美国因素与多边粮食援助机制的建设
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摘要
南北战争之后,随着耕地的大规模扩张和农业科技革命的兴起,粮食剩余开始在美国迅速出现并日趋严重。朝鲜战争的结束使美国失去了处理剩余粮食的一大渠道,在新一轮农业革命和过时的农业政策的刺激下,政府持有的剩余粮食库存开始迅速膨胀并在60年代初达到了骇人的规模。如何处理堆积如山的剩余粮食是战后初期的美国政府面临的一大难题。自1954年通过对外粮食援助的核心法令《农产品贸易开发与援助法》(简称Public Law480或《480公法》)以后,美国开始大规模地进行对外粮食援助。到了60年代初,经过几年的粮食援助实践和肯尼迪政府的“粮食换和平”(Food for Peace)变革之后,在开辟新的剩余粮食处理渠道和促使其它国家分摊粮食援助负担以及冷战的外交政策需要的驱使下,美国开始了推动创建多边粮食援助机制的历史性进程。
由于美国在粮食领域超强的霸权地位,战后国际社会创建多边粮食援助机制的多次尝试都因美国的反对而失败。美国的态度因此就成为战后多边粮食援助机制创立成功与否的关键性因素。正如美国的霸权是战后大量多边机制创建的主要推动力量一样,其粮食霸权也在多边粮食援助机制的创建中发挥着主导性的作用。1961年,美国发起在联合国系统内创建了第一个多边粮食援助机制——世界粮食计划署(World Food Programme,简称WFP),规定各签约国在自愿的基础上提供目标为1亿美元价值的粮食援助(在1963—65年期间作为试验性项目运作,1965年成为正式的多边机制)。这标志着多边粮食援助时代的真正开始。
在1964年开始的关税与贸易总协定的肯尼迪回合谈判中,美国通过联系战略成功地迫使欧洲和日本在1967接受了《粮食援助公约》(Food Aid Convention,简称FAC)。《1967年粮食援助公约》为国际粮食援助数量确立了一个450万公吨的最低基准目标,从而在一定程度上修正了世界粮食计划署的不足。美国通过它迫使欧洲和日本接受了有约束力的责任,从而在分摊粮食援助负担的道路上迈出了关键的一步。《1967年粮食援助公约》是国际粮食援助史上的一个里程碑。世界粮食计划署和《1967年粮食援助公约》的创立和运行都在很大程度上依赖于美国霸权的支撑并服务于美国的利益,因而本质上都是霸权性粮食援助机制,美国通过它们完成了由其主导的多边粮食援助机制建设。
从60年代后期开始,现行的多边粮食援助机制已经越来越不能适应世界的需要了,而国际社会对此改革的努力却都因美国的拒绝而失败。随着从肯尼迪政府开始的耕地转移政策的成功和粮食援助与出口的大量增加,美国的剩余粮食库存在1967年跌至波谷之后再也未能大规模地重建。1972年的全球性气候灾难导致了世界性的粮食歉收,这极大地刺激了国际社会对美国粮食的商业和援助需求,而尼克松政府激进的粮食出口政策(特别是向苏联)和土地转移政策迅速导致了粮食库存的耗竭和粮食价格的暴涨,与此同时美国的对外粮食援助额却跌到了1954年《480公法》通过以来的历史最低点。这与石油输出国组织大幅提高油价同时发生,从而造成了1972—1974年的第一次全球性粮食危机,许多发展中国家陷入了严重的粮食短缺之中。美国主导建立起来的霸权性粮食国际援助机制因而处于崩溃之中。
70年代初的世界正迅速地变得相互依赖起来,同时发展中国家日益兴起为国际政治中一支重要的力量并试图通过集团化战略来主导国际机制的议题。在此背景下,美国发起了1974年的世界粮食会议,希望借此缓解发展中国家的压力并为世界粮食领域的长期问题的解决创造一个国际合作的框架。美国霸权(尤其是粮食霸权)的相对衰落使它不再能够在世界粮食会议上发挥主导性的作用,而发展中国家却成功地利用这次会议推动了对现行的多边粮食援助机制的一系列改革并创造了一些新的机制。改革后的国际粮食援助机制褪去了强烈的霸权色彩,变得更具有发展导向性并能更有效地应对世界的粮食灾难。1974年世界粮食会议是国际粮食援助史上的一个分水岭,战后的多边粮食援助机制至此走向了成熟。本文即通过对美国在世界粮食计划署、《1967年粮食援助公约》和1974年世界粮食会议创建或召开过程中所扮演角色的分析,来阐述美国因素在多边粮食援助机制创建过程中所起的作用。
With the great expansion of arable land and the rise of revolution of agricultural science and technology, food surplus began to emerge and became increasingly serious in America after the Civil War. Because of the end of the Korean War, the U.S. lost a main outlet of surplus food disposal. A new revolution of agricultural science and technology and outdated agricultural policy stimulated the government-owned food stocks expand quickly and reached a terrible size in the beginning of1960s. Dealing with the mountainous surplus food stocks became one of the toughest problems facing the governments in the early postwar period. After the coming into force of Public Law480(PL480), the most critical foreign food aid law, the U.S. began to provide a large quantity of food aid to the world. At the beginning of1960s, after several years of practice of food aid and the revolution of "Food for Peace" by President Kennedy, with the need to dispose surplus food and to urge other countries to share more food aid burden and the foreign policy of Cold War, the U.S. began to promote the historical process of creating multilateral food aid regimes.
In fact, several attempts to create multilateral regimes of food aid by the international society were failed by the refuse of the U.S. and its super hegemony. Then the attitude of the U.S became the vital factor of the success or failure of creating multilateral regimes of food aid in the postwar period. Just as the hegemony of the U.S. is the main driving force of many multilateral regimes after the Second World War, its hegemony of food was also the dominant factor in creating multilateral food aid regimes. In1961, the U.S led to create the first multilateral regime of food aid-the World Food Aid Programme, short for WFP--in the UN system, the truly beginning of Multilateral regimes of food aid, providing an aim of100million U.S. dollar food aid by all signatories. In the GATT's Kennedy Round negotiation, which was began in1964, the U.S. successfully forced the European Community and Japan to receive a "Food Aid Convention", assured that at least4.50million metric ton international food aid were provided by signatories each year. With the FAC, the U.S. forced the European community and Japan to receive binding responsibilities for the first time and took a critical step on sharing the food aid burden with other countries. The FAC of1967is a milestone in the history of international food aid. Both the creation and operation of the WFP and FAC rely on the hegemony of the U.S. attempting to serve the interests of the United States. In this case, they are hegemonic food aid regimes. With the help of the WFP and FAC, the U.S. accomplished the creation of its dominant multilateral regimes of food aid.
Since the late1960s, the current multilateral food aid regimes have been more and more difficult to meet the needs of the world. However the attempts of the international society to change them were all failed because of the objection of the United States. With the success of the farm land diversion policy from the Kennedy government and the great increase of food aid and food exports, the surplus food stocks of the U.S. decreased to the bottom in1967and never rebuilt on a large scale. The global climate disaster of1972led to worldwide agricultural failure, which stimulated the world need of the food of America greatly, including the business imports and food aid, while at the same time the Nixon government adopted a radical food export policy (especially to USSR) and farm land diversion policy, the combination of these factors thus led to the exhaustion of American food stocks and the jump up of world food prices. As a result, the amount of the U.S. foreign food aid decrease to the bottom from the year of1954while the world needed it most, which happened at the same time of the substantial increase of oil price by the OPEC, which therefore led to the first global food crisis in1972-1974and many developing countries dropped into serious food shortage. The hegemonic international regimes of food aid of the U.S. domination so fell into collapse.
The world in1970s became more and more inter-dependent quickly; at the same time the developing countries were increasingly becoming an important force in the international politics and with the group strategy they were trying to dominate the issues of international regimes. In this background, the U.S. sponsored the1974world food conference, hoping to relieve the pressure from the developing countries and to create an international cooperation framework for the long term world food problems. The relative decline of the U.S. hegemony (especially food hegemony) made it no longer able to dominate the agenda of the conference while developing countries has successfully reformed the current multilateral food aid regimes and created some new regimes on this conference. The hegemonic role of the international food aid regimes faded after the reform. It became more development-orientation and more effective to deal with the world food disaster. The1974world food conference is a watershed in the history of international food aid; because of it the multilateral food aid regimes after World War II became mature. The aim of his thesis is to express the role of the U.S. in the creation of multilateral food aid regimes by analysis the U.S. factor in three cases:World Food Programme,1967Food Aid Convention, and the1974World Food Conference.
由于美国在粮食领域超强的霸权地位,战后国际社会创建多边粮食援助机制的多次尝试都因美国的反对而失败。美国的态度因此就成为战后多边粮食援助机制创立成功与否的关键性因素。正如美国的霸权是战后大量多边机制创建的主要推动力量一样,其粮食霸权也在多边粮食援助机制的创建中发挥着主导性的作用。1961年,美国发起在联合国系统内创建了第一个多边粮食援助机制——世界粮食计划署(World Food Programme,简称WFP),规定各签约国在自愿的基础上提供目标为1亿美元价值的粮食援助(在1963—65年期间作为试验性项目运作,1965年成为正式的多边机制)。这标志着多边粮食援助时代的真正开始。
在1964年开始的关税与贸易总协定的肯尼迪回合谈判中,美国通过联系战略成功地迫使欧洲和日本在1967接受了《粮食援助公约》(Food Aid Convention,简称FAC)。《1967年粮食援助公约》为国际粮食援助数量确立了一个450万公吨的最低基准目标,从而在一定程度上修正了世界粮食计划署的不足。美国通过它迫使欧洲和日本接受了有约束力的责任,从而在分摊粮食援助负担的道路上迈出了关键的一步。《1967年粮食援助公约》是国际粮食援助史上的一个里程碑。世界粮食计划署和《1967年粮食援助公约》的创立和运行都在很大程度上依赖于美国霸权的支撑并服务于美国的利益,因而本质上都是霸权性粮食援助机制,美国通过它们完成了由其主导的多边粮食援助机制建设。
从60年代后期开始,现行的多边粮食援助机制已经越来越不能适应世界的需要了,而国际社会对此改革的努力却都因美国的拒绝而失败。随着从肯尼迪政府开始的耕地转移政策的成功和粮食援助与出口的大量增加,美国的剩余粮食库存在1967年跌至波谷之后再也未能大规模地重建。1972年的全球性气候灾难导致了世界性的粮食歉收,这极大地刺激了国际社会对美国粮食的商业和援助需求,而尼克松政府激进的粮食出口政策(特别是向苏联)和土地转移政策迅速导致了粮食库存的耗竭和粮食价格的暴涨,与此同时美国的对外粮食援助额却跌到了1954年《480公法》通过以来的历史最低点。这与石油输出国组织大幅提高油价同时发生,从而造成了1972—1974年的第一次全球性粮食危机,许多发展中国家陷入了严重的粮食短缺之中。美国主导建立起来的霸权性粮食国际援助机制因而处于崩溃之中。
70年代初的世界正迅速地变得相互依赖起来,同时发展中国家日益兴起为国际政治中一支重要的力量并试图通过集团化战略来主导国际机制的议题。在此背景下,美国发起了1974年的世界粮食会议,希望借此缓解发展中国家的压力并为世界粮食领域的长期问题的解决创造一个国际合作的框架。美国霸权(尤其是粮食霸权)的相对衰落使它不再能够在世界粮食会议上发挥主导性的作用,而发展中国家却成功地利用这次会议推动了对现行的多边粮食援助机制的一系列改革并创造了一些新的机制。改革后的国际粮食援助机制褪去了强烈的霸权色彩,变得更具有发展导向性并能更有效地应对世界的粮食灾难。1974年世界粮食会议是国际粮食援助史上的一个分水岭,战后的多边粮食援助机制至此走向了成熟。本文即通过对美国在世界粮食计划署、《1967年粮食援助公约》和1974年世界粮食会议创建或召开过程中所扮演角色的分析,来阐述美国因素在多边粮食援助机制创建过程中所起的作用。
With the great expansion of arable land and the rise of revolution of agricultural science and technology, food surplus began to emerge and became increasingly serious in America after the Civil War. Because of the end of the Korean War, the U.S. lost a main outlet of surplus food disposal. A new revolution of agricultural science and technology and outdated agricultural policy stimulated the government-owned food stocks expand quickly and reached a terrible size in the beginning of1960s. Dealing with the mountainous surplus food stocks became one of the toughest problems facing the governments in the early postwar period. After the coming into force of Public Law480(PL480), the most critical foreign food aid law, the U.S. began to provide a large quantity of food aid to the world. At the beginning of1960s, after several years of practice of food aid and the revolution of "Food for Peace" by President Kennedy, with the need to dispose surplus food and to urge other countries to share more food aid burden and the foreign policy of Cold War, the U.S. began to promote the historical process of creating multilateral food aid regimes.
In fact, several attempts to create multilateral regimes of food aid by the international society were failed by the refuse of the U.S. and its super hegemony. Then the attitude of the U.S became the vital factor of the success or failure of creating multilateral regimes of food aid in the postwar period. Just as the hegemony of the U.S. is the main driving force of many multilateral regimes after the Second World War, its hegemony of food was also the dominant factor in creating multilateral food aid regimes. In1961, the U.S led to create the first multilateral regime of food aid-the World Food Aid Programme, short for WFP--in the UN system, the truly beginning of Multilateral regimes of food aid, providing an aim of100million U.S. dollar food aid by all signatories. In the GATT's Kennedy Round negotiation, which was began in1964, the U.S. successfully forced the European Community and Japan to receive a "Food Aid Convention", assured that at least4.50million metric ton international food aid were provided by signatories each year. With the FAC, the U.S. forced the European community and Japan to receive binding responsibilities for the first time and took a critical step on sharing the food aid burden with other countries. The FAC of1967is a milestone in the history of international food aid. Both the creation and operation of the WFP and FAC rely on the hegemony of the U.S. attempting to serve the interests of the United States. In this case, they are hegemonic food aid regimes. With the help of the WFP and FAC, the U.S. accomplished the creation of its dominant multilateral regimes of food aid.
Since the late1960s, the current multilateral food aid regimes have been more and more difficult to meet the needs of the world. However the attempts of the international society to change them were all failed because of the objection of the United States. With the success of the farm land diversion policy from the Kennedy government and the great increase of food aid and food exports, the surplus food stocks of the U.S. decreased to the bottom in1967and never rebuilt on a large scale. The global climate disaster of1972led to worldwide agricultural failure, which stimulated the world need of the food of America greatly, including the business imports and food aid, while at the same time the Nixon government adopted a radical food export policy (especially to USSR) and farm land diversion policy, the combination of these factors thus led to the exhaustion of American food stocks and the jump up of world food prices. As a result, the amount of the U.S. foreign food aid decrease to the bottom from the year of1954while the world needed it most, which happened at the same time of the substantial increase of oil price by the OPEC, which therefore led to the first global food crisis in1972-1974and many developing countries dropped into serious food shortage. The hegemonic international regimes of food aid of the U.S. domination so fell into collapse.
The world in1970s became more and more inter-dependent quickly; at the same time the developing countries were increasingly becoming an important force in the international politics and with the group strategy they were trying to dominate the issues of international regimes. In this background, the U.S. sponsored the1974world food conference, hoping to relieve the pressure from the developing countries and to create an international cooperation framework for the long term world food problems. The relative decline of the U.S. hegemony (especially food hegemony) made it no longer able to dominate the agenda of the conference while developing countries has successfully reformed the current multilateral food aid regimes and created some new regimes on this conference. The hegemonic role of the international food aid regimes faded after the reform. It became more development-orientation and more effective to deal with the world food disaster. The1974world food conference is a watershed in the history of international food aid; because of it the multilateral food aid regimes after World War II became mature. The aim of his thesis is to express the role of the U.S. in the creation of multilateral food aid regimes by analysis the U.S. factor in three cases:World Food Programme,1967Food Aid Convention, and the1974World Food Conference.
引文
①吉尔伯特·C·菲特等：《美国经济史》，司徒淳等译,辽宁：辽宁人民出版社1981年版,第515页。
②广东省哲学社会科学研究所《美国农业经济概况》编写组编：《美国农业经济概况》,人民出版社1976年版,第3页。
③吉尔伯特·C·菲特等：《美国经济史》,司徒淳方秉铸译,辽宁：辽宁人民出版社1981年版,第533页。
④陈华山：《当代美国农业经济研究》,武汉：武汉大学出版社1996年版,第47页。
⑤丁谦：《美国农业的过去、现在和未来》,载《未来与发展》1987年第5期,第18页。
①H.U·福克纳等：《近百年美国经济史》,彭松建等译,北京：中国社会科学出版社1983年版,第64页。
②刘宏谊：《农业革命是经济腾飞的先导和基础——十九世纪美国农业革命及其影响》,载《世界经济文汇》1986年第4期。
③J·T·施莱贝克尔：《美国农业史》,高田等译,北京：农业出版社1981年版,第168页。
④刘自强：《十九世纪后期美国农业危机成因探析》,载《贵族师范大学学报》2006年第3期。
⑤佟佳凡：《(宅地法)对美国农业生产发展的作用初探》,载《辽宁师范大学学报》1990年第1期。
⑥乔纳森·休斯等：《美国经济史》,邸晓燕等译,北京：北京大学出版社2011年版,第320页。
⑦乔纳森·休斯等：《美国经济史》,邸晓燕等译,北京：北京大学出版社2011年版,第316页。
①丁谦：《美国农业的过去、现在和未来》,载《未来与发展》1987年第5期,第18页。
②斯坦利·L·恩格尔曼等主编：《剑桥美国经济史第三卷》,高德步等译,北京：中国人民大学出版社2008年版,第508—509页。
③乔纳森·休斯等：《美国经济史》,邸晓燕等译,北京：北京大学出版社2011年版,第324页。
①广东省哲学社会科学研究所《美国农业经济概况》编写组编：《美国农业经济概况》,人民出版社1976年版,第282页。
②薛伯英等：《美国经济的兴衰》,湖南：湖南人民出版社1988年版,第36页。
③斯坦利·L·恩格尔曼等主编：《剑桥美国经济史第二卷》,高德步等译,北京：中国人民大学出版社2008年版,第200页。
④吉尔伯特·C·菲特等：《美国经济史》,司徒淳等译,辽宁：辽宁人民出版社1981年版,第545、536页。
⑤H.U·福克纳等：《近百年美国经济史》,彭松建等译,北京：中国社会科学出版社1983年版,第81页。
①斯坦利.L·恩格尔曼等主编：《剑桥美国经济史第二卷》,高德步等译,北京：中国人民大学出版社2008年版,第496、498页。
②J·T·施莱贝克尔：《美国农业史》,高田等译,北京：农业出版社1981年版,第165页。
③陈华山：《当代美国农业经济研究》,武汉：武汉大学出版社1996年版,第84页。
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⑤H·U.福克纳等：《近百年美国经济史》,彭松建等译,北京：中国社会科学出版社1983年版,第85页。
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①陈华山：《当代美国农业经济研究》,武汉：武汉大学出版社1996年版,第101页。
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③Mitchel B.Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace:United States Food Aid in a Global Context.The MIT Press.1980. p.5.
'④DJohn Shaw. The UK World Food Programme and the Development of Food Aid. PALGRAVE.2001. p.30.
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①《战后美国经济》编写组：《战后美国经济》,上海：上海人民出版社1974年版,第108页。
①D.John Shaw. The UN World Food Programme and the Development of Food Aid. PALGRAVE.2001. p.30.
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③A. Hasenclever, P. Mayer. V. Rittberger:Fair Burden-sharing and the Robustness of International Regimes:The Case of Food Aid. Tubingen 1998.
④Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.4-5.
①Stephen S. Rosenfeld, "The Politics of Food". Foreign Policy, No.14,1974, P.18.
②Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.264.
③John H. Davis. "Agricultural Surplus and Foreign Aid". The American Economic Review. Vo1.49. NO.2.1959. P.232.
④Bruce F. Johnston. "Farm Surpluses and Foreign Policy", World Politics. Vol.10. No.1.1957. p.l.
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⑥Peter Uvin. "Regime. Surplus, and Self-Interest:The International Politics of Food Aid", International Studies Ouarterh. Vol.36. No.3.1992. P.301.
⑦Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.34.
①Mitchel B. Wallerstem, Food for War-Food for Peace, pp.12-13.
②Mitchel B. Wallerstein, Food for War-Food for Peace, pp.34-36.
①Peter Uvin. "Regime. Surplus, and Self-Interest:The International Politics of Food Aid'", p.294.
②Stephen S. Rosenfeld. "The Politics of Food". Foreign Policy. No.14.1974, P.18.
③Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p..6.
④谢华：《冷战时期美国粮食外交的历史演变(1954—1969)》,载《历史教学》2009年第6期。
⑤John H. Davis. "Agricultural Surplus and Foreign Aid", p.233.
①王慧英：《肯尼迪与美国对外经济援助》,北京：中国社会科学出版社2007年版,第167页。
②John H. Davis. "Agricultural Surplus and Foreign Aid", p.238.
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③Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.8.
①DJohn Shaw, The UN World Food Programme and the Development of Food Aid. PALGRAVE,2001, D.32.
②Mitchel B. Wallerstein, Food for War-Food for Peace, p.37.
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①Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.38.
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②利莎·马丁：《理性国家对多边主义的选择》,载约翰·鲁杰主编：《多边主义》,苏长和等译,杭州：浙江人民出版社2003年版,第130页。
①Raymond F. Hopkins. "International Food Organizations and the United States:Drifting Leadership and Diverging Interests", in Margaret P. Karns. Karen A. Mingst.The United States multilateral institutions:Patterns of changing instrumentality and influence. Boston:Unwin Hyman.1990. pp.178-181.
②安—玛丽·伯利：《对世界的管制：多边主义、国际法及新政管制国家的推广》,载约翰·鲁杰主编：《多边主义》,苏长和等译,杭州：浙江人民出版社2003年版,第164到166页。
③安一玛丽·伯利：《对世界的管制：多边主义、国际法及新政管制国家的推广》,第143页。
①Peter Uvin. "'Regime, Surplus, and Self-interest:The International Politics of Food Aid". International Studies Quarterly. Vo1.36. No.3.1992. p.296.
①Henry R. Nau. "The diplomacy of World Food:Goals. CAP abilities. Issues and Arenas". International Organization, Vol.32, No.3,1978. p.797.
②谢华：《冷战时期美国粮食外交的历史演变(1954—1969)》,载《历史教学》,2009年第6期,第25页。
③Mitchel B. Wallerstein:Food for War-Food for Peace:United States Food Aid in a Global Context. The MIT Press.1980. p.8.
④王慧英：《“剩余品”时代美国的对外粮食援助政策》,载《世界历史》2006年第2期,第16页。
①弗雷德里克·西格尔：《多难的旅程：四十年代至八十年代初美国政治生活史》,刘绪贻等译,北京：商务印书馆1990年版,第132页。
②小阿瑟施莱辛格：《一千天》,仲宜译,北京：三联书店1981年版,第465页。
③Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.233.
①J.斯帕尼尔：《第二次世界大战后美国的外交政策》,段若石译,北京：商务印书馆1992年版,第166页。
②王慧英：《肯尼迪与美国对外经济援助》,北京：中国社会科学出版社2007年版,第50页。
③雷迅马：《作为意识形态的现代化：社会科学与美国对第三世界政策》,牛可译,北京：中央编译出版社,第3页。
④小阿瑟·施莱辛格：《一千天》,第387页。
①雷迅马：《作为意识形态的现代化》,中文版序言。
②小阿瑟·施菜辛格：《一千天》,第134页。
③弗雷德里克西格尔：《多难的旅程》,第138页。
④西奥多索伦森：《肯尼迪》,复旦大学世界经济研究所译，北海：上海译文出版社1981年版,第343页。
⑤小阿瑟施莱辛格：《一千天》,第137页。
⑥Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.183.
①D. John Shaw. The UN World Food Programme and the Development of Food Aid. PALGRAVE,2001. p.13.
②王慧英：《肯尼迪与美国对外经济援助》,第191页。
③罗伯特·沃尔特斯：《美苏援助：对比分析》,陈源等译,北京：商务印书馆1974年版,第232页。
④罗伯特·沃尔特斯：《美苏援助：对比分析》,第193到194页。
⑤MitchelB. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.90.
①DJohn Shaw.The UN World Food Programme and the Development of Food Aid. p.20.
②Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, pp.92-93.
①DJohn Shaw. The UN World Food Programme and the Development ofFoodAid.p.13.
①United Nations. YearBook of the United Nations (cited as YUN).1960. pp.300-301
②YUN,1960,p.299.
③D·John Shaw. The UN World Food Programme and the Development of Food Aid.p.22.
④Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, pp.168-169.
①Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.105.
① D.John Shaw, The UN World Food Programme and the Development of Food Aid.p.64.
② Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.109-110.
③ Raymond F. Hopkins and Donald J. Puchala. "Perspectives on the International Relations of Food"'. International Organization. Vol.32. No.3.1978. p.605.
①Raymond F. Hopkins. "Perspectives on the International Relations of Food", p.608.
②Ross B. Talbot. The Four World Food Agencies in Rome. Iowa State University Press.1990. p.132.
①王慧英：《肯尼迪与美国对外经济援助》，第177到178页。
①《国际小麦协定》是战后初期由美国主导建立的多边小麦贸易机制,基于多边的销售合同,以把国际小麦价格稳定在一个确定的范围内而避免战前多次出现的剧烈价格波动。它是在战后国际小麦价格下跌和担忧剩余粮食重新堆积的背景下建立起来的。
②Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace:United States Food Aid in a Global Context. The MIT Press.1980. p.1 12.
③Raymond F. Hopkins. "Reform In the International Food Aid Regime:The Role of Consensual Knowledge". International Organization. Vol.46, No.1.1992. p.227.
①程极明：《欧洲共同体共同农业政策》,南京：译林出版社1994年版,第4页。
②事实上,世界粮食剩余并不完全是由于供过于求,而是因为众多的发展中国家因缺乏外汇而无力购买。这成为国际粮食援助的现实基础。
③Edward M. Leonard. "Commodity Price-Fixing:The International Grains Arrangement of 1967". Stanford Law Review. Vo1.23. No.2.1971. p.307.
④Nigel Swain:《欧盟共同农业政策研究》,赵昌文译,成都：西南财经大学出版社2001年版,第29页。
①Edward M. Leonard,'"Commodity Price-Fixing:The International Grains Arrangement of 1967". Stanford Law Review. Vo1.23, No.2.1971. p.309.
①翁贝尔托·特留尔齐：《从共同市场到单一货币：欧盟的一体化政策》,张宓,刘儒庭译,北京：北京对外经济贸易大学出版社2008年版,第85页。
③Richard N. Cooper. "Trade policy is Foreign Policy". Foreign Policy. No.9.1972-1973. p.23.
④程极明：《欧洲共同体共同农业政策》,南京：译林出版社1994年版，第38页。
⑤程极明：《欧洲共同体共同农业政策》,载《世界经济》,]993年第11期,第57页。
⑥李世安，刘丽云等著：《欧洲一体化史》,石家庄：河北人民出版社2003年版,第102页。
①Richard N. Cooper. "Trade policy is Foreign Policy", Foreign Policy. No.9,1972-1973. p.23.
②赫尔曼.M·施瓦茨著：《国家与市场：全球经济的兴起》,徐佳译,江苏：江苏人民出版社2008年版,第382页。
③Ernest H. Preeg. Traders and Diplomats:An analysis of the Kennedy Round of negotiations under the General ④Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. The Brookings Institution.1970, p.4.
Ernest H. Preeg, Traders and Diplomats.pp.32-36.
⑤Irwin R. Hedges. "Kennedy round Agricultural Negotiations and the World Grains Agreement". Journal of Farm Economics. Vol.49. No.5.1967. pp.1333-1335.
①伯纳德·霍克曼等著：《全球贸易体制的政治经济学》,刘平等译,北京：法律出版社2009年版,第203页。
②Richard N. Cooper,'"Trade policy is Foreign Policy'". Foreign Policy. No.9,1972-1973. p.24.
③Irwin R. Hedges. "Kennedy round Agricultural Negotiations and the World Grains Agreement'". Journal of Farm Economics. Vo1.49. No.5.1967. p.1335.
④Ernest H. Preeg. Traders and Diplomats.p.155.
⑤王慧英：《肯尼迪与美国对外经济援助》,北京：中国社会科学出版社2007年版,第183页。
⑤Ernest H. Preeg, Traders and Diplomats.p.155.
①Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace:United States Food Aid in a Global Context. The MIT Press.1980. p.171.
②Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.171-172.
①U.S.. Department of State. Foreign Relations of the United States.1964-1968. Vol. ⅩⅢ. p.577.
②Ernest H. Preeg. Traders and Diplomats.pp.152-153.
③Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.90.
①John B. Rehm. "Developments in the Law and Institutions of International Economic Relations:The Kennedy Round of Trade Negotiations". The American Journal of International Law. Vol.62, No.2.1968. p.423.
②Ernest H. Preeg. Traders andDiplomats.P155.
①John B. Rehm. "Developments in the Law and Institutions of International Economic Relations ",p.426.
②Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace. P.256.
①Peter Uvin. "Regime. Surplus, and Self-interest:The International Politics of Food Aid'". International Studies Quarterly. Vo1.36. No.3.1992.P.303.
②Australian Department of External Affairs.1968. International Grains Arrangement 1967. Posted at http://138.25.65.50/au/other/dfat/treaties/1 968/14.html.
①Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.173.
②Ernest H. Preeg. Traders and Diplomats.p.255.
③A. Hasenclever. P. Mayer. V. Rittberger. Fair Burden-sharing and the Robustness of International Regimes.
①Raymond F. Hopkins, "The Evolution of Food Aid:Towards a Development-First Regime'", in Vernon W.Ruttan(eds.). Why Food Aid. Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins University Press, p.132.
② A.Hasenclever. P.Mayer. V.Rittberger. Fair Burden-sharing and the Robustness of International Regime.
①D. John Shaw, World food security:a history since 1945. Basingstoke [England]; New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2007.p.l18.
②Thomas G.Weiss Probert S.Jordan, The World Food Conference and Global Problem Solving. Praeger Publishers, Inc.1976, p.10.
①I.M. Destler. "United States Food Policy 1972-1976:Reconciling Domestic and International Objectives". International Organization. Vol 32. Issue 3.1978. P.623.
②D. John Shaw. World Food Security: A History Since 1945. pp.116-117.
③Thomas G.Weiss Probert S.Jordan. The World Food Conference and Global Problem Solving.p.10.
④Raymond F. Hopkins and Donald J. Puchala. "Perspectives on the International Relations of Food". International Organization. Vo1.32. No.3.1978. p.584.
①Mitchel B. Wallerstein, Food for War-Food for Peace:United States Food Aid in a Global Context, The MIT Press,1980, P.33注：数据4030和36.6%由计算得来。
② I. M. Destler, "United States Food Policy 1972-1976", p.622.
③ Leslie H. Gelb and Anthony Lake, "Washington Dateline:Less Food, More Politics", Foreign Policy, No.17, 1974-1975, p.177.
①I.M. Destler. "'United States Food Policy 1972-1976". p.622.
②Henry R. Nau."The diplomacy of World Food:Goals. CAP abilities. Issues and Arenas". International Organization, Vo1.32, No.3,1978.p.794.
③Vernon W. Ruttan. "'The Politics of U.S.Food Aid Policy:A Historical Review", in Vernon W.Ruttan (eds.). Why Food Aid. Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins University Press, p.22注：此处数据由换算得来。
④I.M. Destler. "United States Food Policy 1972-1976". P.622.
⑤ Thomas G.Weiss Probert S.Jordan. The World Food Conference and Global Problem Solving, p.10.
①Raymond F. Hopkins, "Reform in the International Food Aid Regime:The Role of Consensual Knowledge", International Organization, Vo1.46, No.l,1992, p.234.
② I.M. Destler, "United States Food Policy 1972-1976", p.633.
①Vernon W. Ruttan, "The Politics of U.S.Food Aid Policy. A Historical Review", in Vernon W.Ruttan(eds.), Why Food Aid. Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins University Press, p.22.
②Vernon W. Ruttan. "The Politics of U.S.Food Aid Policy:A Historical Review", in Vernon W.Ruttan(eds.). Why Food Aid. Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins Universitv'Press, p.22.
③Stephen S. Rosenfeld. "The Politics of Food". Foreign Policy. No.14,1974. P.23.
④A.Hasenclever. P.Mayer. V.Rittberger,Fair Burden-sharing and the Robustness of International Regimes.
⑤Leslie H. Gelb and Anthony Lake. "Washington Dateline:Less Food. More Politics". P.177.
①D. John Shaw, World Food Security:A History Since 1945, pp.121-122.
②D. John Shaw, World Food Security:A History Since 1945,pp.118-119.
③Gerald W. Thomas.'"A Rangeman's Critique of the World Food Conference", Journal of Range Management. Vol.28. No.2.1975. p.86.
④ D. John Shaw, World Food Security:A History Since 1945,p.121.
①Ross B. Talbot. The Four World Food Agencies in Rome. Iowa State University Press.1990. p.101.
②Ross B. Talbot. The Four World Food Agencies in Rome. p.101.
③Stephen S. Rosenfeld. "The Politics of Food'", p.26.
①U.S., Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States (cited as FRUS).1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.922.
②Vernon W. Ruttan (eds.). Why Food Aid. Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins University Press, p.235.
③ Stephen S. Rosenfeld, "The Politics of Food", pp.25-26.
④ FRUS.1969-1976, Vol. E-14. part 1. Document 139.
⑤ FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. E-14. part 1. Document 130.
⑥FRUS.1969-1976, Vol. E-14. part 1. Document 131.
⑦ FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. E-14. part 1. Document 134.
① FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. E-14. part 1. Document 139.
② FRUS,1969-1976, Vol. E-14. part 1. Document 131.
③ FRUS,1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.888.
④FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.876.
⑤ FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.869.
⑥ FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. E-14. part 1. Document 134.
⑦ FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. E-14. part 1. Document 143.
①FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. E-14. part 1, Document 131.
②FRUS,1969-1976. Vol.XXXI. p.889.
③Margaret P. Karns and Karen A. Mingst. "The United States and Multilateral Institutions:A Framework for Analysis" in Karen A. Mings and Margaret P. Karns (ed.). The United States and Multilateral Institutions:Patterns of Changing Instrumentality and Influence. Boston:Unwin Hyman,1990. p.2.
④FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.874.
①Thomas G. Weiss Probert S. Jordan. The World Food Conference and Global Problem Solving, p.11.
②FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.869.
③FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.870.
①FRUS,1969-1976, Vol. XXXI. pp.876-877.
②FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI, p.918.
③FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. pp.896-897.
④FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.913.
⑤FRUS,1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. pp.919-920.
①FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI, pp.925-929.
②FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI, p.921.
③Stephen S. Rosenfeld. "The Politics of Food", p.24.
④FRUS.1969-1976, Vol. XXXI. p.897.
⑤FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. pp.952-953.
①D. John Shaw. World Food Security:A History Since 1945. p.133.
②Leslie H. Gelb and Anthony Lake, "Washington Dateline:Less Food. More Politics",p.180.
③FRUS.1969-1976. Vol.E-14,part 1.Document 16.
④Leslie H. Gelb and Anthony Lake, "Washington Dateline:Less Food. More Politics", p.180.
⑤FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. ⅩⅩⅪ, p.897.
⑥FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. ⅩⅩⅪ, p.871.
① FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.894.
② FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI, p.918.
③ FRUS.1969-1976, Vol. XXXI. pp.929-930.
④ FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. pp.935-939.
⑤ FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.934.
⑥'FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.943.
⑦ Leslie H. Gelb and Anthony Lake, "'Washington Dateline:Less Food. More Politics"', p.183.
①FRUS,1969-1976. Vol. XXXI, p.953.
②FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI, pp.954-955.
③FRUS,1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.962.
④FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI, p.970.
⑤D. John Shaw. World Food Security:A History Since 1945, p.132.
①FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.960.
② Ross B. Talbot "The International Fund For Agricultural Development''. Political Science Quarterly, Vol.95. No.2.1980.p.262.
③Gerald W. Thomas. "A Rangeman's Critique of the World Food Conference", p.87.
④D. John Shaw. World Food Security:A History Since 1945. p.126.
①Gerald W. Thomas. "A Rangeman's Critique of the World Food Conference", p.87.
②Gerald W. Thomas. "A Rangeman's Critique of the World Food Conference", p.87.
③Ross B. Talbot. The Four World Food Agencies in Rome. Iowa State University Press,1990,p.102.
④Ross B. Talbot. The Four World Food Agencies in Rome, p.103.
①Ross B. Talbot. The Four World Food Agencies in Rome. p.104.
②Ross B. Talbot. "The International Fund for Agricultural Development", p.263.
③Ross B. Talbot. "The International Fund for Agricultural Development", p.264.
④Ross B. Talbot. The Four World Food Agencies in Rome, p.103.
⑤FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. P.918.
⑥Ross B. Talbot. The Four World Food Agencies in Rome. p.103.
⑦Ibrahim Shihata. "The Opec Special Fund and the North-South Dialogue'", Third World Quarterly. Vol.1. NO.4. 1979. p.34.
①Ross B. Talbot. The Four World Food Agencies in Rome. p.128.
② Vernon W.Ruttan (eds.). Why Food Aid. p.26.
③ Mitchell B. Wallenstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.47.
④ FRUS.1969-1976, Vol. XXXI. p.897.
①D. John Shaw. World Food Security:A History Since 1945. p.159.
②YUN,1960, p.498.
③ D. John Shaw. World Food Security:A History:Since 1945. p.142.
④D. John Shaw. World Food Security:A History Since 1945. p.159.
①D. John Shaw. Horld Food Securiyy A History Since 1945. p.146.
①D. John Shaw. World Food Security:A History Since 1945. p.167.
②FRUS,1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.965.
③D. John Shaw. World Food Security:A Histon Since 1945. p.147.
④FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.965.
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[14]Raymond F. Hopkins and Donald J. Puchala, "Perspectives on the International Relations of Food", International Organization., Vol.32, No.3,1978
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[1]伯纳德·霍克曼等著：《全球贸易体制的政治经济学》,刘平等译,北京： 法律出版社2009年版
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[6]赫尔曼·M·施瓦茨著：《国家与市场：全球经济的兴起》,徐佳译,江苏：江苏人民出版社2008年版
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[10]J·T·施莱贝克尔：《美国农业史》,高田等译,北京：农业出版社1981年版
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[1]程极明：《欧洲共同体共同农业政策》,载《世界经济》,1993年第11期
[2]丁谦：《美国农业的过去、现在和未来》,载《未来与发展》1987年第5期,第18页
[3]佟佳凡：《<宅地法>对美国农业生产发展的作用初探》,载《辽宁师范大学学报》1990年第1期
[4]刘宏谊：《农业革命是经济腾飞的先导和基础——十九世纪美国农业革命及其影响》,载《世界经济文汇》1986年第4期
[5]刘自强：《十九世纪后期美国农业危机成因探析》,载《贵州师范大学学报(社会科学版)》2006年第3期
[6]王慧英：《“剩余品”时代美国的对外粮食援助政策》,载《世界历史》2006年第2期
[7]王世群：《美国农业出口与粮食援助政策：历史演变与发展趋势》,载《农业经济》,2010年第1期
[8]谢华：《冷战时期美国粮食外交的历史演变(1954—1969)》,载《历史教学》2009年第6期
②广东省哲学社会科学研究所《美国农业经济概况》编写组编：《美国农业经济概况》,人民出版社1976年版,第3页。
③吉尔伯特·C·菲特等：《美国经济史》,司徒淳方秉铸译,辽宁：辽宁人民出版社1981年版,第533页。
④陈华山：《当代美国农业经济研究》,武汉：武汉大学出版社1996年版,第47页。
⑤丁谦：《美国农业的过去、现在和未来》,载《未来与发展》1987年第5期,第18页。
①H.U·福克纳等：《近百年美国经济史》,彭松建等译,北京：中国社会科学出版社1983年版,第64页。
②刘宏谊：《农业革命是经济腾飞的先导和基础——十九世纪美国农业革命及其影响》,载《世界经济文汇》1986年第4期。
③J·T·施莱贝克尔：《美国农业史》,高田等译,北京：农业出版社1981年版,第168页。
④刘自强：《十九世纪后期美国农业危机成因探析》,载《贵族师范大学学报》2006年第3期。
⑤佟佳凡：《(宅地法)对美国农业生产发展的作用初探》,载《辽宁师范大学学报》1990年第1期。
⑥乔纳森·休斯等：《美国经济史》,邸晓燕等译,北京：北京大学出版社2011年版,第320页。
⑦乔纳森·休斯等：《美国经济史》,邸晓燕等译,北京：北京大学出版社2011年版,第316页。
①丁谦：《美国农业的过去、现在和未来》,载《未来与发展》1987年第5期,第18页。
②斯坦利·L·恩格尔曼等主编：《剑桥美国经济史第三卷》,高德步等译,北京：中国人民大学出版社2008年版,第508—509页。
③乔纳森·休斯等：《美国经济史》,邸晓燕等译,北京：北京大学出版社2011年版,第324页。
①广东省哲学社会科学研究所《美国农业经济概况》编写组编：《美国农业经济概况》,人民出版社1976年版,第282页。
②薛伯英等：《美国经济的兴衰》,湖南：湖南人民出版社1988年版,第36页。
③斯坦利·L·恩格尔曼等主编：《剑桥美国经济史第二卷》,高德步等译,北京：中国人民大学出版社2008年版,第200页。
④吉尔伯特·C·菲特等：《美国经济史》,司徒淳等译,辽宁：辽宁人民出版社1981年版,第545、536页。
⑤H.U·福克纳等：《近百年美国经济史》,彭松建等译,北京：中国社会科学出版社1983年版,第81页。
①斯坦利.L·恩格尔曼等主编：《剑桥美国经济史第二卷》,高德步等译,北京：中国人民大学出版社2008年版,第496、498页。
②J·T·施莱贝克尔：《美国农业史》,高田等译,北京：农业出版社1981年版,第165页。
③陈华山：《当代美国农业经济研究》,武汉：武汉大学出版社1996年版,第84页。
④陈华山：《当代美国农业经济研究》,武汉：武汉大学出版社1996年版,第100页。
⑤H·U.福克纳等：《近百年美国经济史》,彭松建等译,北京：中国社会科学出版社1983年版,第85页。
⑥广东省哲学社会科学研究所《美国农业经济概况》编写组编：《美国农业经济概况》,人民出版社1976年版,第24页。
①陈华山：《当代美国农业经济研究》,武汉：武汉大学出版社1996年版,第101页。
②陈华山：《当代美国农业经济研究》,武汉：武汉大学出版社1996年版,第102页。
③Mitchel B.Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace:United States Food Aid in a Global Context.The MIT Press.1980. p.5.
'④DJohn Shaw. The UK World Food Programme and the Development of Food Aid. PALGRAVE.2001. p.30.
③王世群：《美国农业出口与粮食援助政策：历史演变与发展趋势》,载《农业经济》,2010年第1期。
①《战后美国经济》编写组：《战后美国经济》,上海：上海人民出版社1974年版,第108页。
①D.John Shaw. The UN World Food Programme and the Development of Food Aid. PALGRAVE.2001. p.30.
②J·T·施莱贝克尔：《美国农业史》，高田等译,北京：农业出版社1981年版,第293页。
③A. Hasenclever, P. Mayer. V. Rittberger:Fair Burden-sharing and the Robustness of International Regimes:The Case of Food Aid. Tubingen 1998.
④Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.4-5.
①Stephen S. Rosenfeld, "The Politics of Food". Foreign Policy, No.14,1974, P.18.
②Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.264.
③John H. Davis. "Agricultural Surplus and Foreign Aid". The American Economic Review. Vo1.49. NO.2.1959. P.232.
④Bruce F. Johnston. "Farm Surpluses and Foreign Policy", World Politics. Vol.10. No.1.1957. p.l.
⑤Robert M. Stern. "Agricultural Surplus Disposal and U.S. Economic Policies". Vol.12. No.3.1960. p.423.
⑥Peter Uvin. "Regime. Surplus, and Self-Interest:The International Politics of Food Aid", International Studies Ouarterh. Vol.36. No.3.1992. P.301.
⑦Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.34.
①Mitchel B. Wallerstem, Food for War-Food for Peace, pp.12-13.
②Mitchel B. Wallerstein, Food for War-Food for Peace, pp.34-36.
①Peter Uvin. "Regime. Surplus, and Self-Interest:The International Politics of Food Aid'", p.294.
②Stephen S. Rosenfeld. "The Politics of Food". Foreign Policy. No.14.1974, P.18.
③Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p..6.
④谢华：《冷战时期美国粮食外交的历史演变(1954—1969)》,载《历史教学》2009年第6期。
⑤John H. Davis. "Agricultural Surplus and Foreign Aid", p.233.
①王慧英：《肯尼迪与美国对外经济援助》,北京：中国社会科学出版社2007年版,第167页。
②John H. Davis. "Agricultural Surplus and Foreign Aid", p.238.
③西奥多·索伦森：《肯尼迪》, 复旦大学世界经济研究所译,上海：上海译文出版社1981年版,第235页。
③Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.8.
①DJohn Shaw, The UN World Food Programme and the Development of Food Aid. PALGRAVE,2001, D.32.
②Mitchel B. Wallerstein, Food for War-Food for Peace, p.37.
③小阿瑟·施莱辛格：《一千天：约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,第93页。
①Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.38.
①苏长和：《译者序：美国政治与多边主义》,载约翰·鲁杰主编：《多边主义》，苏长和等译,杭州：浙江人民出版社2003年版,第2页。
②利莎·马丁：《理性国家对多边主义的选择》,载约翰·鲁杰主编：《多边主义》,苏长和等译,杭州：浙江人民出版社2003年版,第130页。
①Raymond F. Hopkins. "International Food Organizations and the United States:Drifting Leadership and Diverging Interests", in Margaret P. Karns. Karen A. Mingst.The United States multilateral institutions:Patterns of changing instrumentality and influence. Boston:Unwin Hyman.1990. pp.178-181.
②安—玛丽·伯利：《对世界的管制：多边主义、国际法及新政管制国家的推广》,载约翰·鲁杰主编：《多边主义》,苏长和等译,杭州：浙江人民出版社2003年版,第164到166页。
③安一玛丽·伯利：《对世界的管制：多边主义、国际法及新政管制国家的推广》,第143页。
①Peter Uvin. "'Regime, Surplus, and Self-interest:The International Politics of Food Aid". International Studies Quarterly. Vo1.36. No.3.1992. p.296.
①Henry R. Nau. "The diplomacy of World Food:Goals. CAP abilities. Issues and Arenas". International Organization, Vol.32, No.3,1978. p.797.
②谢华：《冷战时期美国粮食外交的历史演变(1954—1969)》,载《历史教学》,2009年第6期,第25页。
③Mitchel B. Wallerstein:Food for War-Food for Peace:United States Food Aid in a Global Context. The MIT Press.1980. p.8.
④王慧英：《“剩余品”时代美国的对外粮食援助政策》,载《世界历史》2006年第2期,第16页。
①弗雷德里克·西格尔：《多难的旅程：四十年代至八十年代初美国政治生活史》,刘绪贻等译,北京：商务印书馆1990年版,第132页。
②小阿瑟施莱辛格：《一千天》,仲宜译,北京：三联书店1981年版,第465页。
③Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.233.
①J.斯帕尼尔：《第二次世界大战后美国的外交政策》,段若石译,北京：商务印书馆1992年版,第166页。
②王慧英：《肯尼迪与美国对外经济援助》,北京：中国社会科学出版社2007年版,第50页。
③雷迅马：《作为意识形态的现代化：社会科学与美国对第三世界政策》,牛可译,北京：中央编译出版社,第3页。
④小阿瑟·施莱辛格：《一千天》,第387页。
①雷迅马：《作为意识形态的现代化》,中文版序言。
②小阿瑟·施菜辛格：《一千天》,第134页。
③弗雷德里克西格尔：《多难的旅程》,第138页。
④西奥多索伦森：《肯尼迪》,复旦大学世界经济研究所译，北海：上海译文出版社1981年版,第343页。
⑤小阿瑟施莱辛格：《一千天》,第137页。
⑥Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.183.
①D. John Shaw. The UN World Food Programme and the Development of Food Aid. PALGRAVE,2001. p.13.
②王慧英：《肯尼迪与美国对外经济援助》,第191页。
③罗伯特·沃尔特斯：《美苏援助：对比分析》,陈源等译,北京：商务印书馆1974年版,第232页。
④罗伯特·沃尔特斯：《美苏援助：对比分析》,第193到194页。
⑤MitchelB. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.90.
①DJohn Shaw.The UN World Food Programme and the Development of Food Aid. p.20.
②Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, pp.92-93.
①DJohn Shaw. The UN World Food Programme and the Development ofFoodAid.p.13.
①United Nations. YearBook of the United Nations (cited as YUN).1960. pp.300-301
②YUN,1960,p.299.
③D·John Shaw. The UN World Food Programme and the Development of Food Aid.p.22.
④Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, pp.168-169.
①Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.105.
① D.John Shaw, The UN World Food Programme and the Development of Food Aid.p.64.
② Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.109-110.
③ Raymond F. Hopkins and Donald J. Puchala. "Perspectives on the International Relations of Food"'. International Organization. Vol.32. No.3.1978. p.605.
①Raymond F. Hopkins. "Perspectives on the International Relations of Food", p.608.
②Ross B. Talbot. The Four World Food Agencies in Rome. Iowa State University Press.1990. p.132.
①王慧英：《肯尼迪与美国对外经济援助》，第177到178页。
①《国际小麦协定》是战后初期由美国主导建立的多边小麦贸易机制,基于多边的销售合同,以把国际小麦价格稳定在一个确定的范围内而避免战前多次出现的剧烈价格波动。它是在战后国际小麦价格下跌和担忧剩余粮食重新堆积的背景下建立起来的。
②Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace:United States Food Aid in a Global Context. The MIT Press.1980. p.1 12.
③Raymond F. Hopkins. "Reform In the International Food Aid Regime:The Role of Consensual Knowledge". International Organization. Vol.46, No.1.1992. p.227.
①程极明：《欧洲共同体共同农业政策》,南京：译林出版社1994年版,第4页。
②事实上,世界粮食剩余并不完全是由于供过于求,而是因为众多的发展中国家因缺乏外汇而无力购买。这成为国际粮食援助的现实基础。
③Edward M. Leonard. "Commodity Price-Fixing:The International Grains Arrangement of 1967". Stanford Law Review. Vo1.23. No.2.1971. p.307.
④Nigel Swain:《欧盟共同农业政策研究》,赵昌文译,成都：西南财经大学出版社2001年版,第29页。
①Edward M. Leonard,'"Commodity Price-Fixing:The International Grains Arrangement of 1967". Stanford Law Review. Vo1.23, No.2.1971. p.309.
①翁贝尔托·特留尔齐：《从共同市场到单一货币：欧盟的一体化政策》,张宓,刘儒庭译,北京：北京对外经济贸易大学出版社2008年版,第85页。
③Richard N. Cooper. "Trade policy is Foreign Policy". Foreign Policy. No.9.1972-1973. p.23.
④程极明：《欧洲共同体共同农业政策》,南京：译林出版社1994年版，第38页。
⑤程极明：《欧洲共同体共同农业政策》,载《世界经济》,]993年第11期,第57页。
⑥李世安，刘丽云等著：《欧洲一体化史》,石家庄：河北人民出版社2003年版,第102页。
①Richard N. Cooper. "Trade policy is Foreign Policy", Foreign Policy. No.9,1972-1973. p.23.
②赫尔曼.M·施瓦茨著：《国家与市场：全球经济的兴起》,徐佳译,江苏：江苏人民出版社2008年版,第382页。
③Ernest H. Preeg. Traders and Diplomats:An analysis of the Kennedy Round of negotiations under the General ④Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. The Brookings Institution.1970, p.4.
Ernest H. Preeg, Traders and Diplomats.pp.32-36.
⑤Irwin R. Hedges. "Kennedy round Agricultural Negotiations and the World Grains Agreement". Journal of Farm Economics. Vol.49. No.5.1967. pp.1333-1335.
①伯纳德·霍克曼等著：《全球贸易体制的政治经济学》,刘平等译,北京：法律出版社2009年版,第203页。
②Richard N. Cooper,'"Trade policy is Foreign Policy'". Foreign Policy. No.9,1972-1973. p.24.
③Irwin R. Hedges. "Kennedy round Agricultural Negotiations and the World Grains Agreement'". Journal of Farm Economics. Vo1.49. No.5.1967. p.1335.
④Ernest H. Preeg. Traders and Diplomats.p.155.
⑤王慧英：《肯尼迪与美国对外经济援助》,北京：中国社会科学出版社2007年版,第183页。
⑤Ernest H. Preeg, Traders and Diplomats.p.155.
①Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace:United States Food Aid in a Global Context. The MIT Press.1980. p.171.
②Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.171-172.
①U.S.. Department of State. Foreign Relations of the United States.1964-1968. Vol. ⅩⅢ. p.577.
②Ernest H. Preeg. Traders and Diplomats.pp.152-153.
③Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.90.
①John B. Rehm. "Developments in the Law and Institutions of International Economic Relations:The Kennedy Round of Trade Negotiations". The American Journal of International Law. Vol.62, No.2.1968. p.423.
②Ernest H. Preeg. Traders andDiplomats.P155.
①John B. Rehm. "Developments in the Law and Institutions of International Economic Relations ",p.426.
②Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace. P.256.
①Peter Uvin. "Regime. Surplus, and Self-interest:The International Politics of Food Aid'". International Studies Quarterly. Vo1.36. No.3.1992.P.303.
②Australian Department of External Affairs.1968. International Grains Arrangement 1967. Posted at http://138.25.65.50/au/other/dfat/treaties/1 968/14.html.
①Mitchel B. Wallerstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.173.
②Ernest H. Preeg. Traders and Diplomats.p.255.
③A. Hasenclever. P. Mayer. V. Rittberger. Fair Burden-sharing and the Robustness of International Regimes.
①Raymond F. Hopkins, "The Evolution of Food Aid:Towards a Development-First Regime'", in Vernon W.Ruttan(eds.). Why Food Aid. Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins University Press, p.132.
② A.Hasenclever. P.Mayer. V.Rittberger. Fair Burden-sharing and the Robustness of International Regime.
①D. John Shaw, World food security:a history since 1945. Basingstoke [England]; New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2007.p.l18.
②Thomas G.Weiss Probert S.Jordan, The World Food Conference and Global Problem Solving. Praeger Publishers, Inc.1976, p.10.
①I.M. Destler. "United States Food Policy 1972-1976:Reconciling Domestic and International Objectives". International Organization. Vol 32. Issue 3.1978. P.623.
②D. John Shaw. World Food Security: A History Since 1945. pp.116-117.
③Thomas G.Weiss Probert S.Jordan. The World Food Conference and Global Problem Solving.p.10.
④Raymond F. Hopkins and Donald J. Puchala. "Perspectives on the International Relations of Food". International Organization. Vo1.32. No.3.1978. p.584.
①Mitchel B. Wallerstein, Food for War-Food for Peace:United States Food Aid in a Global Context, The MIT Press,1980, P.33注：数据4030和36.6%由计算得来。
② I. M. Destler, "United States Food Policy 1972-1976", p.622.
③ Leslie H. Gelb and Anthony Lake, "Washington Dateline:Less Food, More Politics", Foreign Policy, No.17, 1974-1975, p.177.
①I.M. Destler. "'United States Food Policy 1972-1976". p.622.
②Henry R. Nau."The diplomacy of World Food:Goals. CAP abilities. Issues and Arenas". International Organization, Vo1.32, No.3,1978.p.794.
③Vernon W. Ruttan. "'The Politics of U.S.Food Aid Policy:A Historical Review", in Vernon W.Ruttan (eds.). Why Food Aid. Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins University Press, p.22注：此处数据由换算得来。
④I.M. Destler. "United States Food Policy 1972-1976". P.622.
⑤ Thomas G.Weiss Probert S.Jordan. The World Food Conference and Global Problem Solving, p.10.
①Raymond F. Hopkins, "Reform in the International Food Aid Regime:The Role of Consensual Knowledge", International Organization, Vo1.46, No.l,1992, p.234.
② I.M. Destler, "United States Food Policy 1972-1976", p.633.
①Vernon W. Ruttan, "The Politics of U.S.Food Aid Policy. A Historical Review", in Vernon W.Ruttan(eds.), Why Food Aid. Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins University Press, p.22.
②Vernon W. Ruttan. "The Politics of U.S.Food Aid Policy:A Historical Review", in Vernon W.Ruttan(eds.). Why Food Aid. Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins Universitv'Press, p.22.
③Stephen S. Rosenfeld. "The Politics of Food". Foreign Policy. No.14,1974. P.23.
④A.Hasenclever. P.Mayer. V.Rittberger,Fair Burden-sharing and the Robustness of International Regimes.
⑤Leslie H. Gelb and Anthony Lake. "Washington Dateline:Less Food. More Politics". P.177.
①D. John Shaw, World Food Security:A History Since 1945, pp.121-122.
②D. John Shaw, World Food Security:A History Since 1945,pp.118-119.
③Gerald W. Thomas.'"A Rangeman's Critique of the World Food Conference", Journal of Range Management. Vol.28. No.2.1975. p.86.
④ D. John Shaw, World Food Security:A History Since 1945,p.121.
①Ross B. Talbot. The Four World Food Agencies in Rome. Iowa State University Press.1990. p.101.
②Ross B. Talbot. The Four World Food Agencies in Rome. p.101.
③Stephen S. Rosenfeld. "The Politics of Food'", p.26.
①U.S., Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States (cited as FRUS).1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.922.
②Vernon W. Ruttan (eds.). Why Food Aid. Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins University Press, p.235.
③ Stephen S. Rosenfeld, "The Politics of Food", pp.25-26.
④ FRUS.1969-1976, Vol. E-14. part 1. Document 139.
⑤ FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. E-14. part 1. Document 130.
⑥FRUS.1969-1976, Vol. E-14. part 1. Document 131.
⑦ FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. E-14. part 1. Document 134.
① FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. E-14. part 1. Document 139.
② FRUS,1969-1976, Vol. E-14. part 1. Document 131.
③ FRUS,1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.888.
④FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.876.
⑤ FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.869.
⑥ FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. E-14. part 1. Document 134.
⑦ FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. E-14. part 1. Document 143.
①FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. E-14. part 1, Document 131.
②FRUS,1969-1976. Vol.XXXI. p.889.
③Margaret P. Karns and Karen A. Mingst. "The United States and Multilateral Institutions:A Framework for Analysis" in Karen A. Mings and Margaret P. Karns (ed.). The United States and Multilateral Institutions:Patterns of Changing Instrumentality and Influence. Boston:Unwin Hyman,1990. p.2.
④FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.874.
①Thomas G. Weiss Probert S. Jordan. The World Food Conference and Global Problem Solving, p.11.
②FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.869.
③FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.870.
①FRUS,1969-1976, Vol. XXXI. pp.876-877.
②FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI, p.918.
③FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. pp.896-897.
④FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.913.
⑤FRUS,1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. pp.919-920.
①FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI, pp.925-929.
②FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI, p.921.
③Stephen S. Rosenfeld. "The Politics of Food", p.24.
④FRUS.1969-1976, Vol. XXXI. p.897.
⑤FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. pp.952-953.
①D. John Shaw. World Food Security:A History Since 1945. p.133.
②Leslie H. Gelb and Anthony Lake, "Washington Dateline:Less Food. More Politics",p.180.
③FRUS.1969-1976. Vol.E-14,part 1.Document 16.
④Leslie H. Gelb and Anthony Lake, "Washington Dateline:Less Food. More Politics", p.180.
⑤FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. ⅩⅩⅪ, p.897.
⑥FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. ⅩⅩⅪ, p.871.
① FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.894.
② FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI, p.918.
③ FRUS.1969-1976, Vol. XXXI. pp.929-930.
④ FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. pp.935-939.
⑤ FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.934.
⑥'FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.943.
⑦ Leslie H. Gelb and Anthony Lake, "'Washington Dateline:Less Food. More Politics"', p.183.
①FRUS,1969-1976. Vol. XXXI, p.953.
②FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI, pp.954-955.
③FRUS,1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.962.
④FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI, p.970.
⑤D. John Shaw. World Food Security:A History Since 1945, p.132.
①FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.960.
② Ross B. Talbot "The International Fund For Agricultural Development''. Political Science Quarterly, Vol.95. No.2.1980.p.262.
③Gerald W. Thomas. "A Rangeman's Critique of the World Food Conference", p.87.
④D. John Shaw. World Food Security:A History Since 1945. p.126.
①Gerald W. Thomas. "A Rangeman's Critique of the World Food Conference", p.87.
②Gerald W. Thomas. "A Rangeman's Critique of the World Food Conference", p.87.
③Ross B. Talbot. The Four World Food Agencies in Rome. Iowa State University Press,1990,p.102.
④Ross B. Talbot. The Four World Food Agencies in Rome, p.103.
①Ross B. Talbot. The Four World Food Agencies in Rome. p.104.
②Ross B. Talbot. "The International Fund for Agricultural Development", p.263.
③Ross B. Talbot. "The International Fund for Agricultural Development", p.264.
④Ross B. Talbot. The Four World Food Agencies in Rome, p.103.
⑤FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. P.918.
⑥Ross B. Talbot. The Four World Food Agencies in Rome. p.103.
⑦Ibrahim Shihata. "The Opec Special Fund and the North-South Dialogue'", Third World Quarterly. Vol.1. NO.4. 1979. p.34.
①Ross B. Talbot. The Four World Food Agencies in Rome. p.128.
② Vernon W.Ruttan (eds.). Why Food Aid. p.26.
③ Mitchell B. Wallenstein. Food for War-Food for Peace, p.47.
④ FRUS.1969-1976, Vol. XXXI. p.897.
①D. John Shaw. World Food Security:A History Since 1945. p.159.
②YUN,1960, p.498.
③ D. John Shaw. World Food Security:A History:Since 1945. p.142.
④D. John Shaw. World Food Security:A History Since 1945. p.159.
①D. John Shaw. Horld Food Securiyy A History Since 1945. p.146.
①D. John Shaw. World Food Security:A History Since 1945. p.167.
②FRUS,1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.965.
③D. John Shaw. World Food Security:A Histon Since 1945. p.147.
④FRUS.1969-1976. Vol. XXXI. p.965.
[1]United Nations, YearBook of the United Nations (cited as YUN),1960.
[2]United Nations, YearBook of the United Nations,1976.
[3]U.S., Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States (cited as FRUS), 1964-1968, Vol. XIII
[4]U.S., Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States,1969-1976, Vol. XXXI
[5]U.S., Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States,1969-1976, Vol.E-14, part 1
[1]A. Hasenclever, P. Mayer, V. Rittberger, Fair Burden-sharing and the Robustness of International Regimes:The Case of Food Aid. Tubingen 1998. Posted at http://tobias-lib.uni-tuebingen.de/volltexte/2000/l 5 l/pdf/tap31.pdf
[2]D. John Shaw, World Food Security:A History Since 1945, Basingstoke [England]; New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2007.
[3]D. John Shaw, The UN World Food Programme and the Development of Food Aid. PALGRAVE,2001,
[4]Ernest H. Preeg, Traders and Diplomats:An analysis of the Kennedy Round of negotiations under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. The Brookings Institution,1970
[5]Karen A. Mings and Margaret P. Karns(ed.), The United States and Multilateral Institutions:Patterns of Changing Instrumentality and Influence, Boston:Unwin Hyman,1990
[6]Margaret P. Karns, Karen A. Mingst,the United States multilateral institutions: Patterns of changing instrumentality and influence, Boston:Unwin Hyman,1990.
[7]Mitchel B. Wallerstein, Food for War-Food for Peace:United States Food Aid in a Global Context, The MIT Press,1980
[8]Ross B. Talbot, The Four World Food Agencies in Rome, Iowa State University Press,1990
[9]StephenD. Krasner主编：《国际机制(影印版)》,北京：北京大学出版社2005年版
[10]Thomas G.Weiss Probert S.Jordan, The World Food Conference and Global Problem Solving. Praeger Publishers,Inc.1976
[1]Australian Department of External Affairs,1968, International Grains Arrangement 1967. Posted at http://138.25.65.50/au/other/dfat/treaties/1968/14.html.
[2]Bruce F. Johnston, "Farm Surpluses and Foreign Policy", World Politics. Vol.10, No.1,1957
[3]Edward M. Leonard, "Commodity Price-Fixing:The International Grains Arrangement of 1967", Stanford Law Review, Vol.23, No.2,1971
[4]Gerald W. Thomas, "A Rangeman's Critique of the World Food Conference" Journal of Range Management, Vol.28, No.2,1975
[5]Henry R. Nau, "The diplomacy of World Food:Goals, Capabilities, Issues and Arenas", International Organization, Vol.32, No.3,1978
[6]Ibrahim Shihata, "The OPEC Special Fund and the North-South Dialogue", Third World Quarterly, Vol.1, NO.4,1979
[7]I.M. Destler, "United States Food Policy 1972-1976:Reconciling Domestic and International Objectives", International Organization, Vol 32, Issue 03,1978
[8]Irwin R. Hedges, "Kennedy round Agricultural Negotiations and the World Grains Agreement", Journal of Farm Economics, Vo1.49, No.5,1967
[9]John H. Davis, "Agricultural Surplus and Foreign Aid", The American Economic Review, Vol.49, NO.2,1959
[10]John B. Rehm, "Developments in the Law and Institutions of International Economic Relations:The Kennedy Round of Trade Negotiations", The American Journal of International Law, Vol.62, No.2,1968
[11]Leslie H. Gelb and Anthony Lake, "Washington Dateline:Less Food, More Politics", Foreign Policy, No.17,1974-1975.
[12]Peter Uvin, "Regime, Surplus, and Self-interest:The International Politics of Food Aid", International Studies Quarterly, Vol.36, No.3,1992
[13]Raymond F. Hopkins, "International Food Organizations and the United States: Drifting Leadership and Diverging Interests", in Margaret P. Karns, Karen A. Mingst (eds), The United States multilateral institutions:Patterns of changing instrumentality and influence, Boston:Unwin Hyman,1990.
[14]Raymond F. Hopkins and Donald J. Puchala, "Perspectives on the International Relations of Food", International Organization., Vol.32, No.3,1978
[15]Raymond F. Hopkins, "Reform In the International Food Aid Regime:The Role of Consensual Knowledge", International Organization, Vol.46, No.l,1992
[16]Richard N. Cooper, "Trade policy is Foreign Policy", Foreign Policy, No.9, 1972-1973
[17]Ross B. Talbot, "The International Fund For Agricultural Development" Political Science Quarterly, Vol.95, No.2,1980
[18]Robert M. Stern, "Agricultural Surplus Disposal and U.S. Economic Policies" Vol.12, No.3,1960
[19]Stephen S. Rosenfeld, "The Politics of Food", Foreign Policy, No.14,1974
[20]Vernon W. Ruttan (eds.), Why Food Aid, Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins University Press
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[4]弗雷德里克·西格尔：《多难的旅程：四十年代至八十年代初美国政治生活史》,刘绪贻等译,北京：商务印书馆1990年版
[5]广东省哲学社会科学研究所《美国农业经济概况》编写组编：《美国农业经济概况》,人民出版社1976年版
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[9]J.斯帕尼尔：《第二次世界大战后美国的外交政策》,段若石译,北京：商务印书馆1992年版
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[15]乔纳森·休斯等：《美国经济史》,邸晓燕等译,北京：北京大学出版社2011年版
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