引起美国政府和跨国公司的严重关注。可以参阅Tait R. Swanson, Combating Gray Market Goods in A Global Market: Comparative Analysis of Intellectual Property Laws and Recommended Strategies, 22 Hous. J. Int'l L. 327, 365(2000).
    79 Matthew Burgess, Lewis Evans, Parallel Importation and Service Quality: An Empirical Investigation of Competition between DVDs and Cinemas in New Zealand, 1 J. Competition L. & Econ. 747, n6(2005).
    80 See Tait R. Swanson, Combating Gray Market Goods in A Global Market: Comparative Analysis of Intellectual Property Laws and Recommended Strategies, 22 Hous. J. Int'l L. 327, 365(2000).
    81 严捷:《版权平行进口问题及其经济学角度的思考》,载《华东政法学院学报》2003年第2期。
    82 Gaye Middleton, Australia: Intellectual Property-Copyright, C.T.L.R. 2003, 9(5), N59-60(2003).
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    2 Paul Goldstein, International Copyright: Principles, Law, and Practice, New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, p 293.
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