核损害民事责任研究
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摘要
随着核能和平利用的发展,核能的安全性日益引起人们的广泛关注,核损害及其赔偿已经成为无法回避的问题。在核损害责任国际公约的框架下,建立健全国内的核损害责任制度,将有利于保护公众(第三方)的利益,促进核工业的健康发展以及核能领域的国际合作。
第一章阐述了损害和核损害的基本界定,主要论述了核损害的特征和危害、核损害的分类,即人体侵害、财产损害、环境损害。根据1997年的《核损害补充公约》、《核损害民事责任维也纳公约》的规定,核损害的定义为:生命丧失或人身伤害;财产的损失或损害;经济损失,条件是有资格对所述损失或损害提出索赔的人员遭受了此种损失;受损害环境(轻微者除外)的恢复措施费用;由于环境的明显损害所引起的收入损失,而这种收入来自环境的任何利用或享用方面的经济利益;预防措施费用以及由此类措施引起的进一步损失或损害;环境损害所造成的损失以外的任何其他经济损失。
第二章综述核损害民事责任立法的历史演进,时间跨度自20世纪50年代至2004年2月。主要考察了美国、德国、英国、日本、法国等有关国家的核责任立法以及国际核责任公约的发展。国际核责任公约主要包括:《1960年核能领域第三方责任公约》、1963年《布鲁塞尔补充公约》、1963年《维也纳公约》、《1971年海上核材料运输民事责任公约》、1988年《联合议定书》、《1997年维也纳议定书》、《1997年维也纳公约》、1997年《核损害补充赔偿公约》以及《巴黎公约》和《布鲁塞尔补充公约》2004年修正议定书。
第三章阐述了核损害民事责任的一般理论,包括民事责任的概念、民事责任的分类、民事责任的价值定位、民事责任的基础和功能、核损害民事责任的国际法基础(国际法律责任、国际损害责任)、核损害民事责任的归责原则、无过失责任或危险责任原则、核损害民事责任的构成要件、核损害民事责任中的因果关系、核损害民事责任的免除、核营运人的追索权等。
第四章涉及核损害责任制度的基本原则。核损害责任制度的基本原则包括严格责任原则和绝对责任原则、唯一责任或责任集中原则、责任限制原则、强制性责任保险或财务保证原则、单一管辖法院管辖原则、国家介入原则以及不歧视原则。核损害责任法律制度中的严格责任和绝对责任,是指核设施营运人不论有无过错,只要发生核事故和造成核损害,就要承担民事责任。所谓责任集中是指在有复数责任主体的场合,法律只规定由其中之一承担赔偿责任,而其他责任人则不直接对受害人承担损害赔偿责任的制度。尤其是在有关核损害责任的国际公约以及各国的核损害责任立法中,均采用这一法律制度。核损害责任法的责任限制主要体现在两方面:赔偿数额和诉讼时效。确立单一管辖法院的主要目的是确保司法权的统一,以防止不同法院裁定的赔偿额超出营运人责任限额,并有利于对不同索赔请求权作出公正裁决。核损害责任法中的不歧视原则是指核事故发生后,核损害赔偿应在最高赔偿限额内不分受害人的国籍、户籍或居所等而进行公平分配,即核损害责任公约的缔约方和非缔约方的受害人均应获得核损害赔偿。
第五章论述了核损害赔偿的基本问题,核损害民事责任形式的概念及其种类、核损害赔偿及其规则、核损害赔偿的主体和范围、核损害赔偿中的环境损害赔偿,同时引用了核损害赔偿的两个实例。
第六章对中国大陆核损害责任制度的建构提出了建议。我国台湾地区已经基本建立了完整的原子能法律体系。但中国大陆现行核损害责任制度依然存在重大的缺陷,即核基本法或单行法至今阙如、国务院《关于处理第三方核责任问题的批复》无法适应现实需要。应该尽快建立和完善中国大陆的核损害责任制度。
With the development of nuclear use for peaceful purposes, nuclear safety has become a great concern and meanwhile, nuclear damage and compensation for nuclear damage has become an unavoidable issue. National legal systems for nuclear liability should be established and perfected under the framework of international conventions for nuclear liability, which will contribute to the sound development of nuclear industry and international cooperation in the field of nuclear energy.
Chapter 1 deals with the definitions for“damage”and“nuclear damage”, which focuses on the features, harmfulness and classification for nuclear damage. The classification for nuclear damage includes personal injury and damage to both property and environment. In Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage and 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage,“nuclear damage”means: i. loss of life, any personal injury; ii. loss of or damage to property; iii. economic loss, if incurred by a person entitled to claim in respect of such loss or damage; iv. the costs of measures of reinstatement of impaired environment, unless such impairment is insignificant, if such measures are actually taken or to be taken; v. loss of income deriving from an economic interest in any use or enjoyment of the environment, incurred as a result of a significant impairment of that environment; vi. the costs of preventive measures, and further loss or damage caused by such measures; vii. any other economic loss, other than any caused by the impairment of the environment, if permitted by the general law on civil liability of the competent court, to the extent that the loss or damage arises out of or results from ionizing radiation emitted by any source of radiation inside a nuclear installation, or emitted from nuclear fuel or radioactive products or waste in, or of nuclear material coming from, originating in, or sent to, a nuclear installation, whether so arising from the radioactive properties of such matter, or from a combination of radioactive properties with toxic, explosive or other hazardous properties of such matter.
Chapter 2 introduces the development of nuclear liability legislation for nuclear damage from the 1950s to February 2004, which is divided into three phrases. International conventions for nuclear liability mainly include the following: Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage ( 23 July 1998), Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage ( 21 May 1963), Protocol to Amend the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage ( 23 July 1998), 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage ( 12 September 1997), Protocols to amend the Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy and the Brussels Convention Supplementary to the Paris Convention, Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention ( 21 September 1988), Optional Protocol Concerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes to Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage ( 14 October 1999), Convention on the Establishment of a Security Control in the Field of Nuclear Energy, Treaty on Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, Convention on Nuclear Safety, The Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident, Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency, Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982, Convention of 31st January 1963 Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982, Convention on the Establishment of a Security Control in the Field of Nuclear Energy (20 December 1957), Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships, 1962, Convention Relating to Civil Liability in the Field of Maritime Carriage of Nuclear Material, 1971, Protocol to Amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (12 February 2004), Protocol to Amend the Convention of 31st January 1963 Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (12 February 2004).
Chapter 3 expounds the basic theory of the civil liability for nuclear damage, including the concept, classification, value, foundation and functions of civil liability; it also discusses the international law foundation, including international legal liability or responsibility, international liability for damage, liability channeling for the civil liability for nuclear damage, no-fault principle. Further more, it describes the causation and exemption for the civil liability for nuclear damage and the nuclear operator’s recourse.
Chapter 4 discusses the basic principles of the civil liability system for nuclear damage, including exclusive liability of the nuclear installation operator; absolute liability (no proof of fault or negligence required) of the nuclear installation operator; the nuclear installation operator's obligation to secure an insurance or other financial guarantee up to its liability amount; limitation on the amount of liability and the time for instituting damage claims; jurisdiction over claims generally to reside with the courts where the accident occurs; state intervention or participation; non-discrimination on the grounds of nationality, domicile or residence.
Chapter 5 analyses the basic forms of the compensation for nuclear damage, which includes the concept of the civil liability forms for nuclear damage, compensation for nuclear damage and its rules, the indemnitors and claimants and scopes of compensation for nuclear damage and compensation for environmental damage, and finally quotes several compensation cases for nuclear damage.
Chapter 6 proposes how to establish and perfect the liability system of China mainland. China’s Taiwan has a complete legal system for nuclear energy, but China mainland has not adopted any law or regulation on atomic energy and on compensation for nuclear damage except the 1986 State Council’s Reply Concerning the Third Party Liability, which is not a law or regulation concerning nuclear liability. With the development of nuclear use for peaceful purposes in China, the civil liability system for nuclear damage should be established and perfected as soon as possible.
第一章阐述了损害和核损害的基本界定,主要论述了核损害的特征和危害、核损害的分类,即人体侵害、财产损害、环境损害。根据1997年的《核损害补充公约》、《核损害民事责任维也纳公约》的规定,核损害的定义为:生命丧失或人身伤害;财产的损失或损害;经济损失,条件是有资格对所述损失或损害提出索赔的人员遭受了此种损失;受损害环境(轻微者除外)的恢复措施费用;由于环境的明显损害所引起的收入损失,而这种收入来自环境的任何利用或享用方面的经济利益;预防措施费用以及由此类措施引起的进一步损失或损害;环境损害所造成的损失以外的任何其他经济损失。
第二章综述核损害民事责任立法的历史演进,时间跨度自20世纪50年代至2004年2月。主要考察了美国、德国、英国、日本、法国等有关国家的核责任立法以及国际核责任公约的发展。国际核责任公约主要包括:《1960年核能领域第三方责任公约》、1963年《布鲁塞尔补充公约》、1963年《维也纳公约》、《1971年海上核材料运输民事责任公约》、1988年《联合议定书》、《1997年维也纳议定书》、《1997年维也纳公约》、1997年《核损害补充赔偿公约》以及《巴黎公约》和《布鲁塞尔补充公约》2004年修正议定书。
第三章阐述了核损害民事责任的一般理论,包括民事责任的概念、民事责任的分类、民事责任的价值定位、民事责任的基础和功能、核损害民事责任的国际法基础(国际法律责任、国际损害责任)、核损害民事责任的归责原则、无过失责任或危险责任原则、核损害民事责任的构成要件、核损害民事责任中的因果关系、核损害民事责任的免除、核营运人的追索权等。
第四章涉及核损害责任制度的基本原则。核损害责任制度的基本原则包括严格责任原则和绝对责任原则、唯一责任或责任集中原则、责任限制原则、强制性责任保险或财务保证原则、单一管辖法院管辖原则、国家介入原则以及不歧视原则。核损害责任法律制度中的严格责任和绝对责任,是指核设施营运人不论有无过错,只要发生核事故和造成核损害,就要承担民事责任。所谓责任集中是指在有复数责任主体的场合,法律只规定由其中之一承担赔偿责任,而其他责任人则不直接对受害人承担损害赔偿责任的制度。尤其是在有关核损害责任的国际公约以及各国的核损害责任立法中,均采用这一法律制度。核损害责任法的责任限制主要体现在两方面:赔偿数额和诉讼时效。确立单一管辖法院的主要目的是确保司法权的统一,以防止不同法院裁定的赔偿额超出营运人责任限额,并有利于对不同索赔请求权作出公正裁决。核损害责任法中的不歧视原则是指核事故发生后,核损害赔偿应在最高赔偿限额内不分受害人的国籍、户籍或居所等而进行公平分配,即核损害责任公约的缔约方和非缔约方的受害人均应获得核损害赔偿。
第五章论述了核损害赔偿的基本问题,核损害民事责任形式的概念及其种类、核损害赔偿及其规则、核损害赔偿的主体和范围、核损害赔偿中的环境损害赔偿,同时引用了核损害赔偿的两个实例。
第六章对中国大陆核损害责任制度的建构提出了建议。我国台湾地区已经基本建立了完整的原子能法律体系。但中国大陆现行核损害责任制度依然存在重大的缺陷,即核基本法或单行法至今阙如、国务院《关于处理第三方核责任问题的批复》无法适应现实需要。应该尽快建立和完善中国大陆的核损害责任制度。
With the development of nuclear use for peaceful purposes, nuclear safety has become a great concern and meanwhile, nuclear damage and compensation for nuclear damage has become an unavoidable issue. National legal systems for nuclear liability should be established and perfected under the framework of international conventions for nuclear liability, which will contribute to the sound development of nuclear industry and international cooperation in the field of nuclear energy.
Chapter 1 deals with the definitions for“damage”and“nuclear damage”, which focuses on the features, harmfulness and classification for nuclear damage. The classification for nuclear damage includes personal injury and damage to both property and environment. In Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage and 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage,“nuclear damage”means: i. loss of life, any personal injury; ii. loss of or damage to property; iii. economic loss, if incurred by a person entitled to claim in respect of such loss or damage; iv. the costs of measures of reinstatement of impaired environment, unless such impairment is insignificant, if such measures are actually taken or to be taken; v. loss of income deriving from an economic interest in any use or enjoyment of the environment, incurred as a result of a significant impairment of that environment; vi. the costs of preventive measures, and further loss or damage caused by such measures; vii. any other economic loss, other than any caused by the impairment of the environment, if permitted by the general law on civil liability of the competent court, to the extent that the loss or damage arises out of or results from ionizing radiation emitted by any source of radiation inside a nuclear installation, or emitted from nuclear fuel or radioactive products or waste in, or of nuclear material coming from, originating in, or sent to, a nuclear installation, whether so arising from the radioactive properties of such matter, or from a combination of radioactive properties with toxic, explosive or other hazardous properties of such matter.
Chapter 2 introduces the development of nuclear liability legislation for nuclear damage from the 1950s to February 2004, which is divided into three phrases. International conventions for nuclear liability mainly include the following: Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage ( 23 July 1998), Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage ( 21 May 1963), Protocol to Amend the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage ( 23 July 1998), 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage ( 12 September 1997), Protocols to amend the Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy and the Brussels Convention Supplementary to the Paris Convention, Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention ( 21 September 1988), Optional Protocol Concerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes to Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage ( 14 October 1999), Convention on the Establishment of a Security Control in the Field of Nuclear Energy, Treaty on Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, Convention on Nuclear Safety, The Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident, Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency, Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982, Convention of 31st January 1963 Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982, Convention on the Establishment of a Security Control in the Field of Nuclear Energy (20 December 1957), Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships, 1962, Convention Relating to Civil Liability in the Field of Maritime Carriage of Nuclear Material, 1971, Protocol to Amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (12 February 2004), Protocol to Amend the Convention of 31st January 1963 Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (12 February 2004).
Chapter 3 expounds the basic theory of the civil liability for nuclear damage, including the concept, classification, value, foundation and functions of civil liability; it also discusses the international law foundation, including international legal liability or responsibility, international liability for damage, liability channeling for the civil liability for nuclear damage, no-fault principle. Further more, it describes the causation and exemption for the civil liability for nuclear damage and the nuclear operator’s recourse.
Chapter 4 discusses the basic principles of the civil liability system for nuclear damage, including exclusive liability of the nuclear installation operator; absolute liability (no proof of fault or negligence required) of the nuclear installation operator; the nuclear installation operator's obligation to secure an insurance or other financial guarantee up to its liability amount; limitation on the amount of liability and the time for instituting damage claims; jurisdiction over claims generally to reside with the courts where the accident occurs; state intervention or participation; non-discrimination on the grounds of nationality, domicile or residence.
Chapter 5 analyses the basic forms of the compensation for nuclear damage, which includes the concept of the civil liability forms for nuclear damage, compensation for nuclear damage and its rules, the indemnitors and claimants and scopes of compensation for nuclear damage and compensation for environmental damage, and finally quotes several compensation cases for nuclear damage.
Chapter 6 proposes how to establish and perfect the liability system of China mainland. China’s Taiwan has a complete legal system for nuclear energy, but China mainland has not adopted any law or regulation on atomic energy and on compensation for nuclear damage except the 1986 State Council’s Reply Concerning the Third Party Liability, which is not a law or regulation concerning nuclear liability. With the development of nuclear use for peaceful purposes in China, the civil liability system for nuclear damage should be established and perfected as soon as possible.
引文
① The term “atomic energy” means all forms of energy released in the course of nuclear fission or nuclear transformation. See § 2014.(c) of (USA) Atomic Energy Act of 1954, in: Federal Environmental Laws (1988 Edition), St. Paul, Minn. West Publishing Co., p.491. 另可参见台湾《原子能法》(中华民国 60 年 12 月 14 日制定、修正并颁布、施行)第二条第一款规定:“原子能:谓原子核发生变化所放出之一切能量。” 原子能是原子核发生裂变过程中释放的各种能量。原子核发生核裂变则是核燃料物质在原子能反应堆内连续燃烧的现象。核燃料物质即核原料物质如铀、钍、钚等核矿物冶炼成的可以释放高能的物质如铀 235、铀 238、钚 239 等。原子能反应堆是以核燃料物质为燃料的装置。原子能作为能源的利用主要是核电业。参见肖乾刚、肖国兴编著:《能源法》,法律出版社 1996 年 6 月第 1 版,第 189 页。
② 本节和下一节“核能和平利用与环境保护”中有部分内容和数据参考了中国国家原子能机构网站上(http://www.caea.gov.cn)的相关资料,恕无法一一具体列明,在此特向该网站和有关作者致谢。 中国学术期刊(光盘版)电子杂志社编者注:本文中出现的“中华民国**年”均应为“公元****年”;涉及台湾的“中华民国”、“行政院”、“总统”均应加双引号。 接禁制区之地区,可确保在其边界上之人于核子事故发生后,所接受之辐射剂量小于主管机关规定之限值者。”参见 http://www.aec.gov.tw/start.php,2004 年4 月 7 日浏览。
① 参见华凌:“细微之处见安全——访法国驻华大使馆核工业参赞沙瓦尔德”,载《科技日报》2004 年 2月 27 日第 8 版。另可参见我国《核电厂运行安全规定》(,1991 年 7 月 27 日国家核安全局令第 1 号发布 1991年修改);《核电厂设计安全规定》,(1991 年 7 月 27 日国家核安全局令第 1 号发布 1991 年修改);《核设施的安全监督》,(1995 年 6 月 14 日国家核安全局发布 1995 年修改)等。
② 如 1982 年 12 月美国原子核协调委员会才批准建造海上核电站的计划,并同意设计用于电站的核反应堆。在海上建造核电站具有若干突出优点:其一,造价要比陆地上的核电站低;其二,在选核电站地址时,不像在陆地上那样要考虑地震、地质等条件,以及是否在居民稠密区等各种情况的影响,而且选择的余地大;其三,海上的工作条件几乎到处都一样,不存在陆地上那种“因地而异”的种种问题。特别是像英国、日本、新西兰等岛国,陆地面积适宜建造核电站的地方少,而海岸线却很长,就可充分利用这一优势,大力发展海上核电站。 海底核电站是随着海洋石油开采不断向深海海底发展而提出的一项大胆设想,实际上也是远见卓识的创新。要勘探和开采海底,特别是五、六百米以上深海海底的石油和天然气,需要从陆地上的发电站向海洋采油平台远距离供电。如果在采油平台的海底附近建造海底核电站,就可轻而易举地将富足的电力送往采油平台,而且还可为其他远洋作业设施提供廉价的电源。美国最先开始研究海底核电站。早在 1974 年,美国原子能委员会就提出了发电容量为 3000 千瓦的海底发电站的设计方案。英国研究海底核电站也较早,是在 20 世纪 70 年代初期“石油危机”后开始研制试验的。1978 年,为了开采海底石油,英国几家公司联合提出了海底核电站的设计方案。
③ 台湾《核子反应器设施管制法》(中华民国九十二年元月十五日华总一义字第○九二○○○○五四八○号令公布)第二条第四款、第五款分别界定了“停役”和“除役”,即“停役:指核子反应器设施计画性停止运转达一年以上者。”“除役:指核子反应器设施永久停止运转后,为使设施及其土地资源能再度供开发利用,所采取之各项措施。”参见http://www.aec.gov.tw/start.php,2004 年4 月7 日浏览。
① 参见 http://www.kepu.com.cn/gb/technology/nuclear/station/index.html, 2004 年 4 月 2 日浏览。
② 火星虽是地球的近邻,但其运行轨道在地球的运行轨道之外,火星绕太阳一周的时间是 687 个地球日,火星和地球相互接近的时间间隔是两年零 50 天,即 26 个月或 780 天。火星和地球一般距离在 8000 多万公里以上,只有在火星大冲时两者距离才最近,在 5000 万公里至 6000 多万公里,而这要每隔 15 年到 17年才有一次。飞往火星,单程需要 9 个月,较好的发射时机每隔一年才有一次,到火星后,也要隔一年半才有合适的时机,整个行程将长达 3 年(往返途中各 9 个月,在火星表面停留一年半)。就技术而言,登“火”并不比登月复杂,只是所需燃料和给养大大超过登月。参见张保淑:“地球人的红色情结——火星登陆篇”,载《科技日报》2004 年 2 月 18 日第 8 版。
① 参见 http://www.kepu.com.cn/gb/technology/nuclear/station/200207310015.html, 2005 年 8 月 8 日浏览。
② See OECD: The Strategic Plan of the Nuclear Energy Agency 2005-2009, p.8, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/nea/strat04.pdf, viewed on 10 August 2005. 另可参见(中国科学院科技政策与管理科学研究所)段异兵:“核电的现状与前景”, http://www.cas.ac.cn/html/Books/O61BG/a1/2002/5/5.4_2.htm, 2005年 8 月 10 日浏览。
① See Vanda Lamm, Protection of Civilian Nuclear Installations in Time of Armed Conflict, in Nuclear Law Bulletin 72 (2004) or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-72/029_038.pdf, viewed on 9 March 2004.
② The term nuclear terrorism is used in the sense of the definitions given in Articles 1 and 2 of the Draft International Convention for the suppression of acts of nuclear terrorism, which is prepared by the Ad Hoc Committee of the Genenal Assembly of the United Nations on terrorism, annexed to the report on the Sixth Session of the Genenal Assembly of the United Nations: A/C.6/53/L.4. Article 2 provides:“1. Any person commits an offence within the meaning of this convention if that person unlawfully or intentionally: (a) Possesses radioactive material or makes or possesses a device: (i) With the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury; or (ii) With the intent to cause substantial damage property or the environment; (b) Uses in any way radioactive material or a device, or uses or damages a nuclear facility in a manner which releases or risks the release of radioactive material: (i) With the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury; or (ii) With the intent to cause substantial damage to property or the environment; or (iii) With the intent to compel a natural or legal person, an international organization or a State to do or refrain from doing an act. … ” See Gilles Arbellot du Repaire, The Nuclear Weapon Non-Proliferation Treaty and Terrorism: The Consequences of 11 September 2001 on the Treaty Review Process, footnotes 11 and 90, in Nulear Law Bulletin 71(2003), or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-71/017_043.pdf, viewed on 9 March 2004. 另可参见郑启燕等:“核电站遭受恐怖袭击后可能的环境影响”,载《环境保护》2004 年第 5 期,第 51~54 页。
③ [日] 保木本一郎:《原子力法 1988 年》,第 290 页。转引自陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 255 页。
④ [苏] В·Я·沃兹尼亚克等著,伍仁毅、杜凡等译:《切尔诺贝利核事故与教训》,中国劳动出版社 1991年 5 月北京第 1 版,第 2、5~7、11~12 页。
⑤ 曲静原:“辐射防护与核电站安全”,载《中国环境报》2003 年 8 月 12 日第 4 版。此部分内容非常专业,特向其作者致谢。另可参见刘洪涛等编著:《人类生存发展与核科学》,北京大学出版社 2001 年 2 月第 1版,第 112~129 页。
① 我国已发布《核电厂核事故应急报告制度》(2001 年 12 月 11 日国防科学技术工业委员会发布)、《核事故辐射影响越境应急管理规定》(2002 年 2 月 4 日国防科学技术工业委员会令第 11 号发布)、《核电厂核事故应急管理条例》(1993 年 8 月 4 日国务院发布)、《核电厂核事故应急演习管理规定》(2003 年 2 月 28 日国防科学技术工业委员会发布)等。
① 陈春生,德国慕尼黑大学法学博士,国立台北大学法律学院法律系教授。他在自我介绍中写道:原子能法领域方面,敝人自博士论文《核能电厂设立许可程序中之司法角色》以来,逾十年持续专注于原子能法之研究,惜国内关于核能利用争议,均非从司法救济途径探讨着手,而是诉诸政治社会运动等社会成本巨大之方式解决。拙著《核能利用与法之规制》即一再点出此点,该书亦为国内首次探讨核能利用有关法律问题之体系论着。至于《核设施除役问题之比较法研究》一文,则更是国内法学者较少探讨之问题,相信对我国此方面之研究有参考价值。详情请浏览 http://www.ntpu.edu.tw/law/teacher/chen-cs/chen-cs.htm,2003 年 8 月 29 日浏览。
② Proceedings of the NEA's international symposium on the reform of civil nuclear liability. The Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) announces the publication of the Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Reform of Civil Nuclear Liability, held in Budapest from 31 May to 3 June 1999. This symposium, which was organised by the NEA in co-operation with the International Atomic Energy Agency and the European Commission, was attended by participants from over fifty countries, and by several international organisations. The purpose of the meeting was to review nuclear liability and compensation issues in the context of the recent revision of the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, the adoption of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage and the current negotiations on the amendment of the Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy and the Brussels Supplementary Convention. The effective implementation of this reform, which is a challenge to both governments and the nuclear industry, will create opportunities to promote greater public confidence in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy and broader adherence to an international system which establishes both liability for nuclear damage and compensation for victims. The Proceedings reproduce all papers presented at the symposium in their original language (English or French) accompanied by an abstract in the other language, as well as the transcripts of the discussions during each session and of the round table debate on the new global regime of nuclear liability. This symposium also served as a forum for examining the difficulties faced by Central and Eastern European countries (CEEC) and by the New Independent States (NIS) in joining an international regime on civil nuclear liability. The reports submitted by participants from these countries can also be found in the Proceedings. REFORM OF CIVIL NUCLEAR LIABILITY, Budapest Symposium 1999; OECD, Paris, 2000; ISBN92-64-058850 - 570 pages; FF 800 - ￡ 79 - US$ 129 - DM 239 - $ 13 850. See http://www.nea.fr/html/general/press/2000/2000-04.html, viewed on 3 August 2005.
① Indemnification of Damage in the Event of a Nuclear Accident, Workshop Proceedings: Paris, France, 26-28 November 2001, OECD Publishing, Version: Print (Paperback); Availability: Available; Publication date: 21 Mar 2003; Language: English / French; Pages: 420; ISBN: 9264099190; Price: €90 | $117 | ￡58 | $11000 |. Available at http://www.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/display.asp?sf1=identifiers&st1=662003033P1, viewed on 29 July 2005.
② The Second International Workshop on the Indemnification of Nuclear Damage took place from 18-20 May 2005 in Bratislava, Slovak Republic. The workshop was co-organised by the NEA and the Nuclear Regulatory Authority of the Slovak Republic and attracted 108 participants from 27 countries, the majority of which are NEA members. The purpose of the workshop was to assess the third party liability and compensation mechanisms that would be implemented by participating countries in the event of a nuclear accident taking place within or near their borders. To accomodate this objective, two fictuous accident scenarios were developed: one involving a fire in a nuclear installation located in the Slovak Republic with very broad-reaching consequences in terms of nuclear damage and the other a fire on board a ship transporting enriched uranium hexafluoride along the Danube River with more geographically limited resulting damage. The NEA intends to publish the proceeding of this workshop in 2005. See http://www.nea.fr/html/law/bratislava/welcome.html, viewed on 29 July 2005.
① See Peter Wetterstein, Harm to the Environment: The Right to Compensation and the Assessment of Damages, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1997.
② 国家环保总局通报的违法开工项目建设单位及名称可参见国家环保总局网站 http://www.zhb.gov.cn/eic/649094490434306048/20050118/4630.shtml,2005 年 2 月 18 日浏览。
③ 中国共产党第十六届中央委员会第三次全体会议,于 2003 年 10 月 11 日至 14 日在北京举行,并通过《中国共产党第十六届中央委员会第三次全体会议公报》。
④ 主要书籍有:核电发展战略研究(续编)编委会编写:《核电发展战略研究(续编)》,(北京)中国言实出版社 2001 年 1 月第 1 版。该书专设“核损害民事责任”一章,对此方面的内容作了简介;傅济熙编著:《核损害的民事责任与赔偿》,原子能出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版。该书概述了核责任的国际和国内立
法情况;主要论文有:陈俊:“我国核法律制度研究基本问题初探”,载《中国法学》1998 年第 6 期;李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号;傅济熙、董保同:“浅谈第三方核责任法律制度”,载《中国核工业》1998 年第 3 期;耿志成:“关于建立原子能法体系的初步探讨”,载《中国能源》1991 年第 5 期;秦志军、郭伟:“建立核损害赔偿机制 促进核电发展”,载《中国电力企业管理》2004 年第 11 期。
① 佟柔主编:《中国民法》,法律出版社 1990 年 11 月第 1 版,第 565 页。
② 中国民法典立法研究课题组(负责人:梁慧星):《中国民法典草案建议稿》第 1545 条(损害的定义),法律出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 306 页。
③ 徐国栋主编:《绿色民法典》第 1505 条(损害),社会科学文献出版社 2004 年 5 月第 1 版,第 705 页。
④ 张新宝著:《侵权责任法原理》,中国人民大学出版社 2005 年 3 月第 1 版,第 53 页。
⑤ 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 3、5 页。
⑥ 王泽鉴:《不当得利》,中国政法大学出版社 2002 年版,第 34 页。转引自王利明著:《侵权行为法研究》(上卷),中国人民大学出版社 2004 年 7 月第 1 版,第 350 页;王泽鉴著:“慰抚金”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 241 页。
⑦ 佟柔主编:《民法原理》(修订本),法律出版社 1985 年版,第 240 页。
① 陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,载《台大法学论丛》2001 年 7 月第 30 卷第 4 期,第 114、116 页。
② [德] 克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,焦美华译,张新宝审校:《欧洲比较侵权法》(下卷),法律出版社 2001年 12 月第 1 版,第 3~4、6~8、13~14 页。
① 《中华人民共和国民法通则》于 1986 年 4 月 12 日第六届全国人民代表大会第四次会议通过,1987 年7 月 1 日起施行。最高人民法院《关于贯彻执行〈中华人民共和国民法通则〉若干问题的意见(试行)》于1988 年 1 月 26 日最高人民法院审判委员会讨论通过,1988 年 4 月 2 日法(办)发[1988]6 号发布。
② 王利明著:《侵权行为法研究》(上卷),中国人民大学出版社 2004 年 7 月第 1 版,第 350~351 页。
③ 魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社和高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 687~688 页。
④ 在汉语里,“损害”是指“使事业、利益、健康、名誉等蒙受损失”;而“损失”是指“没有代价地消耗或失去;没有代价地消耗或失去的东西”。参见中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室编:《现代汉语词典》,商务印书馆 1983 年 1 月第 2 版,第 1101~1102 页。据《国语??楚辞上》:“子实不睿圣,于倚相何害”,韦昭注:“害,伤也”。《说文解字》解释为:“害,伤也”;“损,减也”。由此可见,“损害”一词包含了人身伤害和财产损失的后果。参见王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1月修订版,第 371 页。在英语里,“损害”多用“damage”这一名词表示,其意为“loss of value, attractiveness or usefulness caused by an event or accident, etc.”,含有“损失、损害、毁损”之意;而“损失”多用“loss”一词表示,其意为“act, instance or process of losing”,含有“丧失、损失”之意。参见霍比恩原著、李北达编译:《牛津高阶英汉双解词典》(第四版)商务印书馆和牛津大学出版社 1997 年 9 月第 1 版,第 357、881 页;另可参见英汉法律词典编写组编:《英汉法律词典》(修订本),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 211、476 页;See Henry Campbell Black, M.A.: Black’s Law Dictionary (fifth edition): Definitions of the Terms and Phrases of American and English Jurisprudence, Ancient and Modern, St. Paul Minn. West Publishing Co. 1979, p.351, pp.851-852. 该法律词典对“damage”和“loss”两个名词的解释非常详尽,现择其主要释义如下:“Damage”means“loss, injury, or deterioration, caused by the negligence, design, or accident of one person to another, in respect of the latter’s person or property. The word is to be distinguished from its plural, ‘damages’, which means a compensation in money for a loss or damage. An injury produces a right in them who have suffered any damage by it to demand reparation of such damage from the authors of the injury. By damage we understand every loss or diminution of what is a man’s own, occasioned by the fault of another. The harm, detriment, or loss sustained by reason of an injury. …”“Loss is a generic and relative term. It signifies the act of losing or the thing lost; it is not a word of limited, hard and fast meaning and has been held synonymous with, or equivalent to, ‘damage’, ‘damages’, ‘deprivation’, ‘detriment’, ‘injury’, and ‘privation’.”
① 陶广峰、刘艺工主编:《比较侵权行为法》,兰州大学出版社 1996 年版,第 121~122 页;龚赛红著:《医疗损害赔偿立法研究》,法律出版社 2001 年 9 月第 1 版,第 121~122 页;胡平著:《精神损害赔偿制度研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 6 月第 1 版,第 36~40 页;王利明著:《侵权行为法研究》(上卷),中国人民大学出版社 2004 年 7 月第 1 版,第 351 页。
② 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 118~131 页;龚赛红著:《医疗损害赔偿立法研究》,法律出版社 2001 年 9 月第 1 版,第 117~121 页;韩世远著:《违约损害赔偿研究》,法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 22~37 页。
③ 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 118~119 页。
④ 此为德国民法典第 249 条第 1 款,也译为“损害赔偿义务人必须恢复假如没有发生引起赔偿义务的情况所会存在的状态。”参见陈卫佐译注:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 2004 年 5 月第 1 版,第 75 页。
① 法国法上有句格言与此非常相近,即 Sans inttérêt pas d’action(无利益无诉权)。参见曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 119 页。
② 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 120~123 页。曾世雄教授在书中通过若干具体例子对这四种例型进行了非常详细而生动的阐述。
③ 此为德国的著名案例,对于面包工厂,是依合同还是依不当得利令其承担责任,一些评论者主张后者,认为尽管面包工厂得利,然而面包店并未因此而遭受损失。而在另一种意义上,面包店却的确受有损失:由于其得到的面包比约定的小,因而其财产减少了。See G.H. Treitel, Remedies for Breach of Contract, International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, 1976, §47. 转引自韩世远著:《违约损害赔偿研究》,法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 26 页注释①。
① 曾世雄教授分别就损益相抵、修补因果关系及第三人损害赔偿等三个方面的问题举出三个例证。例证一:某学童爱好集邮,多年收集邮票近 5000 枚。一天早晨,其邻居家失火并殃及该学童,使其多年收集的邮票付之一炬,该学童感到非常伤心。此事经报纸披露后,很多热心人纷纷向该学童赠寄邮票,数目竟高达 2 万张。如依利益说,则该学童因邮票被焚而受损害,存在二财产状况之差额。然而,因其已收到多方赠送邮票的结果,该差额实际上已不存在。依利益说,该学童未受有损害,也不得请求赔偿。例证二:某甲因某乙的过失行为而身体受损害。某甲原经营一书店,现因受伤行动不便而需延用店员。因雇佣店员所增加的支出,某甲也请求某乙赔偿。不久,因战事爆发,壮丁全被征召服役。某甲因身体受伤行动不便而免役。依利益说,某甲雇佣店员而增加开支,其数额即构成二财产状况之差额,应肯定其损害的存在。然而,如某甲未受伤,则亦必应召服役,其结果,雇佣店员乃不可避免。从这个角度来看,由于战事征役,所发生的差额事实上并不再存在,自然也就无损害。因此,应驳回某甲的上述赔偿请求。例证三:某甲现金购买一批货物,请求将标的物送交清偿地以外的某地。出卖人乃依买受人的指示将出卖的货物交由运送人转送。可在运送途中,货物全部被窃。依利益说,则买受人将无救济方法。原因是:其一,就出卖人而言,货物交付运送人转运时,货物的风险即由买受人负担;损害事故虽已发生,出卖人仍可保有收受之价金毋庸退还;故其财产总额并不因损害事故而有增减,二财产状况之差额并不存在,自无损害可言,亦无权请求运送人赔偿。其二:就买受人而言,动产所有权的取得是以动产的交付为必要,买受人因货物尚未送达交付,尚非货物的所有权人,自不得对运送人主张侵权行为要求赔偿。而且,买受人也不是运送契约当事人,因此对于运送人亦无契约上之请求权。参见曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 123 页。
① [日]若林三奈:《法的概念としての“损害”の意义(一)》,载《立命馆法学》,1996 年第 4 号,第 684页。转引自龚赛红著:《医疗损害赔偿立法研究》,法律出版社 2001 年 9 月第 1 版,第 118~119 页。
① 陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,载《台大法学论丛》2001 年 7 月第 30 卷第 4 期,第 119~123页。
① 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 126~129 页。
① 李薇著:《日本机动车事故损害赔偿法律制度研究》,法律出版社 1997 年 9 月第 1 版,第 133 页。
② 龚赛红著:《医疗损害赔偿立法研究》,法律出版社 2001 年 9 月第 1 版,第 121 页。
③ 魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社和高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 687 页;张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》(第二版),中国社会科学出版社 1998 年 8 月修订第 2 版,第 93~95 页。
④ 值得注意的是,非法利益虽然不受法律保护,但侵害非法利益的行为同样构成违法。参见魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社和高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 687 页。
⑤ 应当指出的是,侵害合法约定的权利和利益,应当由合同法加以调整和补救;侵害民法以外的其他法律所保护的合法权利和利益,则应由其他相关法律加以调整和补救。因为这些损害后果不构成侵权行为法上的“损害”。参见张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》(第二版),中国社会科学出版社 1998 年 8 月修订第 2版,第 93 页。
① 我国法律只有在极个别情况下,才承认已经发生的、真实存在的危险性为损害。例如,最高人民法院《关于贯彻执行<中华人民共和国民法通则>若干问题的意见(试行)》(1988 年 4 月 2 日法(办)发[1988]6号)第 154 条规定:“从事高度危险作业,没有按有关规定采取必要的安全防护措施,严重威胁他人人身、财产安全的,人民法院应当根据他人的要求,责令作业人消除危险。”
② 台湾学者曾世雄教授认为,根据不同的观察点,对损害的分类主要如下:财产上损害与非财产损害、客观损害、主观利益及感情上之利益、积极利益与消极利益、所受之损害与所失之利益、直接损害与间接损害、反射损害与第三人之损害、象征性损害与微额损害;其中,损害分类中的特别问题包括物之毁损或违反契约所造成之非财产上损害、物之使用可能性被剥夺所发生之损害等。参见曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 132~145 页。
③ 在法国关于侵权责任法的著作中,经常可以看到另一种所谓“人身损害”(dommage corporel ou préjudice corporel)的用语,用来概括指称所有自然人之生命、身体或健康被侵害所生之不利益。鉴于人身损害赔偿在现代社会的特殊重要性,法国有些学者乃主张将损害分成三种,除传统上的“财产上损害”、“非财产上损害”之外,另加上所谓的“人身损害”。然而,“人身损害”之概念本身有两个不同的观察角度:其一是指人身被侵害后所造成的经济上不利益,包括所受损害(如医药费支出)以及所失利益(如工作能力丧失),这时的人身损害即是一种“财产上损害”;其二是指人身被侵害后所造成的非经济上之不利益,如肉体痛苦、精神痛苦等,这时的人身损害即是一种“非财产上损害”。因此,人身损害概念之下又可细分为财产上损害和非财产上损害两部分。由此可知,人身损害是指“人身被侵害”后所生之各种不利益,其重点在“人身”被侵害之事实,而不在人身被侵害后所生之“不利益”,该不利益性质上是否具有一定经济价值。人身损害既然是从“被侵害客体”的观察角度所得出的概念,即应将其与“对物或财产之侵害”或“对身份法益之侵害”等所造成的损害等概念并列,而与财产上损害和非财产上损害之分类无关。为明确区别起见,法学法文上所谓的“人身损害”(dommage corporel ou préjudice corporel),不是一种“损害”(dommage ou préjudice),而是一种“侵害”(atteinte),应准确地称之为“人身侵害”(atteinte à la personne ou à l’intégrité personnelle)。参见陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,载《台大法学论丛》2001 年 7 月第30 卷第 4 期,第 135 页注释 61。
① 蓝承烈著:《民法专题研究与应用》,群众出版社 2002 年 8 月第 1 版,第 283 页;王泽鉴著:“慰抚金”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 241~242、244 页。
② 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 294~295 页。
① 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 156~158 页。
② 纯经济损失是被害人所直接遭受的经济上的不利益或金钱上的损失,它并非是因被害人的人身或有形财产遭受损害而间接引起的,或者说,它并非是被害人所享有的人身权或物权遭到侵犯而间接引起的。参 见李昊著:《纯经济上损失赔偿制度研究》,北京大学出版社 2004 年 7 月第 1 版,第 7 页。
① 陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,载《台大法学论丛》2001年7月第30卷第4期,第136~137页。
② 陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,载《台大法学论丛》2001年7月第30卷第4期,第137~138页。
③ 陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,载《台大法学论丛》2001 年 7 月第 30 卷第 4 期,第 145~147页。针对“非财产上损害是否得请求赔偿”的问题,法国学者中存在否定说、限制说和肯定说。部分学者认为,基于非财产上损害的特殊性,应将非财产上损害排除在被害人得请求赔偿的范围之外;还有部分学者肯定非财产上损害得请求赔偿的原则,但应限制其适用领域、适用条件或赔偿范围;大多数学者肯定非财产上损害得请求赔偿的原则,而且不认为特别限制其请求赔偿的领域、条件或范围。这三种学说的具体观点内容可参见前文,第 147~158 页。
① 魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社和高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 687~688 页。张新宝教授认为,侵权行为法上的损害分为财产损害(包括直接损失和间接损失)、非财产损害(包括人身损害即死亡和伤害、其他非财产损害即社会评价之降低和精神损害)。参见张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》(第二版),中国社会科学出版社 1998 年 8 月修订第 2 版,第 96~109 页。
② 意大利在司法实践中将人身伤害作为“生物学上的损害”。从法律政策的角度来看,这一始终以宪法对身体和健康的保护为依据的“生物学上的损害”(danno biologico) 赔偿请求权的目的是提供受害人不受制于财产损失(danno patrimniale)(根据对民法典第 2043 条传统意义上的解释)和精神损害(danno morale)(民法典第 2059 条将加害行为已触犯刑法作为要求精神损害赔偿的前提条件)责任要件赔偿法上的“基本保障”;从学理上看,则是通过改变损害的含义而使对“生物学上的损害”的赔偿成为可能。这一制度不再要求像以前那样一味地去细究损害发生前后财产状况的不同,而是将身体或健康上的伤害本身就看作是一种伤害——事件伤害(danno evento)——即使当事人既不能根据民法典第 2053 条要求“精神损害赔偿”, 也不能根据第 2043 条要求请求财产损失赔偿,该生物学上的损害也必须得到赔偿。“生物学上的损害”构成了并列于财产损失和精神损害的第三类损害型态。它不仅不以财产损失或精神损害的存在为前提,而且能在两者之外获得额外的赔偿。参见[德]克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,焦美华译,张新宝审校:《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(下卷),法律出版社 2001 年 12 月第 1 版,第 25~26 页;《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(上卷)第 20 段并脚注 66 及第 573~574 页。
① 张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》(第二版),中国社会科学出版社 1998 年 8 月修订第 2 版,第 101~102页。
② 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(下册),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版,第 674~676 页。
③ 但在一般情况下,人们还是遵循“精神损害,物质赔偿”原则。受害人通常感兴趣的是能否从责任人或其保险人那里获得金钱赔偿以及金钱赔偿的数额。因为金钱是万能的溶剂,一切事物都可以转变为金钱的得失;金钱为人所须,金钱赔偿可以修复一切可能的痛苦和伤害。参见[德]克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,焦美华译,张新宝审校:《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(下卷),法律出版社 2001 年 12 月第 1 版,第 163 页。
④ 谭大刚:“环境核辐射污染及防治对策”,载《沈阳师范学院学报》(自然科学版)1999 年第 1 期,第 68~73页;刘天齐主编:《环境保护》,化学工业出版社 2000 年 4 月第 2 版,第 166~169 页;周珂著:《生态环境法论》,法律出版社 2001 年 3 月第 1 版,第 202~203 页。
⑤ 放射性污染物主要是通过射线的照射危害生物和其他生物体,造成危害的射线主要有 α 射线、β 射线和γ 射线。α 粒子流形成的射线称为 α 射线。α 粒子穿透力较小,在空气中易被吸收,外照射对人的伤害不大,但其电离能力强,进入人体后会因内照射造成较大的伤害。β 射线是带负电的电子流,穿透能力较强。γ射线是穿透能力极强的电磁波,对人的危害最大。参见刘天齐主编:《环境保护》,化学工业出版社 2000年第 2 版,第 166 页。
① 《中华人民共和国放射性污染防治法》第 62 条第 4 款规定:“放射性同位素,是指某种发生放射性衰变的元素中具有相同原子序数但质量不同的核素。” 该法于 2003 年 6 月 28 日第十届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第三次会议通过,自 2003 年 10 月 1 日起施行。
② 人类所受到的辐照主要来源于两个方面,一是天然辐照源;二是人工辐射源。其中,天然辐照源是自然界中天然存在的辐射源,人类从诞生时起就一直生活在这种天然的辐射之中,并已适应了这种辐射。天然辐射源所产生的总辐射水平称为天然放射性本底,它是判断环境是否受到放射性污染的基本基准。天然辐射源主要来自于地球上的天然放射源,其中最主要的是铀(235U)、钍(232Th)核素和钾(40K)、碳(14C)、钏(3H)等;以及宇宙间高能粒子构成的宇宙线和在这些粒子进入大气层后与大气层中的氧、氮原子核碰撞产生的次级宇宙线。参见刘天齐主编:《环境保护》,化学工业出版社 2000 年 4 月第 2 版,第167 页。
① Article I (1)(j) of 1963 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage. 原文如下:“Nuclear installation” means – i. any nuclear reactor other than one with which a means of sea or air transport is equipped for use as a source of power, whether for propulsion thereof or for any other purpose; ii. any factory using nuclear fuel for the production of nuclear material, or any factory for the processing of nuclear material, including any factory for the re-processing of irradiated nuclear fuel; and iii. any facility where nuclear material is stored, other than storage incidental to the carriage of such material; provided that the Installation State may determine that several nuclear installations of one operator which are located at the same site shall be considered as a single nuclear installation. 也有人将“nuclear installation”译为“核装置”。另外,“核设施”的英文表达还有“nuclear facility”。本书中交替使用“核装置” 和“核设施”两种表述,两者的意义视为相同。
② Article 1(a)(ii) of Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (“Paris Convention”). 原文如下:“Nuclear installation” means reactors other than those comprised in any means of transport; factories for the manufacture or processing of nuclear substances; factories for the separation of isotopes of nuclear fuel; factories for the reprocessing of irradiated nuclear fuel; facilities for the storage of nuclear substances other than storage incidental to the carriage of such substances; and such other installations in which there are nuclear fuel or radioactive products or waste as the Steering Committee for Nuclear Energy of the Organisation (hereinafter referred to as the “Steering Committee”) shall from time to time determine; any Contracting Party may determine that two or more nuclear installations of one operator which are located on the same site shall, together with any other premises on that site where radioactive material is held, be treated as a single nuclear installation.
① 原文是:“…installations for the disposal of nuclear substances; any such reactor, factory, facility or installation that is in the course of being decommissioned;…”。See I.A. of Protocol to Amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 and by the Protocol of 12 February 2004, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris_convention.pdf, viewed on 26 March 2004.
② Article 1(2) of Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident, Vienna,1986, available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/Others/inf335.shtml, viewed on 28 August 2003. 原文如下:The facilities … referred to in paragraph 1 are the following: any nuclear reactor wherever located; any nuclear fuel cycle facility; any radioactive waste management facility; ….《核事故及早通报公约》通常简称“通报公约”,1986 年 9 月 26 日订于维也纳,1986 年 10 月 27 日正式生效。该公约于 1988 年 12 月 29 日对我国生效。
③ Article 2(i) of Convention on Nuclear Safety, available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/ Documents/Infcircs/Others/infcirc449.shtml, viewed on 28 August 2003. 原文如下:“nuclear installation” means for each Contracting Party any land-based civil nuclear power plant under its jurisdiction including such storage, handling and treatment facilities for radioactive materials as are on the same site and are directly related to the operation of the nuclear power plant. Such a plant ceases to be a nuclear installation when all nuclear fuel elements have been removed permanently from the reactor core and have been stored safely in accordance with approved procedures, and a decommissioning programme has been agreed to by the regulatory body. 该公约于 1994 年 6 月 17 日订于维也纳,1996 年 10 月 24 日生效。
④ Article 1(1)(j) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage. 原文如下:“Nuclear installation” means – i. any nuclear reactor other than one with which a means of sea or air transport is equipped for use as a source of power, whether for propulsion thereof or for any other purpose; ii. any factory using nuclear fuel for the production of nuclear material, or any factory for the processing of nuclear material, including any factory for the re-processing of irradiated nuclear fuel; and iii. any facility where nuclear material is stored, other than storage incidental to the carriage of such material; and iv. such other installations in which there are nuclear fuel or radioactive products or waste as the Board of Governors of the International Atomic Energy Agency shall from time to time determine; provided that the Installation State may determine that several nuclear installations of one operator which are located at the same site shall be considered as a single nuclear installation.
① Article 2 of Canada Nuclear Liability Act, available at http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/N-28/86947.html, viewed on 24 August 2003. 原文如下:“nuclear installation” means a structure, establishment or place, or two or more structures, establishments or places at a single location, coming within any of the following descriptions and designated as a nuclear installation for the purpose of this Act by the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission, namely, (a) a structure containing nuclear material in such an arrangement that a self-sustaining chain process of nuclear fission can be maintained therein without an additional source of neutrons, including any such structure that forms part of the equipment of a ship, aircraft or other means of transportation, (b) a factory or other establishment that processes or reprocesses nuclear material, and (c) a place in which nuclear material is stored other than incidentally to the carriage of the material.
② 该条例 1986 年 10 月 29 日由国务院发布,共有 6 章 26 条。
① 陈海群、王凯全等编著:《危险化学品事故处理与应急预案》,中国石化出版社 2005 年 5 月第 1 版,第1~2 页。
② 国际原子能机构(IAEA)和经济合作与发展组织核能机构(OECD/NEA)于 1989 年共同召集的一个国际专家组设计了国际核事件分级表(International Nuclear Event Scale, INES)。国际核事件分级表是用统一的术语向公众快速通报核设施所发生事件的安全重要性的一种工具,能够为核工业界、媒体和公众之间形成共同的理解提供便利。分级表将事件分类为七级:较高的级别(4~7 级)被定为“事故”, 依次包括:Accident without Significant Off-site Risk, Accident with Off-site Risk, Serious Accident and Major Accident;较低的级别(1~3 级)被定为“事件(incidents)”,依次包括:Anomaly, Incident and Serious Incident。不具有安全意义的事件被归类为分级表以下的零级(Below Scale/No Safety Significance),定为“偏离(deviations)”。与安全无关的事件被定为“分级表以外”。参见《注册核安全工程师岗位培训丛书》编委会编注:《核安全相关法律法规》,中国环境科学出版社 2004 年 10 月第 1 版,第 206~210 页。The International Nuclear Event Scale (INES) was developed by the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Energy Agency of the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development in order to communicate the magnitude and safety significance of nuclear emergencies between countries around the world, including Canada. According to the INES system, a nuclear emergency is classified on the scale at one of seven levels. In general, the higher the classification level, the greater and more widespread the safety significance. The categories are grouped as follows: Level 0/Below scale: emergencies with no safety significance; Levels 1 to 3: emergencies of significance for workers at the emergency site but not for the public; and Levels 4 to 7: emergencies with significance for workers and the public. In other words, in the INES the events are roughly divided into deviations, incidents and accidents. The events are classified on the Scale at seven levels. The lower levels (1-3) are termed incidents. The upper levels (4-7) are termed accidents. The events which have no safety significance are classified as level 0/below scale. They are termed deviations. The lower levels consists of anomalies, incidents and serious incidents. The upper levels are comprised of accidents without significant off-site risk, accidents with off-site risk, serious accidents and major accidents.The 1986 accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant is classified as level 7 on the INES scale. The 1979 accident at Three Mile Island is classified as level 5. See The International Nuclear Event Scale (INES), available at http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hecs-sesc/neprd/international-coordination/event-scale.htm and http://www.stuk.fi/english/npp/ines_e.html, viewed on 30 July 2005.
③ Article I (1)(l) of 1963 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage; Article I (8) in Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships, 1962. 原文如下:“Nuclear incident” means any occurrence or series of occurrences having the same origin which causes nuclear damage.
④ Article I (1)(l) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and Article I(i) in Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage. 原文如下:“Nuclear incident” means any occurrence or series of occurrences having the same origin which causes nuclear damage or, but only with respect to preventive measures, creates a grave and imminent threat of causing such damage.
① Article 1(a)(i) of Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (“Paris Convention”). 原文如下:“A nuclear incident” means any occurrence or succession of occurrences having the same origin which causes damage, provided that such occurrence or succession of occurrences, or any of the damage caused, arises out of or results either from the radioactive properties, or a combination of radioactive properties with toxic, explosive, or other hazardous properties of nuclear fuel or radioactive products or waste or with any of them, or from ionizing radiations emitted by any source of radiation inside a nuclear installation.
② 原文如下:“A nuclear incident” means any occurrence or series of occurrences having the same origin which causes nuclear damage. See I.A.i) of Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 and by the Protocol of 12 February 2004, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris_convention.pdf, viewed on 26 March 2004.
③ “The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988” was enacted on 20th August 1988 (the consolidated text of the Price-Anderson Act, as amended in 1988 is reproduced in the Supplement to Nuclear Law Bulletin No 42(December 1988)). See “Amendments to reflect enactment of Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988”, in: Nuclear Law Bulletin No 42 (December 1988), p.83.
④ q. of Section 11 of (U.S.) The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, in: Supplement to NLB 42, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-42-SUP.pdf, viewed on 10 November 2004. 原文如下:The term “nuclear incident” means any occurrence, including an extraordinary nuclear occurrence, within the United States causing, within or outside the United States, bodily injury, sickness, disease, or death, or loss of or damage to property, or loss of use of property, arising out of or resulting from the radioactive, toxic, explosive, or other hazardous properties of source, special nuclear, or byproduct material: Provided, however, That as the term is used in section 170 l., it shall include any such occurrence outside the United States: And provided further, That as the term is used in section 170 d., it shall include any such occurrence outside the United States if such occurrence involves source, special nuclear, or byproduct material owned by, and used by or under contract with, the United States: And provided further, That as the term is used in section 170 c., it shall include any such occurrence outside both the United States and any other nation if such occurrence arises out of or results from the radioactive, toxic, explosive, or other hazardous properties of source, special nuclear, or byproduct material licensed pursuant to chapters 6, 7, 8 and 10 of this Act, which is used in connection with the operation of a licensed stationary production or utilisation facility or which moves outside the territorial limits of the United States in transit from one person licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to another person licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
① Section 11(j) of The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, in: NLB 42, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-42-SUP.pdf, viewed on 10 November 2003. 原 文 如 下 : The term “extraordinary nuclear occurrence” means any event causing a discharge or dispersal of source , special nuclear, or byproduct material from its intended place of confinement in amounts offsite, or causing radiation levels offsite, which the Nuclear Regulatory Commission or the Secretary of Energy, as appropriate, determines to be substantial, and which the Nuclear Regulatory Commission or the Secretary of Energy, as appropriate, determines has resulted or will probably result in substantial damages to persons offsite or property offsite. Any determination by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission or the Secretary of Energy, as appropriate, that such an event has, or has not, occurred shall be final and conclusive, and no other official or any court shall have power or jurisdiction to review any such determination. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission or the Secretary of Energy, as appropriate, shall establish criteria in writing setting forth the basis upon which such determination shall be made. As used in this subsection, “offsite” means away from “the location” or “the contract location” as defined in the applicable Nuclear Regulatory Commission or the Secretary of Energy, as appropriate, indemnity agreement, entered into pursuant to section 170. ENO - An extraordinary nuclear occurrence (ENO) is defined in the Price-Anderson Act as an offsite dispersal of nuclear materials in amounts causing radiation levels that the NRC determines to be substantial and that the NRC determines has resulted, or will probably result, in substantial damages to persons or property offsite. When NRC determines that a nuclear incident is an ENO, then the waiver-of-defenses provisions of Price-Anderson are activated resulting in an essentially “no-fault” liability scheme. NRC has established criteria in its regulations for use in its determination as to whether a nuclear incident is an ENO. See waivers of defenses. See Appendix A (Glossary) of Report to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accidents, available at http://www.state.nv.us/nucwaste/news/rpccna/pcrcna11.htm, viewed on 3 February 2005.
② 根据国际原子能机构的国际核电事故等级表(又译国际核事件分级表,INES)规定,1979 年美国三里岛核电站的事故为 5 级核事故。美国“三里岛事件”又称“堆芯熔化”事件,主要原因是因为人机管理不同步,操作人员在操作室按下打开阀门的键,电脑显示阀门已经打开,而现场的阀门实际上并未打开,造成“堆芯熔化”事故。The Three Mile Island Accident (The TMI accident) described as the United States' worst nuclear accident, occurred on March 28, 1979. It provides the main example of actual application of the Price-Anderson Act. The accident started when a pressure relief valve did not close, and as much as 5 million gallons of reactor coolant water was lost, discharged directly into the reactor building and auxiliary building, over several days. The reactor core became uncovered and began to heat up. Core temperatures reached 3500 to 4000 degrees F or more. Some of the fuel rods cracked, releasing radioactive material into the coolant water. About 10 hours into the incident, there was an explosion of hydrogen gas in the reactor building, and operators feared another explosion. They struggled for weeks to regain control and contain the radioactive releases caused by the accident, and the reactor was not stabilized until a month later, on April 27, 1989. The major pathway for the release of radiation to the environment was through the escape of coolant into the auxiliary building and through its ventilation system. See (US) Court of Appeals, 1999, pp. 66 – 70, cited from Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for:The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler Technical Carson City, Nevada, p.14, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004.
③ See “NRC determination that the Three Mile Island accident does not constitute an ‘extraordinary nuclear occurrence’ ”, in: NLB 25 (1980), p.26, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-25-EN.pdf, viewed on 1 March 2004.
① 台湾《游离辐射防护法》(中华民国九十一年一月三十日华总一义字第○九一○○○一九○○○号总统令制定、公布,全文五十七条)第二条第八至十一款分别规定:“曝露:指人体受游离辐射照射或接触、摄入放射性物质之过程。”“职业曝露:指从事辐射作业所受之曝露。”“医疗曝露:指在医疗过程中病人及其协助者所接受之曝露。”“紧急曝露:指发生事故之时或之后,为抢救遇险人员,阻止事态扩大或其它紧急情况,而有组织且自愿接受之曝露。”参见 http://www.aec.gov.tw/start.php, 2004 年 5 月 4 日浏览。
② See NLB 45 (June 1990), p.70, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-45-EN.pdf, viewed on 3 March 2004. 原文如下:The NRC’s regulations concerning an extraordinary nuclear occurrence (10 CPR Part 140. Subpart B) presently define the latter by reference to two criteria as follows: Criterion I: There has been a substantial discharge of radioactive material off-site, or there have been substantial levels of radiation off-site when radioactive material is released from its intended place of confinement and a) persons off-site were or, could have been, exposed to radiation resulting in a dose in excess of a specified level, or b) surface contamination of off-site property has occurred in excess of specified values, or c) surface contamination of any off-site property has occurred as the result of a release of radioactive material in the course of transportation at levels in excess of specified values. Criterion II: If an event satisfies Criterion I, it is determined that the event has resulted or will probably result in substantial damages to persons or property off-site if a) the event has caused the deaths or physical injury, within thirty days of the event, of five or more people located off-site, or b) damage off-site amounting to $2.5 million or more has been or will probably be sustained by any one person, or of more than $5 million in the aggregate has been or will probably be sustained, or c) damage off-site amounting to $5 000 or more has been or will probably be sustained by each of fifty or more persons, provided that damage of $1 million or more has been sustained.
① To make the determination, the DOE applies a two-part test. The first part is to determine whether a discharge or dispersal constitutes a substantial amount of nuclear material, or has caused substantial radiation levels offsite. The intent of the first part of the test is to determine whether something exceptional and unexpected has occurred, raising the possibility of damage to persons or property. To make a determination that an ENO may have occurred, the DOE must make one of two findings: (1) that one or more persons offsite were or might have been exposed to radiation resulting in a dose in excess of levels published in a table in the regulations, or (2) surface contamination of offsite property has occurred that exceeds levels in a second table, also contained in the regulations [DOE, 1984, pp. 506-508]. If the DOE makes one of these two findings, the second part of the DOE's ENO determination is to decide whether there have been or will probably be substantial damages to persons or property offsite. In this part, the DOE must make one of four findings: (1) there has been a death or hospitalization of five or more people within 30 days of the incident, showing objective evidence of physical injury from exposure to nuclear material, (2) property damage greater than or equal to $2.5 million to one person or $5 million in the aggregate has occurred, (3) property damage greater than or equal to $5000 to 50 or more persons and $1 million or more in aggregate has occurred, or (4) there has been a financial loss resulting from appropriate protective actions [DOE, 1984, pp. 506-508]. See Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for:The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler Technical Carson City, Nevada, p.6, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004.
② (Germany) Act on the Peaceful Utilisation of Atomic Energy and the Protection Against its Hazards (Atomic Energy Act) of 23 December 1959 (BGB1.I,p.814), as amended and promulgated on 15 July 1985 (BGB1.I,p.1565), last amendment by the Act of 22 April 2002 (BGB1.I, p.1351), in: Supplement to NLB 70, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-70/supplement.pdf, viewed on 25 December 2004. Here BGB1.means Bundesgesetzblatt = Federal Law Gazette of the Federal Republic of Germany.
③ Article 2 of Canada Nuclear Liability Act, available at http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/N-28/86947.html, viewed on 10 June 2003. 原文如下:“nuclear incident” means any occurrence resulting in injury or damage that is attributable to a breach of the duty imposed on an operator by this Act.
④ Article 3(a) of Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (Romania)(adopted on 3 December 2001). Unofficial translation kindly provided by the Romanian authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 August 2003. 原文如下: nuclear accident means any occurrence or series of occurrences having the same origin which causes nuclear damage or, from the perspective of preventive measures, creates a grave and imminent threat of causing such damage.
⑤ Article 2(4) of Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage (Republic of Korea). Unofficial translation kindly provided by the Korean authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 August 2003. 原文如下:nuclear accident means any occurrence or series of occurrences having the same origin which causes nuclear damage or creates a grave and imminent threat of causing such damage.
⑥ Chapter I.Section 1 of Law on the Use of Nuclear Energy and Radiation Safety (Ukraine)(8 February 1995) , Unofficial translation established by the NEA Secretariat, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-56-SUP.pdf, viewed on 18 August 2003. 原文如下:nuclear incident shall denote any event or any number of related events of the same origin resulting in nuclear damage.
① 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 360 页。
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 503 页。
③ Article I(1)(k) of Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage,1963. 原文如下:“Nuclear Damage” means i. loss of life, any personal injury or any loss of , or damage to, property which arises out of or results from the radioactive properties or a combination of radioactive properties with toxic, explosive or other hazardous properties of nuclear fuel or radioactive products or waste in, or of nuclear material coming from, originating in, or send to, a nuclear installation; ii. any other loss of , or damage so arising or resulting if and to the extent that the law of the competent court so provides; and iii. if the law of the Installation State so provides, loss of life, any personal injury or any loss of , or damage to, property which arises out of or results from other ionizing radiation emitted by any other source of radiation inside a nuclear installation.
① Article I(7) of Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships, 1962. 原文如下:“Nuclear Damage” means loss of life, any personal injury or any loss of , or damage to, property which arises out of or results from the radioactive properties or a combination of radioactive properties with toxic, explosive or other hazardous properties of nuclear fuel or radioactive products or waste; any other loss, or damage or expense so arising or resulting shall be included only if and to the extent that the applicable national law so provides.
② Chapter I Article I (1)(f) of Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage; Article I (1)(k) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage; and Article 2(k) of Protocol to Amend the 1963 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage. 原文如下:“Nuclear Damage” means i. loss of life, any personal injury; ii. loss of or damage to property; and each of the following to the extent determined by the law of the competent court – iii. economic loss arising from loss or damage referred to in sub-paragraph (i) or (ii), insofar as not included in those sub-paragraphs, if incurred by a person entitled to claim in respect of such loss or damage; iv. the costs of measures of reinstatement of impaired environment, unless such impairment is insignificant, if such measures are actually taken or to be taken, and insofar as not included in sub-paragraph (ii); v. loss of income deriving from an economic interest in any use or enjoyment of the environment, incurred as a result of a significant impairment of that environment, and insofar as not included in sub-paragraph (ii); vi. the costs of preventive measures, and further loss or damage caused by such measures; vii. any other economic loss, other than any caused by the impairment of the environment, if permitted by the general law on civil liability of the competent court, in the case of sub-paragraphs (i) to (v) and (vii) above, to the extent that the loss or damage arises out of or results from ionizing radiation emitted by any source of radiation inside a nuclear installation, or emitted from nuclear fuel or radioactive products or waste in, or of nuclear material coming from, originating in, or sent to, a nuclear installation, whether so arising from the radioactive properties of such matter, or from a combination of radioactive properties with toxic, explosive or other hazardous properties of such matter.
① 原文如下:“ The operator of a nuclear installation shall be liable, in accordance with this Convention, for: i. damage to or loss of life of any person; and ii. damage to or loss of any property other than 1. the nuclear installation itself and any other nuclear installation, including a nuclear installation under construction, on the site where that installation is located; and 2. any property on that same site which is used or to be used in connection with any such installation, upon proof that such damage or loss (hereinafter referred to as‘damage’) was caused by a nuclear incident in such installation or involving nuclear substances coming from such installation, except as otherwise provided for in Article 4. ” See Article 3 of Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982.
② See I.B. vii)-x) of Protocol to Amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris_convention.pdf, viewed on 26 March 2004.
③ The English provision is “For the purposes of this Protocol, whenever both Nuclear Damage and damage other than Nuclear Damage have been caused by a Nuclear Incident, or jointly by a Nuclear Incident and one or more other occurrences, such other damage shall, to the extent that it is not reasonably separable from the Nuclear Damage, be deemed, for the purposes of this Protocol, to be Nuclear Damage caused by that Nuclear Incident.” See Article 1(3) of Protocol on Claims, Legal Proceedings and Indemnification to the Framework Agreement on a Multilateral Nuclear Environmental Programme in the Russian Federation (Done at Stockholm on 21 May 2003), available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/MNEPR-protocol.pdf, viewed on 20 February 2005. The Framework Agreement on a Multilateral Nuclear Environmental Programme in the Russian Federation is available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/MNEPR-en.pdf, viewed on 20 February 2005. On 21 May 2003, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Russian Federation, Sweden, United Kingdom, United States, European Atomic Energy Community, European Atomic Energy Community and European Community signed the MNEPR Framework Agreement and Protocol, among which the United States only signed the Framework Agreement on a Multilateral Nuclear Environmental Programme in the Russian Federation and not the Protocol. See http://www.nea.fr/html/law/mnepr-ratification.html, viewed on 20 February 2005.
① 可总结为:Nuclear damage covered by the Price-Anderson Act includes bodily injury, sickness, disease, death, loss of or damage to property, or loss of use of property arising out of or resulting from the radioactive, toxic, explosive or other hazardous properties of source, special nuclear or byproduct material. Nuclear damage also includes legal liability arising out of or resulting from a precautionary evacuation. See NLB 45, p.69, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-45-EN.pdf, viewed on 3 March 2004.
② Section 11(w. and gg.) of (U.S.) The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, in: Supplement to NLB 42, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-42-SUP.pdf, viewed on 10 November 2004. 原文如下:The term “precautionary evacuation” means an evacuation of the public within a specified area near a nuclear facility, or the transportation route in the case of an accident involving transportation of source material, special nuclear material, byproduct material, high-level radioactive waste, spent nuclear fuel, or transuranic waste to or from a production or utilization facility, if the evacuation is: 1. The result of any event that is not classified as a nuclear incident but that poses imminent danger of bodily injury or property damage from the radiological properties of source material, special nuclear material, byproduct material, high-level radioactive waste, spent nuclear fuel, or transuranic waste, and causes an evacuation; and 2. Initiated by an official of a State or a political subdivision of a State, who is authorized by State law to initiate such an evacuation and who reasonably determined that such an evacuation was necessary to protect the public health and safety.
③ (Japan) The Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage (Law No.147 of 17th June 1961, as last amended on 31st March 1989), in: Supplement to NLB 45. Its English version is unofficial translation by the NEA Secretariat. 英文表述如下:As used in this Law, “nuclear damage” means any damage caused by the effects of the fission process of nuclear fuel material, or of the radiation from nuclear fuel material, etc., or of the toxic nature of such materials (which means effects that give rise to toxicity or its secondary effects on the human body by ingesting or inhaling such materials); however, the damage suffered by the nuclear operator who is liable for such damage pursuant to the following Section, is excluded.
④ Article 2 of Canada Nuclear Liability Act, available at http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/N-28/86947.html, viewed on June 10, 2003. 原文如下:“Damage” means … any loss of or damage to property, whether real or personal, and … includes any damage arising out of or attributable to any loss of or damage to that property. “injury” means personal injury and includes loss of life.
① Article 2(2) of Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage (Republic of Korea). Unofficial translation kindly provided by the Korean authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 August 2003. 原文如下:“Nuclear damage” means any costs provided for in the following Subparagraphs, and damage (including loss of economic interest suffered from significant impairment of the environment) caused by the effects of the fission process of nuclear fuel material, or by the effects of radiation of nuclear fuel material or other materials contaminated by nuclear fuel material, or by the effects of the toxic nature of such materials, provided however, that damage suffered by the relevant nuclear operator or damage suffered by his employees as a result of performance of their duties is excluded: a. the costs of measures taken or to be taken in accordance with the plan pursuant to the Disaster Management Act or other laws relevant thereto in order to reinstate significantly impaired environment; b. the costs of preventive measures (including additional loss or damage resulting from the implementation of preventive measures) taken in accordance with the measures plan pursuant to the Disaster Management Act or other laws relevant thereto in order to mitigate or minimise damage or costs in the case of a nuclear incident, and in order to prevent or minimise damage or costs in the case of a grave and imminent threat of causing such damage.
② Article 1(1) of Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security (Ukraine). Unofficial translation established by the NEA Secretariat, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 August 2003.
③ Chapter I Section 1 of Law on the Use of Nuclear Energy and Radiation Safety (Ukraine). Unofficial translation established by the NEA Secretariat, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-56-SUP.pdf, viewed on 18 August 2003. 原文如下: “nuclear damage shall denote death, injury or any material loss or damage, or any other loss or damage, resulting from the hazardous properties of nuclear material at a nuclear installation or of nuclear material supplied to, or received from, a nuclear installation, excluding damage to the nuclear installation itself or to the means of transportation. ”
④ 台湾《核子损害赔偿法》(1997 年 5 月 14 日修正)第 8 条。
① 刘国华等:“森林在净化放射性核污染中的作用”,载《世界林业研究》2002 年 8 月第 4 期,第 34 页。
② 放射性污染对人体健康、财产及环境等所造成的严重损害,在核能军事利用方面,具有典型意义的莫过于 1945 年 8 月日本广岛、长崎原子弹爆炸事件;在核能和平利用方面,1986 年 4 月苏联切尔诺贝利核电站事故最具代表性,还有 1979 年 3 月美国三里岛核电站事故等;还有数起鲜为人知的核污染事件,例 如,1952 年,美国在北极圈内属于丹麦王国的格陵兰岛图勒地段修建了一个战略空军基地,专门供携带原子武器的 B-52 重型轰炸机起降,意在震慑与其社会制度不同的国家。1968 年 1 月 21 日,一架载有 4 枚氢弹的 B-52 飞机升空,执行 24 小时昼夜不断的监测任务。岂料,飞机突然在空中失火,并在距图勒基地仅11 公里的海面坠毁。实属万幸,那天 B-52 轰炸机坠落时,氢弹没有爆炸,才免去了人类的一场大灾难。但 4 颗氢弹中一枚穿透冰层沉入海底,成为一个长久使人揪心的潜在污染源;另外 3 枚崩裂,弹体里面的钚外泄。事故发生后,美军方立即驱使 1200 名在基地打工的丹麦人去现场严密搜索弹体残骸,同时,竭力缩小事态,一直过了 20 个小时才发布飞机出事的消息,并宣称坠落氢弹壳内仅有 3.2kg 钚,其泄露物的放射性不足以构成对人体的威胁。光阴荏苒,27 年后统计,在这期间,图勒地区许多居民因患怪异癌症而丧生。该地的死亡率要比其他地区的平均死亡率高 40%。1995 年,法国《时事综述》周刊报道,美国能源部的一份关于图勒美军基地的秘密文件曝光。据该文件披露,当年美机所携氢弹的钚装载量并非美军方所说的 3.2kg,而是 6kg,且具有危及人体健康的极强的放射性。丹麦公众闻此消息,极为愤怒。当年因此蒙难的图勒基地丹麦职工及其家属——470 名鳏夫寡妇为维护自己的权益组成协会,要求给予赔偿。参见 http://www.kepu.com.cn/gb/technology/nuclear/scrap/200207310032.html,2004 年 4 月 10 日浏览。
① 例如,台湾《核子事故紧急应变法》(2003 年 12 月 9 日制定和修正、2003 年 12 月 24 日公布施行)第二条分别对整备措施、应变措施、复原措施、民众防护、掩蔽和碘片等术语作了明确界定。整备措施:指于平时预为规划、编组、训练及演习之各项作为,俾核子事故发生或有发生之虞时,能迅速采行应变措施;应变措施:指核子事故发生或有发生之虞时,为防止事故持续恶化及保护民众生命、身体及财产安全所进行之各项作为;复原措施:指核子事故经控制不再持续恶化,至受事故影响区域可恢复正常生活状况前,所需完成之暂时移居、地区进出管制、食物及饮水管制等相关防护措施;民众防护:指核子事故发生或有发生之虞时,为减少辐射曝露,保障民众生命、身体安全,所采行之掩蔽、服用碘片、疏散收容、食物及饮水管制、暂时移居、地区进出管制、污染清除、医疗救护等措施;掩蔽:指核子事故发生或有发生之虞时,民众停留于室内,并立即关闭门窗及通风系统,以降低吸入放射性核种及辐射曝露可能性之措施;碘片:指核子事故发生或有发生之虞时,适时服用一定剂量,可防止外释放射性碘积存于人体甲状腺部位,以避免或减少甲状腺癌发生之碘化钾药剂。同时,该法第十五条规定了定期办理演习制度,即中央主管机关应定期择定一紧急应变计画区,依核定之紧急应变基本计画办理演习。前项演习,指定之机关、地方主管机关、核子反应器设施经营者及公、私立学校、机关(构)、团体、公司、厂场、民众应配合执行演习。参与前项演习之人员,其所属学校、机关(构)、团体、公司、厂场应给予公假。核子反应器设施经营者应定期就每一核子反应器设施,执行核子反应器设施紧急应变计画演习。
② 例如,联合国国际法委员会于2001年第53次会议上通过的《预防危险活动越境损害条款》(草案)第1条和第2条规定,“损害”指对人、财产或环境造成的损害;“越境损害”指在起源国以外的一国领土内或其管辖或控制下的其他地方造成的损害,不论各当事国是否有共同边界;“起源国”指在其领土内或在其管辖或控制下的其他地方计划进行或进行国际法不加禁止的、其有形后果有造成重大越境损害的危险的活动的国家;“可能受影响国”指在其领土内或在其管辖或控制下的任何其他地方有可能发生重大越境损害的国家;See International liability for injurious consequences arising out of acts not prohibited by international law (Draft articles on prevention of transboundary damage from hazardous activities), available at http://www.un.org/law/ilc/texts/prevention/preventionfra.htm, viewed on 27 February 2004. 原文是:The present articles apply to activities not prohibited by international law which involve a risk of causing significant transboundary harm through their physical consequences. For the purposes of the present articles: (a) “Risk of causing significant transboundary harm” includes risks taking the form of a high probability of causing significant transboundary harm and a low probability of causing disastrous transboundary harm; (b) “Harm” means harm caused to persons, property or the environment; (c) “Transboundary harm” means harm caused in the territory of or in other places under the jurisdiction or control of a State other than the State of origin, whether or not the States concerned share a common border; (d) “State of origin” means the State in the territory or otherwise under the jurisdiction or control of which the activities referred to in article 1 are planned or are carried out; (e) “State likely to be affected” means the State or States in the territory of which there is the risk of significant transboundary harm or which have jurisdiction or control over any other place where there is such a risk;…
① 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室编:《现代汉语词典》,商务印书馆 1983 年月第 2 版,第 1026页。
② 辞海编辑委员会:《辞海》(下),上海辞书出版社 1999 年 9 月第 1 版,第 4900 页。
③ 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室编:《现代汉语词典》,商务印书馆 1983 年月第 2 版,第 558 页。
① 辞海编辑委员会:《辞海》(上),上海辞书出版社 1999 年 9 月第 1 版,第 722 页。
② 魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社和高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 642、645 页;杨立新著:《侵权法论》(下册),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版,第 722、728~729 页;杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 618~620 页。人的生命权、健康权和身体权,在学术上称之为物质性人格权。
③ 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 472~473页。
④ 例如,《日本民法典》第七百二十一条(胎儿的特例)规定:“胎儿就损害赔偿请求权,视为已出生。”参见王书江译:《日本民法典》,中国法制出版社 2000 年 4 月北京第 1 版,第 128 页。
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 474 页。原文是“Preventive measures means any reasonable measures taken by any person after an incident has occurred to prevent or minimize damage.”
② Article I(1)(n-o) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage. 原文如下:“‘ Preventive measures’ means any reasonable measures taken by any person after an incident has occurred to prevent or minimize damage referred to in sub-paragraphs (k)(i) to (v) or (vii), subject to any approval of the competent authorities required by the law of the State where the measures were taken. ” “‘Reasonable measures’ means measures which are found under the law of the competent court to be appropriate and proportionate having regard to all the circumstances, for example- i. the nature and extent of the damage incurred or, in the case of preventive measures, the nature and extent of the risk of such damage; ii. the extent to which, at the time they are taken, such measures are likely to be effective; and iii. relevant scientific and technical expertise. ”
③ Article I (h) of Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage. 原文如下:“Preventive measures” means any reasonable measures taken by any person after a nuclear incident has occurred to prevent or minimize damage referred to in sub-paragraphs (f)(i) to (v) or (vii), subject to any approval of the competent authorities required by the law of the State where the measures were taken.
④ Article 3(j)-(k) of Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (Romania)(adopted on 3 December 2001). Unofficial translation kindly provided by the Romanian authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 August 2003. 原文如下:j) reasonable measures means any measures which are adequate and proportional to the extent of the damage meant to reduce the consequences of nuclear accidents; k) preventive measures means any reasonable measures taken by any person after the occurrence of a nuclear accident, in order to prevent or minimise damage referred to under paragraph d), sub-paragraphs 1-5 and 7, in compliance with the decisions of the competent national authority.
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 473~474页。
② 蔡守秋主编:《环境资源法学》,人民法院出版社和中国人民公安大学出版社 2003 年 7 月第 1 版,第 2~4页。
③ 例如,《中华人民共和国环境保护法》(1989 年)规定:“本法所称环境,是指影响人类生存和发展的各种天然的和经过人工改造的自然因素的总体,包括大气、水、海洋、土地、矿藏、森林、草原、野生生物、自然遗迹、人文遗迹、自然保护区、风景名胜区、城市和乡村等。”
④ “…Both aspects of man’s environment, the natural and the man-made, are essential to his well-being and to the enjoyment of basic human rights—even the right to life itself.” See I(1) of Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, adopted by the U.N. Conference on the Human Environment at Stockholm, 16 June 1972. Report on the UN Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 15-16 June 1972, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1 at 3 (1973), U.N. Doc. A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1 at 2-65, and Corr.1 (1973), 11 I.L.M.1416 (1972).
⑤ “The President shall transmit to the Congress annually beginning July 1, 1970, an Environmental Quality Report (hereinafter refered to as the “report”) which shall set forth (1) the status and condition of the major natural, manmade, or altered environmental classes of the Nation, including, but not limited to, the air, the aquatic, including marine, estuarine, and fresh water, and the terrestrial environment, including, but not limited to, the forest, dryland, wetland, range, urban, suburban, and rural environment; …” See § 4341. of Natinal Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 U.S.C.A. §§ 4321 to 4370a ), in: Federal Environmental Laws (1988 Edition), St. Paul, Minn., West Publishing Co., 1988, p.511.
⑥ 蔡守秋主编:《环境资源法学》,人民法院出版社和中国人民公安大学出版社 2003 年 7 月第 1 版,第 2~4页。
① 郑冲、贾红梅译:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 1999 年 5 月第 1 版,第 17 页;陈卫佐译注:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 2004 年 5 月第 1 版,第 24~25 页;另可参见高利红著:《动物的法律地位研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2005 年 5 月第 1 版。
② 罗结珍译:《法国民法典》,中国法制出版社 1999 年 10 月北京第 1 版,第 167~171 页。
③ 参见蔡守秋:《人与自然关系中的环境资源法》,载《现代法学》2002 年第 2 期,第 45~60 页;蔡守秋著:《调整论——对主流法理学的反思与补充》,高等教育出版社 2003 年 9 月第 1 版。
① 陈慈阳著:《环境法总论》,台湾元照出版公司 2003 年 1 月第二版,第 423、427 页。
② See Francesco Francioni and Tullio Scovazzi (Editors), International Responsibility for Environmental Harm, Graham & Trotman, 1991. 所谓生态损害,是指在开发资源的人所遭受的损害之外,环境本身所遭受的损害。参见[法]亚历山大·基斯著,张若思编译:《国际环境法》,法律出版社 2000 年 7 月第 1 版,第 367 页。
③ “Pollution damage” means loss or damage caused outside the ship carrying oil by contamination resulting from the escape or discharge of oil from the ship, wherever such escape or discharge may occur, and includes the costs of preventive measures and further loss or damage caused by preventive measures. See Article 1 (6) of International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, concluded at Brussels, 29 November 1969 and entered into force, 19 June 1975. 973 U.N.T.S.3, 9 I.L.M. 45 (1970).
④ “Pollution damage” means (a) loss or damage caused outside the ship carrying oil by contamination resulting from the escape or discharge of oil from the ship, wherever such escape or discharge may occur, provided that compensation for impairment of the environment other than loss of profit from such impairment shall be limited to costs of reasonable measures of reinstatement actually undertaken or to be undertaken. (b) the costs of preventive measures and further loss or damage caused by preventive measures. See Article 2 (6) of Protocol of 1984 to Amend the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969, concluded at London, 25 May 1984 and not in force as of 31 December 1992. IMO Doc. LEG/CONF6/66.
① 《中华人民共和国海洋环境保护法》对“海洋环境污染损害”界定实际上就是 1982 年《联合国海洋法公约》对 “海洋环境污染”的界定。应该正确理解和区别一般意义上的“海洋环境污染”和“海洋环境污染损害”与法律责任意义上的“海洋环境污染损害”或“海洋环境损害”。前者一般是指对海洋环境的不利影响或有害影响;后者是特指应当依法承担相应法律责任的损害。参见蔡守秋、何卫东著:《当代海洋环境资源法》,煤炭工业出版社 2001 年 4 月第 1 版,第 9 页。
② 台湾《游离辐射防护法》,中华民国九十一年一月三十日华总一义字第○九一○○○一九○○○号总统令制定公布,全文五十七条。该法第二条第十二项规定:“辐射作业:指任何引入新辐射源或曝露途径、或扩大受照人员范围、或改变现有辐射源之曝露途径,从而使人们受到之曝露,或受到曝露之人数增加而获得净利益之人类活动。包括对辐射源进行持有、制造、生产、安装、改装、使用、运转、维修、拆除、检查、处理、输入、输出、销售、运送、贮存、转让、租借、过境、转口、废弃或处置之作业及其它经主管机关指定或公告者。”参见 http://www.aec.gov.tw/start.php,2004 年 4 月 12 日浏览。
③ 高家伟著:《欧洲环境法》,工商出版社 2000 年 11 月第 1 版,第 149、154~156 页。
① Article 1(15) of Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (CRAMRA), concluded at Wellington, 2 June 1988 and not in force as of 31 December 1992. Doc AMR/SCM/88/78, 27 I.L.M. 859 (1988). 原文如下:“Damage to the Antarctic environment or dependent or associated ecosystems” means any impact on the living or non-living components of that environment or those ecosystems, including harm to atmospheric, marine or terrestrial life, beyond that which is negligible or which has been assessed and judged to be acceptable pursuant to this Convention.
② Article 1(a) of Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP), concluded at Geneva, 13 November 1979 and entered into force, 16 March 1983. 1302 U.N.T.S. 217, 18 I.L.M. 1442 (1979), T.I.A.S. No. 10541. 原文如下:“air pollution” means the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the air resulting in deleterious effects of such a nature as to endanger human health, harm living resources and ecosystems and material property and impair or interfere with amenities and other legitimate uses of the environment, …
③ Article 1(4) of United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, concluded at Montego Bay, 10 December 1982 and entered into force, 16 November 1994. U.N. Doc. A/CONF.62/122, 21 I.L.M. 1261 (1982). 原文如下:“pollution of the marine environment” means the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine environment, including estuaries, which results or is likely to result in such deleterious effects as harm to living resources and marine life, hazards to human health, hindrance to marine activities, including fishing and other legitimate uses of the sea, impairment of quality for use of sea water and reduction of amenities.
④ Article 1(2) of Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer , concluded at Vienna, 22 March 1985 and entered into force, 22 September 1988. UNEP Doc. TG.53/5, 26 I.L.M. 1529 (1987). 原文如下:“Adverse effect” means changes in the physical environment or biota, including changes in climate, which have significant deleterious effects on human health or on the composition, resilience and productivity of natural and managed ecosystems, on materials useful to mankind. Also see Article 1(1) of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, concluded at Rio de Janeiro, 29 May 1992 and entered into force, 21 March 1994. 31 I.L.M. 849 (1992). 原文如下:“Adverse effect of climate change” means changes in the physical environment or biota resulting from climate change which have significant deleterious effects on human health or on the composition, resilience and productivity of natural and managed ecosystems or on the operation of socio-economic systems or on human health and welfare.
⑤ See Article 1(vii) of Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context, done at Espoo (Finland) on 25 February 1991. 原文如下:“Impact” means any effect caused by a proposed activity on the environment including human health and safety, flora, fauna, soil, air, water, climate, landscape, and historical monuments or other physical structures or the interaction among these factors; it also includes effects on cultural heritage or socio-economic conditions resulting from interaction to these factors.
① 关于这几个案例的中文资料,可参见王曦主编:《国际环境法资料选编》,民主与建设出版社 1999 年 11月第 1 版,第 603~665 页。关于这几个案例的原始翔实材料,可浏览联合国网站:http://www.un.org, 具体位 置 在 国 际 法 院 ( International Court of Justice ) 的 决 议 ( Decisions ) 部 分 , 即http://212.153.43.18/icjwww/idecisions.htm 。
② 王曦编著:《国际环境法》,法律出版社 1998 年 4 月第 1 版,第 147~149 页。
① Article I(m) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and Article I(g) in Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage. 原文如下:“Measures of reinstatement” means any reasonable measures which have been approved by the competent authorities of the State where the measures were taken, and which aim to reinstate or restore damaged or destroyed components of the environment, or to introduce, where reasonable, the equivalent of these components into the environment. The law of the State where the damage is suffered shall determine who is entitled to take such measures. Also see Article 3(l) of (Romania) Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (adopted on 3 December 2001). Unofficial translation kindly provided by the Romanian authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 August 2003. 原文如下:measures of reinstatement means any reasonable measures approved by the competent national authority, and which aim to reinstate or restore damaged or destroyed components of the environment and to introduce, wherever possible, the equivalent of these components into the environment.
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 474~475页。关于国际环境机制,参见王杰主编:《国际机制论》,新华出版社 2002 年 1 月北京第 1 版,第 337~381页。关于国际法上的跨界损害,可参见林灿铃著:《国际法上的跨界损害之国家责任》,华文出版社 2000年 8 月第 1 版。在此衷心感谢中国政法大学的林灿铃博士惠赠该书。另可参见林灿铃著:《国际环境法》,人民出版社 2004 年 4 月第 1 版,第 230~250 页。
③ 韩德培主编:《环境保护法教程》(第四版),法律出版社 2003 年 4 月第四版,第 5 页。
④ 陈慈阳著:《环境法总论》,台湾元照出版公司 2003 年 1 月第 2 版,第 433~435 页。
① 韩健、陈立虎著:《国际环境法》,武汉大学出版社 1992 年 7 月第 1 版,第 290 页;林灿铃著:《国际环境法》,人民出版社 2004 年 4 月第 1 版,第 231~232 页;唐双娥:“‘全球公域’的法律保护”,载《世界环境》2002 年第 3 期,第 21~24 页;Susan J. Buck, The Global Commons: an Introduction, London: Earthscan Publications, 1998; John Vogler, The Global Commons: Environmental and Technological Governance, Chichester, West Sussex, England; New York: J. Wiley & Sons, c2000; Environmental global commons, edited by V.K. Prabhakar, New Delhi: Anmol Pub. Pvt. Ltd., 2001; Privatizing Nature: Political Struggles for the Global Commons, edited by Michael Goldman, London: Pluto Press in association with Transnational Institute (TNI), 1998; Marvin S. Soroos, The Endangered Atmosphere: Preserving a Global Commons, Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, c1997; John Vogler, The Global Commons: a Regime Analysis, Chichester : J. Wiley & Sons, c1995.
② The word “common” means “belonging or shared equally by more than one”. See Henry Campbell Black, M.A.: Black’s Law Dictionary (fifth edition): Definitions of the Terms and Phrases of American and English Jurisprudence, Ancient and Modern, St. Paul Minn. West Publishing Co. 1979, p.249.“Common”表示:“1.共用权,即地上权(profit à prendre)的一种形式,指一个或一个以上的人,共同享有另一人土地上利益的权利,如共同享有他人土地上自然产品或河流的权利。这种权利大部分通过时效(prescription)或授权(grant)产生。2.公用地或公地,为了城市居民的便利、娱乐而划拨的供公众使用的土地。3.共用地,受共用权支配的土地。”参见薛波主编:《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 259 页。
① See Principle 21 of Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, adopted by the U.N. Conference on the Human Environment at Stockholm, 16 June 1972. Report of the UN Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 5-16 June 1972, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.48/14/Rev. 1 at 3 (1973), U.N. Doc. A/CONF. 48/14 at 2-65, and Corr. 1 (1972), 11 I.L.M. 1416 (1972). 原文如下:States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
② See Principle 2 of Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, adopted by the U.N. Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) at Rio de Janeiro, 13 June 1992. U.N. Doc. A/CONF.151/26 (vol.I) (1992), 31 I.L.M. 874 (1992). 原文如下:States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental and developmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
③ Charter of the United Nations (as Amended), concluded at San Francisco, 26 June 1945 and entered into force, 24 October 1945. 1 U.N.T.S. xvi, 1976 Y.B.U.N. 1043, 59 Stat. 1031, T.S. 993.
④ See Antarctic Treaty , concluded at Washington, 1 December 1959 and entered into force, 23 June 1961. 402 U.N.T.S. 71, 12 U.S.T. 794, T.I.A.S. No. 4780, 19 I.L.M. 860 1980; Certain Recommendations of Third Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Annex: Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora concluded at Brussels, 13 June 1964. 17 U.S.T. 992, T.I.A.S. No. 6058; Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (With Annex), concluded at London, 11 February 1972 and entered into force, 11 March 1978. 11 ILM 251 (1972). 29 U.S.T. 441, T.I.A.S. No. 8826, 11 I.L.M. 251 (1972); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), concluded at Canberra, 20 May 1980 and entered into force, 7 April 1982. L252 O.J.E.C. 27 (1981), T.I.A.S. No. 10240, 19 I.L.M. 841 (1980); Resolution on the Question of Antarctic, adopted by the UN General Assembly, 15 December 1983. G.A.Res. 38/77, U.N. GAOR, 38th Sess. Supp. No. 47, at 69, U.N. Doc. A/38/69 (1983); Resolution on the Question of Antarctic, adopted by the UN General Assembly, 17 December 1984. G.A.Res. 39/152, U.N. GAOR, 39th Sess. Supp. No. 51, at 94, U.N. Doc. A/39/51 (1984); Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (CRAMRA) (Without Annex for Arbitral Tribunal), concluded at Wellington, 2 June 1988 and not in force as of 31 December 1992.Doc AMR/SCM/88/78, 27 I.L.M. 859 (1988); Resolution on the Question of Antarctic, adopted by the UN General Assembly, 15 December 1989. G.A.Res. 44/124, U.N. GAOR, 44th Sess. Supp. No. 49, at 91, U.N. Doc. A/44/49 (1989); Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, With Annexes I & II Only. Not in force as of 31 December 1992. XI ATSCM/2, 30 I.L.M. 1461 (1991) , etc. 另外,还有 1991 年《保护北极环境宣言》等。
① See Article 1(15) and Article 8(1) of Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (CRAMRA). 原文是:“Damage to the Antarctic environment or dependent or associated ecosystems” means any impact on the living or non-living components of that environment or those ecosystems, including harm to atmospheric, marine or terrestrial life, beyond that which is negligible or which has been assessed and judged to be accepted pursuant to this Convention. An Operator undertaking any Antarctic mineral resource activity shall take necessary and timely response action, including prevention, containment, clean-up and removal measures, if the activity results in or threatens to result in Damage to the Antarctic environment or dependent or associated ecosystems.…
② 参见《国际法委员会第 42 届会议工作报告》(中文版)第二条“用语”,第 226 页。转引自林灿铃著:《国际法上的跨界损害之国家责任》,华文出版社 2000 年 8 月第 1 版,第 52 页注释①。
① “Measures of reinstatement” means any reasonable measures which have been approved by the competent authorities of the State where the measures were taken, and which aim to reinstate or restore damaged or destroyed components of the environment, or to introduce, where reasonable, the equivalent of these components into the environment. The legislation of the State where the nuclear damage is suffered shall determine who is entitled to take such measures. “Preventive measures” means any reasonable measures taken by any person after a nuclear incident or an event creating a grave and imminent threat of nuclear damage has occurred, to prevent or minimise nuclear damage …, subject to any approval of the competent authorities required by the law of the State where the measures were taken. “Reasonable measures” means measures which are found under the law of the competent court to be appropriate and proportionate, having regard to all the circumstances, for example: the nature and extent of the nuclear damage incurred or, in the case of preventive measures, the nature and extent of the risk of such damage; the extent to which, at the time they are taken, such measures are likely to be effective; and relevant scientific and technical expertise. See Article I(1)(m-o) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage; Article I(g-h), (1)(i-iii) of Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage; I.B. viii)-x) of Protocol to Amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (12 February 2004).
① 傅济熙编著:《核损害的民事责任与赔偿》,原子能出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 53~54 页。
② Atomic Energy Act of 1954, in: Federal Environmental Laws (1988 Edition), St. Paul, Minn., West Publishing Co., 1988, pp.490-506.
③ The Price-Anderson Act was enacted into law in September 1957 and has been extended several times. It constitutes Section 170 of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954. The revision of 1988 extended the Act through August 1, 2002 for NRC-licensed facilities. The Defense Authorization Bill for FY 2005 extended the provisions of the Act applicable to Department of Energy contractors through December 31, 2006. While all operating nuclear power plants and other facilities already licensed by the NRC will continue to be covered under the Act, new plants licensed after August 1, 2002 and DOE contracts signed or renewed after January 1, 2007 will not be covered unless the Act is renewed. See The Price-Anderson Act:Background Report (March 2001, Revised November 2002, November 2004), available at http://www.ans.org/pi/ps/docs/ps54-bi.pdf, viewed on 20 September 2003 and 30 January 2005.
④ The US Congress enacted Price-Anderson to meet two basic objectives: (1) to ensure adequate funds would be available to satisfy liability claims of members of the public in the event of a nuclear accident; and (2) to remove the threat of potentially large liability claims in the event of such an accident, a risk that would have limited private sector participation in the development of nuclear power. See Chapter one of Report to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accidents, available at http://www.state.nv.us/nucwaste/news/rpccna/pcrcna07.htm, viewed on 2 February 2005.
① See 1965 Act on the Third Party Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships. 1968 Amendment, in: NLB 2, p.13; NLB 3, p.5, p.45; 1969 Implementing Decree, in: NLB 5, p.10.
② See 1968 Act on Nuclear Third Party Liability, in: NLB 1, p.12, NLB 2, pp.14, 52.
③ See Act on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy and Protection against its Hazards of 23rd December 1959 (Atomic Energy Act), in: Supplement to NLB 4 (December 1969).
④ See 1970 Act on Nuclear Third Party Liability, in: Supplement to NLB 6.
⑤ See 1968 Nuclear Liability Act, in: NLB 1, p.21; NLB 2, p.22; NLB 15, p.18; 1974, 1982, 1988, 1991, 1995 and 2001 Amendments, in: NLB 19, p.11; NLB 27, p.13; NLB 31, p.12; NLB 33, p.15; NLB 37, p.20; NLB 42, p.24; NLB 491, p.61; NLB 56, p.90; NLB 67, p.52;
⑥ See 1961 Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage, in: NLB 6, p.14 . 1961 Act on the Indemnity Agreement for Compensation of Nuclear Damage and its 1968 Amendment, in: NLB 11, p. 21; Supplement to NLB 11.
⑦ The Law of 17th June 1961 on Compensation for Nuclear Damage; The Law of 17th June 1961on Indemnity Agreement for Compensation of Nuclear Damage; Ordinance of 6th March 1962 for the Enforcement of the Law of 17th June 1961on Compensation for Nuclear Damage.
⑧ 英文表述为:Nuclear facility operators shall be strictly (no-fault) and exclusively liable and their liability is unlimited.
⑨ The Nuclear Installations (Licensing and Insurance) Act 1959.
⑩ (United Kingdom) Act of 1965 on Nuclear Installations (An Act to consolidate the Nuclear Installations Acts 1959 and 1965, done 5th August 1965), in: Supplement to NLB No.1(February 1968), pp.3-40; 1965 Nuclear Installations Act, 1969 Amendment, in: NLB 2, p.15; NLB 4, p.12. 11 “Relevant international agreement” means an international agreement with respect to third-party liability in the field of nuclear energy to which the United Kingdom or Her Majesty's Government therein are party, other than an agreement relating to liability in respect of nuclear reactors comprised in means of transport. See Act of 1965 on Nuclear Installations, in: Supplement to NLB No.1(February 1968), p.34.
① [法]亚历山大·基斯著,张若思编译:《国际环境法》,法律出版社 2000 年 7 月第 1 版,第 379 页。亚历山大·基斯教授 1925 年出生于匈牙利的布达佩斯,1947 年开始在法国学习国际法,1951 年获法学博士学位。自 20 世纪 70 年代开始,主要研究国际环境法和国际人权法两个领域,建树颇丰。1998 年,为表彰基斯教授的突出成就,来自 14 个国家的 44 名学者共同撰写和出版了题为《人与环境——献给亚历山大?基斯》的学术论文集,向他表示敬意。基斯教授被几乎所有国际环境保护组织聘为法律顾问。参见前书第428 页。
② 20 世纪 60 年代早期,国际社会建立了两个有关核损害民事责任国际公约体系,它们分别是:1.OECD 体系:经济合作与发展组织(OECD)于 1960 年通过了《核能领域第三方责任公约》(简称《巴黎公约》),又于 1963 年通过了《核能领域第三方责任布鲁塞尔补充公约》(简称《布鲁塞尔补充公约》)2. IAEA 体系:国际原子能机构(IAEA)于 1963 年通过了《核损害民事责任维也纳公约》(简称《维也纳公约》);1997年,维也纳公约成员国通过了《关于修订<核损害民事责任维也纳公约>的议定书》(简称《1997 年维也纳公约》)和《核损害补充赔偿公约》。美国三里岛(1979 年)和苏联切尔诺贝利核事故(1986 年)发生后,OECD 和 IAEA 等国际组织适时调整了相关公约的内容,合并了巴黎公约、维也纳公约两个体系,以减少两个公约体系的法律冲突。
① 已批准或加入《巴黎公约》的国家包括比利时、丹麦、芬兰、法国、德国、希腊、意大利、荷兰、挪威、葡萄牙、斯洛文尼亚、西班牙、瑞典、土耳其、英国等,奥地利、卢森堡和瑞士三国在《巴黎公约》一通过时就签署了,但一直未批准。See status of ratifications or accessions of 1960 Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris-convention-ratification.html, viewed on 24 September 2003.
② 原文是:Its purpose, both then and now, is to ensure that where a nuclear accident occurs in one country, adequate compensation will be available to victims in the accident State as well as in neighbouring countries and it does so by harmonising the national laws of its Contracting Parties, establishing rules for instituting cross-border legal actions and determining which State's courts will have jurisdiction to hear claims and which State's laws will apply. See “Background information note for the Press Communiqué on the revision of the Paris Convention on Nuclear Third Party Liability and of the Brussels Supplementary Convention”, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/general/press/2004/2004-01-note.html, viewed on 24 February 2004.
③ Article 2 of the 1960 Paris Convention and modified by the Protocol to the Convention. 《1963 年布鲁塞尔补充公约》和《1963 年维也纳公约》皆未明确规定可以单方面扩展适用范围。
④ Article 13 of the 1960 Paris Convention.
① Article 2 of the 1960 Paris Convention and modified by the Protocol to the Convention. “营运人” (operator)也译为“经营人”或“管理者”。1963 年《核损害民事责任维也纳公约》和《1997 年核损害民事责任维也纳公约》规定:“‘营运人’是指核设施国指定或认可为核设施营运人的人。” See Article I (1)(c) of 1963/1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage. 原文如下:“Operator” , in relation to a nuclear installation, means the person designated or recognized by the Installation State as the operator of that installation.《1962 年核动力船经营人责任公约》规定:“‘经营人’是指由签发许可证的国家授权经营核动力船舶的人员,或者在由一缔约国经营核动力船舶的情况下,即指该国。” See Article I (4) of Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships, 1962. 原文如下:“Operator” means the person authorized by the licensing State to operate a nuclear ship, or where a Contacting State operates a nuclear ship, that State.《巴黎公约》规定:“‘营运人’是指公共主管部门指定或认可为核设施营运人的人。” See Article 1(a)(vi) of Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (“Paris Convention”). 原文如下:“Operator” in relation to a nuclear installation means the person designated or recognized by the competent public authority as the operator of that installation. 台湾《核子损害赔偿法》第七条规定:“本法所称经营者,指经政府指定或核准经营核子设施者。”《中华人民共和国民用核设施安全监督管理条例》第二十四条第(三)款规定:“‘营运单位’是指申请或持有核设施安全许可证,可以经营和运行核设施的组织。” 1986 年 3 月 29 日,国务院关于处理第三方核责任问题给核工业部、国家核安全局、国务院核电领导小组的批复(简称国务院《批复》)第一条规定:“在中华人民共和国境内,经政府指定,经营核电站的单位,或者从事核电站核材料的供应、处理、运输,而拥有其他核设施的单位,为该核电站或者核设施的营运人。”
② Article 4 of the 1960 Paris Convention.
③ Article 3(ii)(1-2) of the 1960 Paris Convention.
④ Article 3 of the 1960 Paris Convention and modified by the Protocol to the Convention. 其中增加一项,即关于由核事件和核事件以外的事件造成损害的连带责任。如果两者不能合理区分,则该损害或损失将视为由核事件造成。
⑤ Article 3 of the 1960 Paris Convention.
① Article 7 of the 1960 Paris Convention and modified by the Protocol to the Convention.
② Recommendation of the Steering Committee of 20.4.90[NE/M(90)1]. Cited by Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, p.46, footnote 18.
③ Article 8 of the 1960 Paris Convention and modified by the Protocol to the Convention.
④ Article 9 of the 1960 Paris Convention and modified by the Protocol to the Convention. 该条款规定,对于这些免责条件,除非核设施所在的缔约国的法律有相反的规定(“unless legislation of the Contracting party in whose territory his nuclear installation is situated may provide to the contrary.”)。
⑤ In case the victim has caused the loss intentionally or by gross negligence, national law may allow exemptions for the liable person, who would otherwise be absolutely liable under the Convention. See Motif No.48 and 45 to the Paris Convention.
⑥ “Competent court”应该译为“具有管辖权的法院”,其英文解释为“a court, either civil or criminal, having lawful jurisdiction”,see Henry Campbell Black, M.A.: Black’s Law Dictionary (fifth edition): Definitions of the Terms and Phrases of American and English Jurisprudence, Ancient and Modern, St. Paul Minn. West Publishing Co. 1979, p.257. “Competent court”译为“管辖法院,即依法具有刑事或民事管辖权的法院”。参见薛波主编:《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 269 页。但是几乎所有的核责任国际公约中文文本及有关论文都采用“主管法院”这一表述,具体出处恕不一一列出。
⑦ Recommendation of the OECD Steering Committee for Nuclear Energy, the governing body of the NEA, of 3.10.1990[NE/M(90)2] in respect of Article 13(a) of the 1960 Paris Convention.
⑧ Recommendation of the Steering Committee of 25.4.1968[NE/M(68)1] and Recommendation of the Steering Committee of 22.4.1971[NE/M(71)1] in respect of Article 2 of the 1960 Paris Convention.
① See the Additional Protocol to the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 28 January 1964, Paris, entered into force 4 December 1974. See also the Protocol of 1982 to the 1960 Paris Convention and the 1963 Brussels Supplementary Convention, changing the unit of compensation to Special Drawing Right (‘SDR’) of the IMF and increasing the compensation payable by a State and by the Parties to the Brussels Supplementary Convention jointly to 175 million SDRs and 300 million SDRs respectively.
② OECD/NEA, Paris Convention: Decisions, Recommendations, Interpretations, OECD 1990, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris-convention-dec-rec-int.pdf, viewed on 24 September 2003.
③ 已批准或加入《布鲁塞尔补充公约》的国家包括比利时、丹麦、芬兰、法国、德国、希腊、意大利、荷兰、挪威、葡萄牙、斯洛文尼亚、西班牙、瑞典、土耳其、英国等,奥地利、卢森堡和瑞士三国在《布鲁塞尔补充公约》一通过时就签署了,但一直未批准。See status of ratifications or accessions of 1963 Brussels Supplementary Convention available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/brussels-convention-ratification.html, viewed on 24 September 2003.
④ See preamble of Brussels Supplementary Convention and Article 7 of the 1960 Paris Convention.
① Article 3(b) and Article 12 of the Brussels Supplementary Convention.
② 1964 年 1 月 28 日缔结于巴黎,1968 年 4 月 1 日生效。
③ 《布鲁塞尔补充公约》(“Brussels Convention”)的英文全称是“Convention of 31th January 1963 Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29th July 1960 on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 ”, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlbrussels.html, viewed on 18 August 2003. 《布鲁塞尔补充公约》于2004 年 2 月 12 日作了最新修订。
④ “Special Drawing Right”, hereinafter referred to as SDR, means the unit of account defined by the International Monetary Fund and used by it for its own operations and transactions. See Article 2(p) of Protocol to Amend the 1963 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/1998/infcirc566.shtml, viewed on 28 August 2003. “特别提款权”是国际货币基金组织(IMF)创立的一种货币,由美元、英镑、德国马克、日元和法国法郎共同定值,其中既有硬币也有软币,币值相对稳定。IMF 是根据参加筹建联合国的 44 国代表于 1944 年 7 月在美国 New Hampshire 举行的会议及其所通过的《国际货币基金组织协定》(International Monetary Fund Agreement),在 1946 年 3 月正式成立,并于 1947 年 3 月开始营业,总部设在华盛顿。IMF 于 1969 年 9月在其第 24 届年会上,正式通过了“十国集团”提出的关于“特别提款权”(SDR)方案,创设了 SDRs。同时,该组织决定从 1970~1971 年的 3 年内,由国际货币基金组织发行 95 亿 SDRs 单位,按成员国所摊付的原有基金份额的比例进行分配,以补充黄金之不足,以此作为成员国原有的普通提款权(Ordinary Drawing Rights)以外的、用来补充现有储备资产的一种手段。这就是国际货币基金组织自其成立以来对《国际货币基金组织协定》的第一次改革,也即该组织创造了一种实验性质的新储备货币。其正式名称为“特别提款权”,或称“纸黄金”(Paper Gold),以与成员国原有的普通提款权相区别。“特别提款权”在发行时是一种有黄金保值的记帐单位,它虽有黄金保值,但不能兑换成黄金。所以,“特别提款权”被称为“纸黄金”。当一会员国发生国际收支逆差时,可动用 SDRs,将其划给另一会员国,偿付收支逆差,或者用于偿还 IMF 的贷款。但是,特别提款权不能直接作为国际支付手段,即不能直接用于贸易和非贸易结算,只是成员国在基金组织特别提款权帐户上的一种储备资产。参见于研编著:《国际金融》,上海财经大学出版社1999 年版,第 215~220 页;周金山编著:《国际金融》,经济科学出版社 1999 年版,第 385~386 页。
① 公约第 23 条规定:“本公约于交存第五份批准书(instrument of ratification)三个月后生效,……”;另可参见 Optional Protocol Concerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes to the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, 1963 年 5 月 21 日在维也纳通过,1999 年 5 月 13 日生效。截止到 2002 年 2 月,《维也纳公约》共有缔约国 32 个,签署国 14 个。它们包括阿根廷、亚美尼亚、白俄罗斯、玻利维亚、波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那、巴西、保加利亚、喀麦隆、智利、哥伦比亚、克罗地亚、古巴、捷克共和国、埃及、爱沙尼亚、匈牙利、以色列、拉托维亚、黎巴嫩、立陶宛、墨西哥、摩洛哥、尼日尔、秘鲁、菲律宾、波兰、摩尔达维亚共和国、罗马尼亚、俄罗斯联邦、圣文森特和格林纳丁斯、塞尔维亚-黑山、斯洛伐克、西班牙、前马其顿南斯拉夫共和国、特立尼达和多巴哥、乌克兰、英国、乌拉圭等其中,智利和以色列两国提出了保留。2002 年 11 月 9 日,IAEA 总干事收到斯洛文尼亚共和国(the Republic of Slovenia)终止适用《维也纳公约》的通知,根据该公约 Article XXV.2 规定,该公约自 2002 年 11 月 12 日起停止适用于斯洛文尼亚共和国。See Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (Last change of status: 5 February 2002), available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Legal/liability_status.pdf, viewed on 2 October 2003.
② See preamble of 1963 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage. 原文如下:“THE CONTRACTING PARTIES, HAVING RECOGNIZED the desirability of establishing some minimum standards to provide financial protection against damage resulting from certain peaceful uses of nuclear energy, BELIEVING that a convention on civil liability for nuclear damage would also contribute to the development of friendly relations among nations, irrespective of their differing constitutional and social systems, HAVE DECIDED to conclude a convention for such purposes,….” Its background is available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Legal/Liability.shtml, viewed on 28 August 2003, and its English text is available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/1996/inf500.shtml, viewed on 28 August 2003.
① Article II(1)(a-c) of the Vienna Convention.
② Article IV(1) of the Vienna Convention.
③ Article IV(3) of the Vienna Convention.
④ Article IV(5) of the Vienna Convention.
⑤ Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, p.52.
⑥ Article IV(2) of the Vienna Convention.
⑦ Article V(1) of the Vienna Convention. 原文如下:“The liability of the operator may be limited by the Installation State to not less than US $5 million for any one nuclear incident.”
⑧ Article VII of the Vienna Convention.
⑨ Articles VII and V of the Vienna Convention.
① See 1954 Atomic Energy Act, 1970 and 1974 Amendments, in: NLB 7, p.27; NLB 14, p.27.
② 1957 Price-Anderson Act, 1975 and 1988 Amendments, in: NLB 15, p.50; NLB 17, p.17; NLB 42, p.27.
③ See 1965 Act on the Third Party Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships. 1988 Amendment, in: NLB 43, p.67; 1982 Implementing Decree, in: NLB 29, p.19.
④ See 1961 Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage and its 1971, 1979, 1989, Amendments, in: NLB 6, p.14; NLB 7, p.15; NLB 9, p.21; NLB 23, p.22; NLB 43, p.73; NLB 56, p.88; 1961 Act on the Indemnity Agreement for Compensation of Nuclear Damage and its 1968, 1971 and 1988 Amendments, in: NLB 11, p. 21; Supplement to NLB 11; Supplement to NLB 45.
⑤ 德国《原子能法》第 25 条第 1 项第 2 款、第 25 条第 3 项第 2 款、第 31 条第 2 项、第 38 条第 3 项。
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 470~471 页。
② 1965 Nuclear Installations Act, 1975 and 1983 Amendments, in: NLB 4, p.12; NLB 15, p.21; NLB 31, p.15; NLB 32, p.16; NLB 33, p.20.
③ See 1989 Atomic Energy Act, in: NLB 44, p.48.
④ Canada Nuclear Liability Act, available at http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/N-28/86947.html, viewed on August 24, 2003. See 1970 Act on Nuclear Third Party Liability, 1985 Amendment, in: NLB 44, p.34.
⑤ See 1968 Nuclear Liability Act, in: NLB 1, p.21; NLB 2, p.22; NLB 15, p.18; 1974, 1982, 1988, 1991, 1995 and 2001 Amendments, in: NLB 19, p.11; NLB 27, p.13; NLB 31, p.12; NLB 33, p.15; NLB 37, p.20; NLB 42, p.24.
⑥ See 1981 Decree on Nuclear Third Party Liability, in: NLB 28, p.23.
⑦ See 1983 Ratification of the 1982 Protocols to Amend the Paris Convention and the Brussels Supplementary Convention, in: NLB 31, p.30.
⑧ See 1986 Bill for Economic Compensation Following the Chernobyl Accident, in: NLB 39, p.21.
⑨ See 1987 Ordinance on Compensation for Interventions Due to the Chernobyl Accident, in: NLB 38, p.33.
⑩ (Republic of Korea) Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage. Act No. 2094 of 24 January 1969, as amended by: Act No. 2765 of 7 April 1975, Act No. 3549 of 1 April 1982 (the Atomic Energy Act), Act No. 3849 of 12 May 1986. 11 (Belgium) Act of 22nd July 1985 on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, in: Supplement to NLB 37, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-37-SUP.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003 12 (Finland) Nuclear Liability Act of 8th June 1972 as Amended by the Act of 15th September 1989, in: Supplement to NLB 44, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-44-SUP.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003. 13 台湾《原子能法》(民国 60 年 12 月 14 日修正)第 1 条。
① 参见 http://www.law.hotoa.com.cn/lawv2/7/67-1/3720DF89-7633-418B-Bf95-58D1F2D899Fb.html,2003 年9 月 2 日浏览。该批复由国务院颁布,即国函(1986)44 号批复,自发布之日起生效。
② 英文表述为:Convention Relating to Civil Liability in the Field of Maritime Carriage of Nuclear Material, 1971(1971 Brussels Convention).
① Article 1 of the Maritime Carriage Convention.
② Article 2 of the Maritime Carriage Convention.
③ 胡遵素:“切尔诺贝利事故及其影响与教训”,载《辐射防护》1994年第5期,第321~333页;“切尔诺贝利防护罩要塌?”,载《宁波晚报》2003年4月28日第24版;董映璧:“切尔诺贝利仍在哭泣——纪念切尔诺贝利核事故18周年”,载《科技日报》2004年4月26日第2版;Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, p.54; NEA/OECD, Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impacts (2002 Update of Chernobyl: Ten Years On), prepared by Dr. Henri Métivier on request of the NEA Committee on Radiation Protection and Public Health (CRPPH), available at http://www.nea.fr/html/rp/reports/2003/nea3508-chernobyl.pdf, viewed on 20 February 2004.
④ 根据国际原子能机构的国际核电事故等级表规定,1986 年切尔诺贝利核电站的事故为 7 级核事故,即最严重的核事故。
① 何永晋:“悬在头上的剑——切尔诺贝利‘石棺’处理麻烦多”, 载《科技日报》2004 年 3 月 13 日第2 版。
② 科菲·安南 (Kofi A. Annan) 1938 年 4 月 8 日出生于加纳的库马西市,早年就读于加纳库马西理工大学,曾到美国和瑞士留学,先后获美国明尼苏达州麦卡莱斯特学院经济学学士学位和麻省理工学院管理学硕士学位。安南 1962 年进入联合国工作,1996 年 12 月 17 日,第 51 届联大任命安南为联合国第七任秘书长。1997 年 1 月 1 日,他正式就职,任期 5 年。2001 年 6 月,联大通过安理会提名安南连任秘书长,任期至2006 年 12 月 31 日。2001 年 10 月 12 日挪威诺贝尔委员会宣布,联合国与联合国秘书长安南共同分享 2001年诺贝尔和平奖。安南是位经验丰富的外交家,懂英语、法语和几种非洲语言。参见 http://news.xinhuanet.com/ziliao/2002-04/22/content_367974.htm ,或 http://www.un.org/chinese/aboutun/sg/sg7bio.htm,2004 年 9 月 24 日浏览。
① 郭立军:“安南呼吁继续关注切尔诺贝利核污染问题”,2001 年 4 月 26 日 06:23 新华网。Also see “FifteenYears after Chernobyl Nuclear Accident, UN Calls for More Assistance to Victims”, in: Press release, IHA/730, April 25, 2001, available at http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2001/iha730.doc.htm, viewed on 24 September 2004.
② 墨菲定律(Murphy’s Law)是指诙谐的经验之谈,如:任何事情都不象看上去那么简单;任何事情所花的时间总比原先估计的要长;任何可能出错的事物都要出错等。参见《新英汉词典》编写组编:《新英汉词典》(增订本),上海译文出版社 1985 年 6 月第 2 版,第 1730 页。
③ 例如,法国就有不断完善的核安全文化,法国人对分布在国内各地的 58 个核反应堆没有任何恐慌。其核安全文化主要体现在两个方面:一是营运单位是第一责任人,即大型国有企业首先要自己承担起责任,在核安全知识和意识方面,定期培训工作人员;二是增加透明度,无论发生什么情况,务必及时通报,使公众和政府相信核能发展的安全。法国核安全局十几年来一直出版发行面向公众的《核安全监督》月刊精确地记载着全国所发生的每一起核故障(包括极其微小的失误),公众也可从互联网上查询到相关内容。另外,法国进行年均 10~15 次的核事故演习,参加者包括核电厂工作人员、地方政府工作人员、医护人员、警察、军队和居民等。由此可见,法国在核安全方面建立了一套完整的预警体系。参见华凌:“为安全核能而努力——访法国电力公司执行副总裁马识路”,载《科技日报》2004 年 2 月 27 日第 8 版。
① 米哈伊尔·谢尔盖耶维奇·戈尔巴乔夫(Михаил Сергеевич Горбачёв),1931 年 3 月 2 日出生于俄罗斯南部斯塔夫罗波尔附近,是一位苏联政治家,1985 年至 1991 年担任苏联共产党中央委员会总书记。他在职时期的政策导致了冷战的结束,因此于 1990 年获得诺贝尔和平奖,但他的改革政策也使得苏联解体。早在 1990 年戈尔巴乔夫就已经引入并当任了苏联总统一职,1991 年 12 月 25 日独立国家联合体成立后,他宣布离职,苏联正式灭亡。具体参见 http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%88%E5%B0%94%E5%B7%B4%E4%B9%94%E5%A4%AB,2004 年 9月 25 日浏览。
② [苏] В·Я·沃兹尼亚克等著,伍仁毅、杜凡等译:《切尔诺贝利核事故与教训》,中国劳动出版社 1991年 5 月北京第 1 版,扉页。
③ Group of Seven, ‘Statement on the Implication of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident’, 1986, 25 ILM (1986), p.1005; IAEA General Conference, Special Session, 1986, IAEA Dc. GC(SPL.1), Res.1; IAEA, ‘Response to Chernoby’, IAEA Bulletin 61(Summer 1986), pp.62-65.
④ A.I. Iorish and O.A. Supataeva, ‘The Problem of Russion Legislation on Liability for Nuclear Damage’, in: Nuclear Accidents: Liability and Guarantees, OECD/NEA-IAEA Helsinki Symposium, 31 August-3 September 1992(Paris: OECD, 1993), pp.70-91.
⑤ See International Safety Advisory Group, ‘Summary Report on Post-Accident Review Meeting on the Chernobyl Accident’, IAEA Safety Series No.75, INSAG-1(Vienna:1986), pp.9, 13-30.
① Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, p.55.
② See N. Pelzer, ‘Concepts of Nuclear Liability Revisited: A Post- Chernobyl Assessment of the Paris and the Vienna Conventions’, in: P. Cameron et al. (eds.), Nuclear Energy Law After Chernobyl, pp.97-114 (London/Dordrecht/Boston: Graham & Trotman, 1988), p. 114.
③ Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, pp. 55-56.
④ “预防措施”的英文表达除了使用“precautionary measures”以外,还经常使用“preventive measures”。
① P. Sands, Chernobyl: Law and Communication, Transboundary Nuclear Air Pollution: The Legal Materials (1988), p.5. Cited by Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, p.56, footnote 73.
② 《核事故及早通报公约》(Convention on Early Notification of Nuclear Accident,Vienna,1986)的目的是建立一个核事故及早通报制度,以便最大限度地减少核事故造成的跨界影响。1986 年 9 月 26 日签订于维也纳,1986 年 10 月 27 日正式生效。
③ 《核事故或辐射紧急情况援助公约》(Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency,Vienna,1986)的宗旨是建立一个便利在发生核事故时迅速提供援助以减轻事故后果的国际框架。1986 年 9 月 26 日签订于维也纳,1986 年 10 月 27 日正式生效。
④ Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention of 21 September 1988, available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/Others/inf402.shtml, viewed on 28 August 2003.
⑤ See preamble of Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention of 21 September 1988.
① Articles II-III of Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention of 21 September 1988. Also see Background to the Vienna Convention, available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Legal/Liability.shtml, viewed on 28 August 2003. 原文为“The Joint Protocol established a link between the Conventions combining them into one expanded liability regime. Parties to the Joint Protocol are treated as though they were Parties to both Conventions and a choice of law rule is provided to determine which of the two Conventions should apply to the exclusion of the other in respect of the same incident.”
② 它们分别是属于《维也纳公约》的缔约国:保加利亚、喀麦隆、智利、克罗地亚、捷克共和国、埃及、爱沙尼亚、匈牙利、拉托维亚、立陶宛、波兰、罗马尼亚、斯洛伐克、斯洛文尼亚、乌克兰;属于《巴黎公约》的缔约国: 丹麦(不含 Faroe 岛)、芬兰、意大利、荷兰(指 the Kingdom in Europe)、挪威、瑞典;而阿根廷、比利时、德国、希腊、法国、摩洛哥、菲律宾、葡萄牙、西班牙、瑞士、土耳其和英国等国家只是已经签署了该议定书,但尚未批准。See Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention (Status list as of 12 September 2000: Signature, Acceptance, Approval or Accession), available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Legal/jointprot_status.pdf, OR http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/2000/infcirc402a3.pdf, viewed on 2 October 2003.
③ “呼声表决(voice vote)”是根据 ayes(赞成)和 noes(反对)的声音大小来估计人数的表决,但不统计呼唤 ayes 和 noes 的实际人数。参见《英汉法律词典》编写组编:《英汉法律词典》(修订本),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 871 页。
① See Nuclear Law Bulletin No. 64, p.57, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/Nlb-64/nationaleg.pdf, viewed on 7 November 2003; Yoshio Baba, “The Problems Facing Nuclear Power in Japan: Emphasising Law and Regulations”, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 July 2003.
② See (Germany) Act on the Peaceful Utilisation of Atomic Energy and the Protection Against its Hazards (Atomic Energy Act) of 23 December 1959 (BGBl. I, p.814), as amended and promulgated on 15 July 1985 (BGBl. I, p.1565), last amendment by the Act of 22 April 2002 (BGBl.I, p.1351), in: Supplement to NLB 70. For comments on the 2002 Amendment, see Dr. Axel Vorwerk, “The 2002 Amendment to the German Atomic Energy Act Concerning the Phase-out of Nuclear Power”, in: NLB 69, p.7, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, OR http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-69/nlb69-vorwerk.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003.
③ 德国《原子能法》第 25 条第 1 项第 2 款、第 25 条第 3 项第 2 款、第 31 条第 2 项、第 38 条第 3 项。
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年11 月增订版, 第470~471 页。
② See “Amendment to the nuclear third party liability provisions of the Atomic Energy Act (2001)”, in: Nuclear Law Bulletin 67, pp.34-35, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-67/029_058.pdf, viewed on 30 October 2003.
③ Bundesgesetzblatt 2001 I p. 326.
④ 原文是:It provides for a regime of strict liability without limitation in amount. However, the person liable may be relieved from liability if he proves that he took all precautionary measures to prevent the damage (modified strict liability).
⑤ 原文是:While the amendment does not affect this general rule, it does make it clear that the German operator’s liability is limited to the amount which the other state would have granted to victims in Germany, including funds provided for under international agreements on supplementary compensation, at the time of the incident. If damage occurs in a state where there is no nuclear installation, reciprocity is not required for compensation to be payable, but the liability of the German operator is limited to the maximum amount of compensation under the Brussels Supplementary Convention.
① 原文是:Section 37(1) establishes, in certain cases, the state’s right of recourse vis-à-vis the liable operator with regard to indemnification granted pursuant to Section 34 of the Atomic Energy Act. A new paragraph 2 now entitles the state to such recourse irrespective of whether the prerequisites pursuant to paragraph 1 are met, if the operator is not of German nationality and does not have his domicile, principal place of business or permanent residence either within the territory of a European Union State, a Paris Convention State, a Vienna Convention/Joint Protocol State or any other state with which Germany has concluded an agreement on compensation for nuclear damage.
② See 1991 Act on Social Protection of Victims of the Chernobyl Disaster, in: NLB 48, p.50.
③ See 1995 Federal Law on the Use of Atomic Energy, in: NLB 58, p.97; Supplement to NLB 57; 2001 Amendment, in: NLB 68, p.69.
④ See “Regulations in the Field of Nuclear Energy”, in: NLB 58, p.97.
⑤ For more information, see Omer F Brown II, ‘Nuclear Liability: A Continuing Impediment To Nuclear Commerce’, The Uranium Institute 24th Annual Symposium 8-10 September 1999: London, available at http://www.world-nuclear.org/sym/1999/pdfs/brown.pdf, viewed on 14 July 2003; Dr. Olga A. Supataeva, ‘Legal Control of Liability for Nuclear Damage in the Russian Federation’ and ‘New Russian Legislation on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and Nuclear Insurance’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, pp.245-260.
① See Law of Ukraine on the Use of Nuclear Energy and Radiation Safety (Unofficial translation by the NEA Secretariat), in: Supplement to Nuclear Law Bulletin No.56; also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-56-SUP.pdf, viewed on 18 August 2003.
② See (Ukraine) 2001 Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security (Unofficial translation established by the NEA Secretariat.), in: NLB 69, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-69/Ukraine.pdf, viewed on 24 August 2003.
③ See 1968 Act on Nuclear Third Party Liability, 1990 Amendment, in: NLB 46, p.55, NLB 47, p.45.
④ See 1965 Nuclear Installations Act, 1990 Amendment, in: NLB 46, p.72.
⑤ See 1994 Order Increasing the Nuclear Operator’s Limits of Liability, in: NLB 53, p.95.
⑥ See 1968 Nuclear Liability Act, 1991, 1995 and 2001 Amendments, in: NLB 49, p.61; NLB 56, p.90; NLB 67, p.52;
⑦ See (Republic of Korea) Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage. Act No. 2094 of 24 January 1969, as amended by: Act No. 2765 of 7 April 1975, Act No. 3549 of 1 April 1982 (the Atomic Energy Act), Act No. 3849 of 12 May 1986, Act No. 4940 of 1 January 1995 (the Atomic Energy Act), and Act No. 6350 of 16 January 2001. Unofficial translation kindly provided by the Korean authorities. See Nuclear Law Bulletin No. 68, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 August 2003.
⑧ 专属经济区是战后特别是 20 世纪 70 年代以来海洋法斗争中的一个中心议题,是发展中的沿海国家最主要的奋斗目标之一,也是《联合国海洋法公约》(United Nation Convention on the Law of the Sea)所确立的新的重要的海洋法制度。该公约于 1982 年 12 月 10 日订于蒙特哥湾,其第 55 条和第 57 条规定和说明了专属经济区主要包括基本内容:1.专属经济区是在沿海国领海以外,但与领海紧密相连的一个国家管辖区;2.在这个区域内实行一种特定的法律制度,即以沿海国的权利和管辖权为主要内容,也包含有其他国家的权利和自由,并均受公约有关规定的限制与支配;3.这个区域的范围从测算领海宽度的基线量起为二百海里。有关专属经济区的具体规定与全面阐述,请参见《联合国海洋法公约》的相关条款以及魏敏主编:《海洋法》,法律出版社 1987 年 6 月第一版,第 114~137 页。《联合国海洋法公约》第 55 条和第57 条的英文表述分别是:“Article 55 (Specific legal regime of the exclusive economic zone)The exclusive economic zone is an area beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea, subject to the specific legal regime established in this Part, under which the rights and jurisdiction of the coastal State and the rights and freedoms of other States are governed by the relevant provisions of this Convention.”“Article 57 (Breadth of the exclusive economic zone) The exclusive economic zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.”
① See (Romania) Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (adopted on 3 December 2001), available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 11 July 2003. Unofficial translation kindly provided by the Romanian authorities.
② See (Netherlands) Nuclear Third Party Liability Act of 1979, As Last Amended by the Act of Parliament of 26 June 1991, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-49-SUP.pdf, viewed on 11 July 2003.
③ Bundesgesetz über die zivilrechtliche Haftung für Sch?den durch Radioaktivit?t (Atomhaftpflichtgesetz 1999).
④ Bundesgesetz vom 29 April 1964 über die Haftung für nukleare Sch?den (Atomhaftpflichtgesetz ), BGB1 1964/117. This law was substantially amended by the Federal Law, BGB1 I 1997/140, that entered into force on 1 July 1998.
⑤ Monika Hinteregger, “The New Austrian Act on Third Party Liability for Nuclear Damage”, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/Nlb-62/hintereg.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003.
① See NLB 45 (June, 1990), p.75 and NLB 46 (December, 1990), p.77 respectively.
② 这些国际组织或机构如 WHO、UNESCO、ILO、UNEP、FAO、Inter-Agency Committee for the Response to Nuclear Accidents (IAC/RNA)等。
③ See IAEA, “International Liability of States”, NLB 41(June 1988), pp.39-40.
④ “国际责任”(international liability)似乎是用来专指国家间的责任(inter-State responsibility),以与《维也纳公约》和《巴黎公约》中的类似术语“民事责任”(civil liability)专指“营运人责任”(operators liability)形成对比,而客观或严格的国家责任(State responsibility of an objective or strict type)则具有更为恰当的涵义(connotation)。瑞典代表团曾于 1987 年 3 月 14 日致信联合国秘书长,建议制定一个独立的“核损害国际责任公约”,而联合国大会也曾讨论过这一问题。See UN Doc. A/42/179, p.4, Part V. Cited by Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, p.57, footnote 76.
① OECD 环境委员会(The Environment Committee of the OECD)是于 1986 年 12 月 9~11 日在巴黎召开的一次会议上成立的,其 1987 年的工作重点是实施有关危险装置及工业事故预防和反应的计划。该委员会的相关四个主题之一就是“必须为那些因意外泄露而清理或环境恢复费用而遭受损害的人提供赔偿”。See International Environmental Report, Current Report 6 (1987).
② ECE Parliamentary Assembly Recommendation No. 1068 (1988), adopted on 25 January 1988 at its 19th sitting, Preamble, para. 19, reprinted in: NLB 41(June 1988), pp. 69-70.
③ 1975 年,当时的法国总统德斯坦邀请德国、美国、日本、英国和意大利领导人到巴黎郊区的朗布依埃城堡开会。按照法国总统的设想,这是一次小型委员会的非正式会晤,目的是讨论当时正受石油危机影响的世界经济。参加会议的领导人一致决定这一会议将每年举行,并邀请加拿大与会。这样 1976 年便形成了七国集团。
④ Group of Seven, ‘Tokyo Summit Declaration on the Implications of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident of 5 May 1986’, reprinted in: 25 ILM 1005 (1986).
⑤ IAEA Docs. GC(XXXII)/Res/491 and GOV/OR 77, p.13, see NLB 42 (December 1988), pp.42-43. 该决议由 阿根廷、奥地利、加拿大、埃及、德意志民主共和国、匈牙利、意大利和波兰等国提交。
① “核损害责任常务委员会”也取代了以前的“核损害民事责任常务委员会”。“核损害民事责任常务委员会”曾研究《维也纳公约》民事责任制度的修订,使 1988 年的《联合议定书》得以通过,将《维也纳公约》和《巴黎公约》融为一体,扩大了两个公约的覆盖范围。
② Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, pp.56-60.
① 原文是:“i. consider international liability for nuclear damage, including international civil liability, international State liability, and the relationship between international civil and State liability; ii. keep under review problems relating to the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability and advise State Party to that Convention on any such problems; and iii. make the necessary substantive preparations and administrative arrangements for a revision conference to be convened in accordance with Article XXVI of the Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage.” See Report of the Second Session of the Working Group on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, NL/2/4 of 15 November 1989. Cited by Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, p.60.
① The levy system proposed a system of collective contribution of nuclear industry to compensation following a nuclear accident, in addition to relying on public funds made up by contributions of States themselves. The pool system concerned the increase of the amount available for the compensation of nuclear damage by introducing into the basic convention a tier of compensation to be collectively provided by the signatory Installation States and a collective State tier, which would be added to the much higher first tier of compensation provided by the liable operator. See Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, p.62.
② IAEA 理事会授权 IAEA 总干事召集 1997 年 9 月 8~12 日的外交会议。See Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, pp.60-63.
③ Protocol to Amend the 1963 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage is available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/1998/infcirc566.shtml, viewed on 28 August 2003. 该议定书于 1997 年 9 月 12 日通过,同年 9 月 29 日开放签署。议定书常用作一个主条约的附属文件以补充、说明、解释或改变主条约的规定。这种附属文件是广义条约的一种,而且也是主条约的一个组成部分。参见李浩培著:《条约法概论》,法律出版社 2003 年 1 月第 2 版,第 23 页;万鄂湘等著:《国际条约法》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 10 月第 1 版,第 10 页。
① 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, i.e. the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage of 21 May 1963 as amended by the Protocol of 12 September 1997 is available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/1998/infcirc566.shtml, OR available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Legal/protamend_annex.shtml, viewed on 2 October 2003.
② Article 3 of the Vienna Protocol.
③ Article 15 of the Vienna Protocol. 虽然用缔约国的公共基金首先赔偿那些坚持类似责任拨款制度的缔约国的受害者遭受的损害似乎合情合理,但令人遗憾的是,《维也纳议定书》实际上依法允许拒绝赔偿那些本身无过错却要承受其国家未提供足够互利后果的受害人。
④ Article 3 of the Vienna Protocol adding Article IB to the Vienna Convention.
① Article 2(1) and 2(5) of the Vienna Protocol.
② Article 2(2) of the Vienna Protocol. 该条款中含有“and each of the following to the extent determined by the law of the competent court”这一引起很多争议的短语,但最终还是获得通过。主要有以下观点分歧:第一,不论这一短语放置在何处,所有的核损害类型都将根据管辖法院的法律加以认定;第二,缔约国不必包括《维也纳议定书》所扩展的其他类型的核损害;第三,这一短语仅仅涉及到损害原因的扩展。See 17th Session, Part 2 of the SCNL, IAEA Doc. SCNL/17.II/INF.7.
① Article 10 of the Vienna Protocol.
② Article 2(3) of the Vienna Protocol.
③ Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, p.66.
① Article 7(1) of the Vienna Protocol.
② Article 6(1) of the Vienna Protocol.
③ Article 9 of the Vienna Protocol.
④ Article 7(2)VD of the Vienna Protocol.
① Article 6(2) - (3) of the Vienna Protocol.
② Article 8(1) - (2) of the Vienna Protocol.
③ Article 6(3) of the 1963 Vienna Convention.
① Article 8(3) of the Vienna Protocol.
② Article 11 of the 1963 Vienna Convention.
③ Article 12(1) of the Vienna Protocol.
④ Article 21(1) of the Vienna Protocol.
⑤ See Protocol to Amend the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (Last change of status: 4 July 2003), available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Legal/protamend_status.pdf, viewed on 2 October 2003.
① The English text of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage (CSC) is available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/1998/infcirc567.shtml, viewed on 28 August 2003.
② See the Preamble and Article XVIII(1) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
③ Article I(f-I, k) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
④ “Grandfather clause”这一短语有两种含义:一是指(新颁法律中的)不追溯条款;二是(在美国)指老祖父条款,具体指美国 1890 年后南部某些州的宪法中为保护白人利益而在财产和教育等方面限制黑人选举权的一种条款,按此条款规定,南北战争前享有选举权的白人的后代,即使没有文化也享有选举权。此条款已于 1915 年废除。参见《英汉法律词典》编写组编:《英汉法律词典》(修订本),法律出版社 1999年 1 月第 1 版,第 347 页;《新英汉词典》编写组编:《新英汉词典》(增补本),上海译文出版社 1985 年 6月第 2 版,第 545 页;薛波主编:《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 610 页。该书的详细解释为,(美)祖父条款。1.法律、法规中的不回溯条款或例外条款。新的法律、法规中的规定的某些限制,不适用于已经开始的活动,并允许其继续进行。《机动车运输法》中的“祖父条款”规定,凡是在本法通过前已经建立的运输机构可以继续经营。2.南方一些州的宪法规定,凡 1867 年前享有选举权的人,或内战时期服役于联邦陆、海军或联邦军队的人,以及上述两类人的合法后裔,不受财产状况和读写能力的限制,一律享有选举权。1915 年,美国最高法院宣布此项条款违宪。也有人将“grandfather clause”这一短语译为“遗老条款、老祖父条款、不追溯条款”,并解释为:在订定新制度的立法内,加设保存或照顾原制度下既有地位者的规定的条文。参见李宗锷、潘慧仪主编:《英汉法律大词典》,法律出版社 1999年 1 月第 1 版,第 129 页;“Grandfather clause”具体的英文解释为:Provision in a new law or regulation exempting those already in or a part of the existing system which is being regulated. An exception to a restriction that allows all those already doing something to continue doing it even if they would be stopped by a new restriction. A clause introduced into several of the constitutions of the southern states, limiting the right to vote to those who can read and write any article of the constitution of the United States, and have worked or been regularly employed in some lawful employment for the greater part of the year next preceding the time they offer to register unless prevented from labor or ability to read or write by physical disability, or who own property assessed at three hundred dollars upon which the taxes have been paid; but excepting those who have served in the army or navy of the United States or in the Confederate States in time of war, their lawful descendants in every degree, and persons of good character who understand their duties and obligations of citizenship under the republican form of government. One of the original purposes of the “grandfather” clause of the Motor Carrier Act was to permit the continued operation of carrier businesses already established prior to passage of the Act. Transamerican Freight Lines v. United States, D.C. Del., 51 F. Supp. 405, 409. See Henry Campbell Black, M.A.: Black’s Law Dictionary (fifth edition): Definitions of the Terms and Phrases of American and English Jurisprudence, Ancient and Modern, St. Paul Minn. West Publishing Co. 1979, p.629.
① Article III(1) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
② Article III(2) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
③ Article IV of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation. 这意味着 90%的分摊是按照核装机容量提供,而 10%是由国家按其联合国会费的分摊比率分摊。
④ Article IV(1)(b) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
① Article IV(1)(c) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
② Article VII (1) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
③ Article II (3) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
④ Article 2 of the Annex to the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
⑤ Articles 2(1), 3-5 and 7 of the Annex to the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
⑥ Article 4 of the Annex to the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
⑦ 附件的 Article 3(7)只是重复了《巴黎公约》的 Article 3(ii)(1-2)和《维也纳公约》的 Article IV(5)。
① Article V of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
② 《补充赔偿公约》的 Article II(2)规定:“本公约的制度适用于缔约国领土内设有用于和平目的的核装置的营运人依据第 I 条所述任一公约或本条第 1(b)款所述国家法律负责任的核损害。”也即《1960 年巴黎公约》和《1963 年维也纳公约》及其修正以及附件参加国(Annex States)的国内法律。然而,公约 Article V 的目的是限制共同基金(collective funds)用于在领土内包括《补充赔偿公约》缔约国的海区所遭受的损害,但这种规定只是明确了“在领海内或领海上空而不是非缔约国的领土所遭受的损害”。可将《补充赔偿公约》的 Article V(1)(a)和 Article V(1)(b)作一比较。
① Article I(a) - (b) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
② Article XV of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
③ Article XI(1)(c) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
④ Article XI(2) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
⑤ Article XII (2) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
⑥ Article 5 of the Annex to the Convention on Supplementary Compensation, Article III (1) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation, Article 10 of the Paris Convention and Article V of the Vienna Convention. 比较一下,《1997 年议定书》第 7 条规定,营运人的最低责任限额为 1 亿 5000 万 SDRs(除了在 1 亿 SDRs的过渡数额的情况下)。
① Article XIII (1) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
② Article XIII (1-3) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
③ Article XIII (2) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
④ Article XIII of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
⑤ Article XX of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
⑥ Convention on Supplementary Compensation (Status list as of 12 September 2000: Signature, Ratification, Acceptance or Approval), available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Legal/supcomp_status.pdf, viewed on 2 October 2003.
⑦ See “Revised Nuclear Third Party Liability Conventions improve victims' rights to compensation”, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/general/press/2004/2004-01.html, and “Background information note for the Press Communiqué on the revision of the Paris Convention on Nuclear Third Party Liability and of the Brussels Supplementary Convention”, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/general/press/2004/2004-01-note.html, viewed on 24 February 2004. Also see “Conclusion of the negotiations to revise the Paris and Brussels Conventions (2002)”, in: NLB 70 (2002).
① 谈判开始时,《巴黎公约》的 14 个缔约国分别是比利时、丹麦、芬兰、法国、德国、希腊、意大利、荷兰、挪威、葡萄牙、西班牙、瑞典、土耳其和英国。2001 年 10 月 16 日,斯洛文尼亚共和国成为该公约的第 15 个缔约国。
② The Joint Protocol generally extends to States adhering to it the coverage provided under the Convention to which it is not a Contracting Party. Thus, where a nuclear incident occurs in a Paris Convention/Joint Protocol State and damage is suffered in a Vienna Convention/ Joint Protocol State, victims in the latter State may claim compensation for damage against the liable Paris Convention State operator. The Paris Convention States which have joined the Joint Protocol are: Denmark, Finland, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden.
③ 《布鲁塞尔补充公约》的 11 个缔约国分别是比利时、丹麦、芬兰、法国、德国、意大利、荷兰、挪威、西班牙、瑞典和英国。斯洛文尼亚共和国已经申请加入该公约。
④ While the Protocol to amend the Paris Convention will come into force when ratified by two thirds of the Signatory States, the Protocol to amend the Brussels Supplementary Convention will come into force when ratified by all the Brussels Supplementary Convention signatory states.
⑤ 原文是:The resulting amending Protocols ensure that in the unlikely event of a nuclear accident, much greater financial compensation will be available to compensate a much larger number of victims for a much broader range of damage suffered.
⑥ This is particularly important for those Paris Convention States which are party to the 1988 Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention, an international instrument which generally extends to Paris or Vienna Convention States adhering to it the coverage provided under the Convention to which it is not already a Contracting Party.
⑦ See Protocol to Amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (12 February 2004), available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris_convention.pdf, viewed on 26 March 2004.
① A Special Drawing Right is a unit of account defined by the International Monetary Fund, calculated on the basis of a basket of currencies of several of the most important trading nations. Based upon the IMF exchange rate on 28 January 2004 of 1 SDR = €1.188, this amount is equivalent to €17.82 million. But according to the International Monetary Fund’s published currency values in terms of the Special Drawing Right on 2 January 2002, 1 SDR=1.39732 EUR. In 1990 the NEA Steering Committee for Nuclear Energy recommended that Contracting Parties increase this amount to at least 150 million SDRs.
② 原文是:The unit of account will change to the euro to avoid fluctuations in the value of the SDR which could seriously affect the level of corresponding national currencies for most Contracting Parties.
③ 原文是:Under the proposed revision, a nuclear operator will continue to be liable for damage to persons and to property, but will also be liable for certain categories of economic losses, the cost of preventive measures, the cost of measures to reinstate an impaired environment and other losses resulting from such an impaired environment, at least to the extent determined by the law of the competent court. This is a reference to the national law of the court having jurisdiction over claims for compensation arising out of a nuclear incident.
④ Including on board a ship or aircraft registered by that Contracting Party.
⑤ 原文是:The revised Convention, however, will apply to nuclear damage suffered in any territory or maritime zone of a Contracting Party or of a non-Contracting State as long as the latter is a party to the Vienna Convention and the Joint Protocol, or it has no nuclear installations in its territory or maritime zones, or it has adoptedlegislation that affords equivalent reciprocal benefits and is based upon the principles of the Paris Convention.
① See Protocol to Amend the Convention of 31st January 1963 Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (12 February 2004), available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/brussels_supplementary_convention.pdf, viewed on 26 March 2004.
② The fact that the Paris Convention, as revised, now sets a minimum amount of liability instead of a maximum means that the Contracting Parties will be free to establish, in their domestic legislation, an amount higher than €700 million or, as the case may be, to remove any limitation of liability from the nuclear operator.
① 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 63~64 页。
② 来小鹏等主编:《民法学》,陕西人民出版社 1998 年 6 月第 1 版,第 276~278 页。
① 谢邦宇、李静堂著:《民事责任》,法律出版社 1991 年 12 月第 1 版,第 5 页。
② 《法学词典》编辑委员会编:《法学词典》,上海辞书出版社 1989 年 11 月第 3 版,第 270~271 页。
③ 我国《民法通则》第 24 条第 2 款、第 34 条、第 63 条第 2 款规定的民事责任即指这种含义。
④ 郭明瑞、房绍坤、於向平著:《民事责任论》,中国社会科学出版社 1991 年 10 月第 1 版,第 8~11 页。
① 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 3~4 页。
② 曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版,第 1 页。
③ [德] 克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,张新宝译:《欧洲比较侵权法》(上卷),法律出版社 2001 年版,第 1~2页。
④ 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 4 页。民事责任还有以下分类:根据民事当事人违反义务的不同性质和内容,分为违约责任和侵权责任;根据民事责任的归责原则,分为过错责任、无过错责任和公平责任;根据所承担民事责任的内容是否具有财产性质,分为财产责任和非财产责任;根据承担责任的民事主体的多寡及其内在关系,分为单独责任和共同责任(包括按份责任和连带责任);根据给他人造成损害后果的过错行为是当事人一方还是双方所为,分为单方责任和双方责任;根据义务人承担财产责任的范围,分为有限责任和无限责任。而在中国大陆,违反合同的民事责任和侵权的民事责任构成民事责任的基本分类。传统民法将侵权行为作为债的发生根据之一,因而在民法上又将侵权行为所发生的债称为“损害赔偿”或者“侵权损害的民事责任”。参见谢邦宇、李静堂著:《民事责任》,法律出版社 1991 年 12 月第 1 版,第 53~59 页。也有学者认为,民事责任在学理上主要有类型分类和内容分类。民事责任的类型分类是指以民事责任的性质不同所进行的分类,包括财产责任和非财产责任、合同责任和非合同责任、过错责任和无过错责任;民事责任的内容分类是指以民事责任的内容不同所进行的分类,包括单方责任和双方责任(混合责任)、按份责任和连带责任、有限责任和无限责任。参见来小鹏等主编:《民法学》,陕西人民出版社 1998 年 6 月第 1 版,第 284~287 页。
① 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 4~5 页。
② 蓝承烈著:《民法专题研究与应用》,群众出版社 2002 年 8 月第 1 版,第 249、252 页。
① 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 7~8 页。
② 陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,载《台大法学论丛》2001 年 7 月第 30 卷第 4 期,第 112~113页。
① 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 360 页;傅济熙、董保同:“浅谈第三方核责任法律制度”,载《中国核工业》1998 年第 3 期,第 44 页。陈俊:“我国核法律制度研究基本问题初探”,载《中国法学》1998 年第 6 期,第 63 页。根据《中华人民共和国保险法》(1995 年10 月 1 日生效)第 11、49 条规定:“保险标的是指作为保险对象的财产及其有关利益或者人的寿命和身体”。“保险人对责任保险的被保险人给第三者造成的损害,可以依照法律的规定或者合同的约定,直接向该第三者赔偿保险金。责任保险是指以被保险人对第三者依法应负的赔偿责任为保险标的的保险”。
② 国际不当行为是指国际法律责任主体所作的违背其国际义务的行为,包括一般国际不当行为和国际罪行。因国际法律责任主体所作的国际不当行为而引起的国际责任,称为国际不当行为责任。参见梁西主编:《国际法》,武汉大学出版社 2000 年 3 月修订版,第 130 页。
③ See Draft articles on Responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, adopted by the International Law Commission at its fifty-third session (2001), in: the Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its Fifty-third session, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixth session, Supplement No. 10 (A/56/10), chp.IV.E.1; also see Commentaries to the draft articles on Prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities, adopted by the International Law Commission at its fifty-third session (2001), in: the Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its Fifty-third session, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixth session, Supplement No. 10 (A/56/10), chp.V.E.2, pp.376-436.
④ 个人在国际法的少数领域,如国际人权法、国际法律责任法、国际争端法等具有主体资格,但是在许 多重要领域又没有主体资格。参见梁西主编:《国际法》,武汉大学出版社 2000 年 3 月修订版,第 128 页。
① 梁西主编:《国际法》,武汉大学出版社 2000 年 3 月修订版,第 127~130、134 页。
② 王铁崖主编:《国际法》,法律出版社 1995 年 8 月修订版,第 160 页。
① 1978 年 1 月 24 日,苏联的核动力卫星宇宙—594 号坠毁在加拿大境内。加拿大分别于 1979 年 1 月 23日和同年 3 月 14 日根据有关国际协定,特别是外空损害赔偿公约和国际法的一般规则,向苏联提出已能判明的损害总额 604 万加拿大元(包括核动力卫星残骸的搜索和回收等费用)的赔偿请求。经过两国交涉,最后于 1980 年 11 月 2 日达成临时协议,加拿大以接受苏联提供的 300 万美元的赔偿而了结此争议。加拿大提出赔偿的法律依据是:1.从核动力卫星有害的放射性碎片大范围地散落并堆积于加拿大境内的事实,以及由此造成该领域的一部分由于环境遭受严重破坏而无法继续适当利用等,这与外空损害赔偿公约所规定的所谓“财产损害”相当。因此,苏联对此应承担严格责任。2.根据国际法的一般原则,苏联的核动力卫星的侵入和放射性碎片的堆积,也构成对加拿大主权的侵害。外空活动,特别是包含核动力使用的外空活动,适用严格赔偿责任的基准不仅限于条约上的规定,也是今后国际法的一般原则。参见林灿铃著:《国际法上的跨界损害之国家责任》,华文出版社 2000 年 8 月第 1 版,第 111~112 页;王曦编著:《国际环境法》(第二版),法律出版社 2005 年 5 月第 2 版,第 143 页。
② 梁西主编:《国际法》,武汉大学出版社 2000 年 3 月修订版,第 135~142 页;赵建文主编:《国际法新论》,法律出版社 2000 年 11 月第 1 版,第 578~581 页。
① 王曦译、梁西校:“国际法未加禁止之行为引起有害后果之国际责任条款草案”(联合国国际法委员会国际法未加禁止之行为引起有害后果之国际责任工作组 1996 年提交国际法委员会),载《法学评论》(武汉)1999 年第 6 期,第 133~136 页。
② 因为地球的生态整体并不与政治边界相联系。各国在本国境内进行的各种合法活动会互相影响。这种相互的影响,只要没有达到“重大”程度,就被认为是可以容忍的。国际法不加禁止的活动所造成的损害不能被容忍的阈限不能低于“重大”的水平。
③ 这一规定是以“使用自己的财产时,不得损害别人的财产”(罗马法格言:Sie utere alienum non laedas)的基本原则为根据,这项原则反映在《斯德哥尔摩宣言》原则21,内容如下:“依照《联合国宪章》和国际法原则,各国具有按照其环境政策开发其资源的主权权利,同时亦负有责任,确保在它管辖或控制范围内的活动,不致对其他国家的环境或其本国管辖范围以外地区的环境引起损害。”
④ 这种评估应该包括对有关的活动可能造成的越境损害影响的估价。为便于可能受影响国评估可能遇到的危险,它们需要知道该活动可能对它们造成哪些有害的影响。另外,评估不仅应该包括对人身和财产、而且也应该包括对其他国家环境的影响。保护环境的重要性,不以是否对个人或财产造成任何损害为转移,应该明确认识到这一点。
⑤ See Principle 15 of Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, adopted by the U.N. Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) at Rio de Janeiro, 13 June 1992. U.N. Doc. A/CONF.151/26 (vol.I)(1992), 31 I.L.M. 874 (1992).《里约宣言》原则15规定,各国应在力所能及的范围内广泛采取预防措施,并指出:“遇有严重或不可逆转的损害的威胁时,不得以缺乏科学的充分可靠性为理由,延迟采取符合成本效益的措施以防止环境退化。” 原文如下:In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.
① See Draft articles on Prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities, adopted by the International Law Commission at its fifty-third session (2001), in: the Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its Fifty-third session, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixth session, Supplement No. 10 (A/56/10), chp.V.E.1, pp.369-377. The present articles apply to activities not prohibited by international law which involve a risk of causing significant transboundary harm through their physical consequences. Also see Commentaries to the draft articles on Prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities, adopted by the International Law Commission at its fifty-third session (2001), in: the Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its Fifty-third session, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixth session, Supplement No. 10 (A/56/10), chp.V.E.2, pp.376-436.
② 英文表述为“international liability for injurious consequences arising out of acts not prohibited by international law”。
③ 梁西主编:《国际法》,武汉大学出版社 2000 年 3 月修订版,第 137~138 页;王铁崖主编:《国际法》,法律出版社 1995 年版,第 162~166 页;周忠海等著:《国际法述评》,法律出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第482 页;周晓林:“合法活动造成损害后果的国际责任”,载《中国法学》1988 年第 5 期,第 110 页。
① 梁西主编:《国际法》,武汉大学出版社 2000 年 3 月修订版,第 139、147 页。
② O. W. Holmes, The Common Law, 1891, p.50: “Sound policy lets losses lie where they fall except where a special reason can be shown for interference.”
③ 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2000 年 7 月第 1 版,第 11~12 页。
④ 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(上册),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版,第 126 页。
⑤ 靳宝兰、徐武生主编:《民事法律制度比较研究》,中国人民公安大学出版社 2001 年 11 月第 1 版,第749 页;王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 18 页。
① 我国台湾学者邱聪智教授认为,在责任原理上,“归责”(imputatio; imputation; Zurechnung)是指归究法律责任之根源而言。亦即决定何人,对于某种法律现象,在法律价值判断上,应负担其责任而言。民事赔偿制度,乃以个人权益之保护为出发点,遇有利益冲突或纠纷时,其调整方法,只有藉损害“填补”,包括传统观念之“赔偿”(damage; Schadensersatz)及现代观念之“补偿”(compensation; Schadenloshaltung)之方式,使被害人之权益,因填补而获得相当之保护。在法律规范原理上,使遭受损害之权益,与促使损害发生之原因者(Urheber)结合,将损害因而转嫁由原因者承担(Schadenübernahmen)之法律价值判断因素,即为“归责”意义之核心。因此,“归责”似可进一步定义如下:即行为人因其行为或容态(Verhalten),侵害他人权益,在法律价值判断上,因而应负赔偿责任之成立要素。参见邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10 月第 1 版,第 84~85 页。
② 张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》(第二版),中国社会科学出版社 1998 年 8 月修订第 2 版,第 42 页。
③ 潘同龙等主编:《侵权行为法》,天津人民出版社 1995 年版,第 48 页。
④ [德]Larenz 著,王泽鉴译:“德国法上损害赔偿之规则原则”,载王泽鉴著:《民法学说与案例研究》(5),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 259 页。该文是 Larenz 教授予 1965 年 7 月 9 日在 G?ttingen 大学法学院的专题演讲,刊载于 1965 年 10 月的 Juristische Schulung,1965,373 杂志。Larenz教授曾任教于德国慕尼黑大学,早年即享盛名,著作等身。他是法律哲学家,是新黑格尔法学派(Neuhegelianismus)的代表人,也是权威的民法学者。
⑤ 参见 Deutsch, (Czurechnung und Haftung im Zivil Reeht), S. 33. 转引自王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 15 页。
⑥ 邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介”,载《台大法学论丛》第 11 卷,第 2 期,第 277 页;邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10 月第 1 版,第 84 页。
⑦ 王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 15~16 页。
① 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(上册),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版,第 127~128 页;王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 16 页;杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年第 2 版,第 110~111 页。
② 张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》(第二版),中国社会科学出版社 1998 年 8 月修订第 2 版,第 42~44 页;靳宝兰、徐武生主编:《民事法律制度比较研究》,中国人民公安大学出版社 2001 年 11 月第 1 版,第 767页。
③ 李双元、温世扬主编:《比较民法学》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 11 月第 1 版,第 801 页;杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 111 页。
① 王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 1992 年版,第 18 页。
② 潘同龙等主编:《侵权行为法》,天津人民出版社 1995 年版,第 48 页。
③ 蓝承烈著:《民法专题研究与应用》,群众出版社 2002 年 8 月第 1 版,第 256 页。
④ 王利明著:《侵权行为法研究》(上卷),中国人民大学出版社 2004 年 7 月第 1 版,第 194~195 页。
① 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(上册),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版,第 128~132 页;王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 16~17 页;李双元、温世扬主编:《比较民法学》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 11 月第 1 版,第 802~803 页。其中,李双元和温世扬教授认为赔偿原则有四个,即对财产损失全部赔偿的原则、对人身损害赔偿财产损失的原则、对精神损害赔偿适当限制的原则以及考虑当事人经济状况的原则。
② 中共中央马克思恩格斯列宁斯大林著作编译局编:《马克思恩格斯选集》(第 3 卷),人民出版社 1995年 6 月第 2 版,第 374 页。
① 王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 18 页。
② 《法国民法典》第 1382 条规定:“人的任何行为给他人造成损害时,因其过错致该行为发生之人应当赔偿损害。”第 1383 条规定:“任何人不仅因其行为造成的损害负赔偿责任,而且还因其懈怠或疏忽大意造成的损害负赔偿责任。” 参见罗结珍译:《法国民法典》(下册),法律出版社 2005 年 3 月第 1 版,第 1073页。
③ 《国际比较法百科全书·侵权行为·导论》,1983 年英文版,第 13 页。转引自李双元、温世扬主编:《比较民法学》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 11 月第 1 版,第 806 页。
④ 《法国民法典》第 1147 条规定:“凡债务人不能证明其不履行债务系由于有不能归咎于其本人的外来原因时,即使在其本人方面并无任何恶意,如有必要,均因其债务不履行,或者迟延履行而受判支付损害赔偿。” 参见 code civil, Librairie Dalloz, Paris, 1999. 罗结珍译:《法国民法典》,中国法制出版社 1999 年 10月北京第 1 版,第 290 页。
⑤ 《国际比较法百科全书·侵权行为·导论》,1983 年英文版,第 45 页。转引自李双元、温世扬主编:《比较民法学》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 11 月第 1 版,第 806 页。
⑥ 《德国民法典》第 823 条(损害赔偿义务)规定:“(1)因故意或者过失不法侵害他人生命、身体、健康、自由、所有权或者其它权利者,对他人因此而产生的损害负赔偿义务。(2)违反以保护他人为目的的法律者,负相同的义务。如果根据法律的内容并无过失也可能违反此种法律的,仅在有过失的情况下,始负赔偿义务。”第 826 条(违反善良风俗的故意损害)规定:“以违反善良风俗的方式故意对他人施加损害的人,对他人负有损害赔偿义务。”参见郑冲、贾红梅译:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 1999 年 5 月第 1 版,第 196 页;陈卫佐译注:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 2004 年 5 月第 1 版,第 265~266 页。
① Winfield, Law of Torts, ed.1, London, 1937, S.7.
② Salmond, Law of Torts, ed.1, London, 1907, S.2.
③ 《国际比较法百科全书·侵权行为·为自己行为之责任》,第 11 页。转引自王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 21 页。
① 王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 18~22 页;李双元、温世扬主编:《比较民法学》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 11 月第 1 版,第 806~808 页;靳宝兰、徐武生主编:《民事法律制度比较研究》,中国人民公安大学出版社 2001 年 11 月第 1 版,第 768 页。
② 蓝承烈著:《民法专题研究与应用》,群众出版社 2002 年 8 月第 1 版,第 259~262 页。
① R. Müller-Erzbach 因宗危险一元归责,故其学说主旨为:民事责任,系本于行为者制造危险而归责,故意、过失者,无非主观制造之“危险”,性质上亦属“危险责任”之一环,并无独立归责原理之地位。参见 R. Müller-Erzbach, Gef?hrdungshaftung und Gefahrtragung (一), Acp. 106, 1910, S. 351 f.f., (二), Acp. 109, 1912, S. 1 f.f。参见邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10 月第 1 版,第 88 页,注释 90。
② 王利明:《侵权行为法研究》(上卷),中国人民大学出版社 2004 年 7 月第 1 版,第 199~200 页。
③ Wieth?lter, Der Rechtfertigungsgrund des verkehrsrichtigen Verhaltens, 1960, S.52. 转引自王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 25 页;李双元、温世扬主编:《比较民法学》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 11 月第 1 版,第 805 页;邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002年 10 月第 1 版,第 81 页,注释 71。
④ R. Pound, An Introduction to the Philosophy of Law, 1992, pp.169-177. 转引自王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 25~26 页;李双元、温世扬主编:《比较民法学》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 11 月第 1 版,第 805 页。日本学者前田達明根据魏特希德的理论体系和德国民法精神以及德国学者通说,进一步将此种建立于人类社会生活关系上典型可能性之过失理论,因其可能性之标准,系基于生活关系上之相互期待和信赖,而直称之“信赖责任”,形成“故意=意思责任(违法有责)、过失=信赖责任(违法无责)及危险=无过失责任(适法无责)”之归责理论体系。参见邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10 月第 1 版,第 81 页。
① 台湾“民法”第一百九十一条之一 (商品制造人之责任)第一项规定:“商品制造人因其商品之通常使用或消费所致他人之损害,负赔偿责任。但其对于商品之生产、制造或加工、设计并无欠缺或其损害非因该项欠缺所致或于防止损害之发生,已尽相当之注意者,不在此限。”第一百九十一条之二 (动力车辆驾驶人之责任)规定:“汽车、机车或其它非依轨道行驶之动力车辆,在使用中加损害于他人者,驾驶人应赔偿因此所生之损害。但于防止损害之发生,已尽相当之注意者,不在此限。”第一百九十一条之三(一般危险之责任)规定:“经营一定事业或从事其它工作或活动之人,其工作或活动之性质或其使用之工具或方法有生损害于他人之危险者,对他人之损害应负赔偿责任。但损害非由于其工作或活动或其使用之工具或方法所致,或于防止损害之发生已尽相当之注意者,不在此限。”参见台湾“民法”(中华民国 91 年 6月 4 日制定和修正,中华民国 91 年 6 月 26 日公布施行)条文,http://www.6law.idv.tw/民法.doc;另可参见台湾“民法历年修正条文及理由”,http://www.6law.idv.tw/law2/民法歷年修正條文及理由.doc#a884021,均于 2004 年 2 月 2 日浏览。
② 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 21~23 页。
③ 邱聪智:“台湾侵权行为法基本问题研究——以民法债编修正为中心”,本文首次发表于 2000 年 12 月 5日深圳“海峡两岸法学学术研讨会”,http://www.civillaw.com.cn/twcivillaw/research/yj07-10.doc,2004 年 4月 7 日浏览。
④ 李双元、温世扬主编:《比较民法学》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 11 月第 1 版,第 805~806 页;靳宝兰、徐武生主编:《民事法律制度比较研究》,中国人民公安大学出版社 2001 年 11 月第 1 版,第 770 页。
① 王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 28 页。
② 杨立新著:《简明类型侵权法讲座》,高等教育出版社 2003 年 11 月第 1 版,第 95 页。
③ 在确认我国侵权行为法究竟有几个归责原则所构成的问题上,侵权行为法学界的主要意见是:1.一元论观点。其认为,侵权行为法只有一个归责原则,即过错责任原则;单一的过错责任原则体系,构造主观式的民事责任制度的和谐体系。王卫国教授在其《过错责任原则——第三次勃兴》(浙江人民出版社 1988年版,中国法制出版社 2000 年版)一书中详细阐述了其观点。2.二元论观点。其认为,在相当的历史时期内,侵权行为法的归责原则将是二元制,即过失责任原则和无过失责任原则并存。最有代表性的观点是米健先生在其《现代侵权行为法归责原则探索》(载《法学研究》1985 年第 5 期)一文中提出的上述观点。3.三元论—A 观点。其认为,我国民事法律制度中同时存在三个归责原则。一般侵权损害适用过错责任原则,特殊侵权损害适用无过失责任原则,无行为能力的人致人损害而监护人不能赔偿的特别案件适用公平责任原则。刘淑珍在其《试论侵权损害的归责原则》(载《法学研究》1984 年第 4 期)一文提出了这种观点,并为多数学者所采纳。杨立新教授赞同这种意见,但他提出了三种归责原则四种表现形式,即(1)过错责任原则有两种表现形式:一般的过错责任原则和推定的过错责任原则;(2)无过错责任原则;(3)公平责任原则。4.三元论—B 观点,以王利明教授为代表。其认为,侵权法归责原则为过错责任原则、过错推定原则和公平责任原则,无过错责任不是一种独立的归责原则。王利明教授在其《侵权行为法归责原则研究》(中国政法大学出版社 1992 年版第 30 页)一书中首次将过错推定原则作为一个独立的归责原则进行论述。5.三元论—C 观点,以杨立新教授为代表。其认为,侵权责任归责原则体系是由过错责任原则、过错推定责任原则和无过错责任原则等三个归责原则构成,公平责任原则不是一个归责原则,而仅仅是一种责任形态。参见杨立新著:《侵权法论》,人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 115~116 页。
④ 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 23 页。
① 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(上册),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版,第 503 页。
② 《中华人民共和国民法通则》第 123 条规定:“从事高空、高压、易燃、易爆、剧毒、放射性、高速运输工具等对周围环境有高度危险的作业造成他人损害的,应当承担民事责任;如果能够证明损害是由受害人故意造成的,不承担民事责任。”另外,有关国际核责任公约和国内核责任法一般都规定了营运人的严格责任或绝对责任,具体可参见本书的有关章节。
① 吕忠梅著:《环境法学》,法律出版社 2004 年 9 月第 1 版,第 172~173 页。
② 一般认为,“危险责任”这一名词的出现,系始于 19 世纪末的德国学者吕穆林(M. Rümelin),历时一个世纪之久(M. Rümelin, Gründe der Schadenszurechnung, 1896, S. 37; M. Rümelin, Schadensersatz ohne Vershulden, 1910, S. 50)。随着现代科技的发展,运用机械及管理危险物品的活动,被统称为“危险活动”,而此类机械设备被泛称为“危险设备”。因此,“危险责任”似可称之为“危险活动事故所引起之法律责任”。惟以民法领域所称之危险责任,乃指“危险活动事故发生之民事上损害赔偿责任”而言,因而其意义自属较狭。原来,民事上之损害赔偿责任体系,依其发生原因而言,本可区分为二,即契约责任与侵权责任。侵权责任,又称“契约外责任”(ausservertr?gliche Haftung)。危险活动发生之责任,原则上亦可作相同区分,即“契约危险”(Gef?hrdung innerhalb eines Vertrags)和“契约外危险”(Gef?hrdung auβerhalb eines Vertrags)。契约责任体系,系采类型化规定,常可因事制宜而作特别规定。但在大陆法系,侵权行为责任,则带有浓厚的一般条款色彩,常归纳于单一条文,即学理上所谓的过失责任一般条款。事实上,近百年来有关“危险责任”的讨论,亦以侵权行为法领域为其中心。因此,一般所谓危险责任,通常乃指侵权行为方面之危险责任而言。另外,由于现代社会的危险活动在大多数情况下,均藉诸社会组织体即企业形态而推动,而社会组织体对其内部从业人员的责任,在现代法律体系上,已因其问题领域之社会化,而归诸社会安全立法之领域处理,与民事责任体系脱离。因此,危险责任的被害人,在理论上仅及于活动参与者以外之“第三人”,而不及于参与活动之从业人员,亦即仅限于“契约外”之对外责任而已。在此意义下,则所谓“危险责任”,似可定义如下,即:危险活动主体,因危险活动事故,致侵害一般社会大众之利益,就其所生“损害”,应负之赔偿责任。其适用范围主要如下,即:铁路(火车)事故、汽车事故、航空事故、矿害事故、电气煤气供给设备事故、高压设备事故、核子损害事故、商品事故等。参见邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10 月第 1 版,第 192-193、214 页。也有学者认为,法国学者 Salelles 和 Josserand 在 19 世纪末提出了危险责任理论。他们认为,谁在从事活动时引起他人损害,即应对他人的损害承担赔偿责任。危险责任的学说有两种:利润危险说(risque-profit)和危险产生说(risque crēé)。前者认为,获取利润的人承担危险,这是公平的;后者认为,从事危险活动的人如果引起他人损害即应对此损害承担赔偿责任。参见张民安著:《现代法国侵权责任制度研究》,法律出版社 2003年 4 月第 1 版,第 12 页。
③ 台湾著名学者王泽鉴教授认为,现行损害赔偿法,系建立在过失责任和无过失责任二项价值相等的基本原则之上。基于无过失主义而发生之损害赔偿之债,种类甚多,因性质不同,难以提出积极原则加以说明,故学说上仅就其消极特征立论,统称之为无过失责任原则。就其内容分析之,可归为三项责任原则:(1)由特定危险事物享受利益,就此危险所生损害之赔偿责任;(2)基于法律特许,利用他人物品所生损害赔偿责任;(3)基于法定担保义务,尤其因自己行为创造之信赖要件,而产生之损害赔偿责任。参见王泽鉴著:《民法学说与判例研究》(1),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 322 页。危险责任系补充过失责任之不足,而非取代后者,在德国民法上,由 Deutsch,K?tz 的归责阶段说及 Larenz 的“过失责任、危险责任”规范竟合理论,可见其端倪(Deutsch, Gef?hrdungshaftung und Verschuldenshaftung, S. 2; K?tz, Haftung für besondere Gefahr, Acp. 170, 1970, S. 14; Larenz, Schuldrecht, S. 536)。参见邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10 月第 1 版,第 88 页注释 89。
① 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 46 页。
② 王利明:《侵权行为法研究》(上卷),中国人民大学出版社 2004 年 7 月第 1 版,第 200~201 页。
③ 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 467 页。
④ 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 371~372 页。
① 邱聪智:“台湾侵权行为法基本问题研究——以民法债编修正为中心”,本文首次发表于 2000 年 12 月 5日深圳“海峡两岸法学学术研讨会”,http://www.civillaw.com.cn/twcivillaw/research/yj07-10.doc,2004 年 4月 7 日浏览。
② 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(上册),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版,第 154~157 页。
① 所谓公害,系指人为活动所生之水污染、空气污染、土地污染、噪音、振动、恶臭、放射性物质及其他因破坏环境致他人遭受损害之法律事实。参见朱柏松:《公害之民事责任论》,台湾大学法律学研究所硕士论文(1974 年度),第 8 页。转引自王泽鉴著:《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社 1998年 1 月第 1 版,第 152~153 页。
② 王泽鉴著:《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 150~153 页。
① 曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版,第 5~6 页。
② [德]Larenz 著,王泽鉴译:“德国法上损害赔偿之规则原则”,载王泽鉴著:《民法学说与案例研究》(5),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 262~263 页;王泽鉴著:“损害赔偿之归责原则”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(1),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 322~323 页;王泽鉴著:“侵权行为法之危机及其发展趋势”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第162 页;Esser, Grundlagen und Entwicklung der Gef?hrdungshaftung, 1941,第 5 页、第 69 页以下;王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 16 页。
① 曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版,第 6、166~167 页。
① 陈慈阳著:《环境法总论》,台湾元照出版公司 2003 年 1 月第 2 版,第 436 页。
② 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(上册),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版,第 506~509 页。
① 魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社、高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 683~684 页。另可参见王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 147~151、162 页。
② 张新宝:“关于高度危险作业致人损害的赔偿责任的几个问题”,载《政法论坛》(中国政法大学学报)1994 年第 4 期,第 25 页;张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》(第二版),中国社会科学出版社 1998 年 8 月修订第 2 版,第 516 页。
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 277 页。
② 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 16 页;曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 371~375 页。
③ 王泽鉴著:《民法学说与判例研究》(第 2 册),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 162 页。另可参见[美]约翰·罗尔斯著,何怀宏等译:《正义论》,中国社会科学出版社 1988 年 3 月第 1 版,第 275~285页;[美]约翰·罗尔斯著,姚大志译:《作为公平的正义——正义新论》,上海三联书店 2002 年 4 月第 1版,第 80~83 页。
④ 曾隆兴著:《现代损害赔偿法论》1985 年再版,第 9 页以下,认无过失责任依据法律规定及判例二者而存在,又德国法上虽认危险责任仅依法律规定而存在,判例明白否定依据判例而存在之可能,但德国学者从比较法之立场仍肯定依判例存在之可能。转引自曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001年 10 月第 1 版,第 375 页注释[1]。
① 一般危险活动产生一般危险责任(中间责任),在民法中包括古典型的法定代理人责任、雇用人责任、动物占有人责任、工作物所有人责任以及现代性的商品责任、汽车责任、(补充性)一般危险责任;特别危险活动产生特别危险责任(无过失责任),在特别法中包括违反消费安全责任、矿害责任、航空责任、核子损害责任。参见邱聪智:“台湾侵权行为法基本问题研究——以民法债编修正为中心”,本文首次发表于 2000 年 12 月 5 日深圳“海峡两岸法学学术研讨会”,参见 http://www.civillaw.com.cn/twcivillaw/research/yj07-10.doc,2004 年 4 月 7 日浏览。
② 《中华人民共和国民用航空法》于 1995 年 10 月 30 日第八届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第十六次会议通过,自 1996 年 3 月 1 日起施行。
③ 《中华人民共和国铁路法》于 1990 年 9 月 7 日第七届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第十五次会议通过。
④ 台湾“铁路法”于 2003 年 6 月 6 日制定和修正,同年 6 月 25 日公布和施行。
① 关于侵权行为之损害赔偿,台湾“民法”既然设有一般规则,可资适用,为何又于“公路法”、“铁路法”、“民用航空法”另设特别规定?立法理由何在?与“民法”规定有何不同?王泽鉴教授认为,应该提出的是责任的严格化,即 1.“民用航空法”规定航空器所有人(第 67 条),或航空器使用人或运送人(第69 条)应负无过失责任。2.“铁路法”第 62 条规定铁路之过失推定责任及衡平责任。3.“公路法”第 64条究竟采何种归责原则未臻明确。法律对公路、铁路或航空等事业损害赔偿那个责任的成立,所以不采过失责任主义(由被害人负举证责任),而设不同程序的严格责任,其目的当然在于保护被害人,使其多获赔偿之机会。因此,“公路法”、“铁路法”、“民用航空法”对运输公用事业损害赔偿责任之成立,一方面采取较“民法”为严格之归责原则,以加重其责任;另一方面为平衡此项较为严格之责任,法律特授权主管机关定订“损害赔偿发给办法”,对赔偿数额加以限制。采取此种立法原则的,尚有“核子损害赔偿法”。依“核子损害赔偿法”第十一条至第二十三条规定,核子设施经营人对于核子损害应负无过失赔偿责任。第二十四条更明确规定:“核子设施经营者对于每一核子事故,依本法所负之赔偿责任,其最高限额为新台币四十二亿元。前项赔偿限额,不包括利息及诉讼费用在内。”此项规定,亦旨在适当限制无过失责任之赔偿范围,使责任主体能够经由责任保险或其他方法分散损害。参见王泽鉴著:“《公路法》关于损害赔偿特别规定与《民法》侵权行为一般规定之适用关系”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(6),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 43~45 页。
② 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 374~376 页。
③ 郭明瑞、房绍坤、於向平著:《民事责任论》,中国社会科学出版社 1991 年 10 月第 1 版,第 55 页。
① 一般侵权行为的构成要件在学理上有四要件说和三要件说。参见王泽鉴:《侵权行为法》(第一册),台湾菩菱设计印刷公司 1998 年版,第 260~264 页;张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》,中国社会科学出版社 1998年 8 月修订第 2 版,第 72~74 页;马俊驹、余延满著:《民法原论》(下),法律出版社 1998 年 8 月第 1 版,第 1024~1025 页;魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社、高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 686~692页。魏振瀛教授在其主编的《民法》(第 686 页)中认为:“基于对侵权行为所作的一般侵权行为和特殊侵权行为的分类,可以说在构成要件上,一般侵权行为需要具备上述四个要件,而特殊侵权行为则需要具备三个要件,即行为的违法性、损害事实的存在、行为和损害之间有因果关系”。
② 陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,载《台大法学论丛》2001 年 7 月第 30 卷第 4 期,第 112页。
③ 例如,德国《放射线防护法》(1986 年 12 月 31 日生效)第一条所指的“环境”是指经由放射线可能引起国民健康损害的所有客体和媒介。参见陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 191 页。《中华人民共和国环境保护法》(1989 年 12 月 26 日通过和施行)第二条规定:“本法所称环境,是指影响人类生存和发展的各种天然的和经过人工改造的自然因素的总体,包括大气、水、海洋、土地、矿藏、森林、草原、野生生物、自然遗迹、人文遗迹、自然保护区、风景名胜区、城市和乡村等。”
① 台湾《原子能法施行细则》由“行政院原子能委员会”于 1991 年 11 月 22 日公布。
① 构成我国《民法通则》第 123 条规定中的“高度危险作业”,必须是合法的。如果加害人因从事某种非法的高度危险作业而造成了损害,则不适用于《民法通则》第 123 条的规定,而应适用《民法通则》第 119条和其他法律法规的规定,并不受最高赔偿数额的限制。行为人除了要承担民事责任外,还应承担相应的刑事或行政责任。《民法通则》第 119 条只是针对人身损害。
② 我国最高人民法院关于贯彻执行《中华人民共和国民法通则》若干问题的意见(试行)(1988 年 1 月26 日最高人民法院审判委员会讨论通过,1988 年 4 月 2 日法(办)发[1988]6 号)第 154 条规定:“从事高度危险作业,没有按有关规定采取必要的安全防护措施,严重威胁他人人身、财产安全的,人民法院应当根据他人的要求,责令作业人消除危险。”
① 《中华人民共和国放射性污染防治法》(2003 年 6 月 28 日)第 12、13、59 条。
② 陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,载《台大法学论丛》2001 年 7 月第 30 卷第 4 期,第 115 页。
③ 台湾“民法”第一百九十一条之三规定:“经营一定事业或从事其他工作或活动之人,其工作或活动之性质或其使用之工具或方法有生损害于他人之危险者,对他人之损害应负赔偿责任。但损害非由于其工作或活动或其使用之工具或方法所致,或于防止损害之发生已尽相当之注意者,不在此限。”其立法理由是:为使被害人获得周密之保护,请求赔偿时,被害人只须证明加害人之工作或活动之性质或其使用之工具或方法,有生损害于他人之危险性,而在其工作或活动中受损害即可,不须证明其间有因果关系。但加害人 能证明损害非由于其工作或活动或其使用之工具或方法所致,或于防止损害之发生已尽相当之注意者,则免负赔偿责任,以期平允,爰增订本条。参见“民法历年修正条文及理由”,台湾电子六法全书网站。因此,危险责任之要件为:其一,须经营事业或从事其他工作或活动之人;危险责任之加害人须为经营事业或从事其他工作或活动之人。所谓事业,主要指经营各种工厂而有发生危险损害他人之事业。其他如农业、渔业、林业等如有发生危险之可能者,亦包括在内。虽非经营事业,但如从事其他工作或活动而有发生危险之可能者,亦应负责。其二,须其工作或活动之性质或其使用之工具或方法有生损害于他人之危险;经营一定事业或从事其他工作或活动之人,其工作或活动之性质或其使用之工具或方法有生损害于他人之危险。若并无损害于他人之危险,而偶然发生意外事故者,仅为是否“民法”第一百八十四条至一般侵权行为问题,而不适用本条之规定。其三,须他人受损害。虽有危险,然若无损害之发生,自不负损害赔偿责任。反之,若在其工作或活动中生损害于他人者,自应负损害赔偿责任。危险责任之加害人如能证明损害非由于其工作或活动或其使用之工具或方法所致,或防止损害之发生已尽相当之注意者,即可免负赔偿责任。所谓相当之注意,指已尽善良管理人之注意而言。参见曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版,第 166~167 页。
① 相关论述可参见张新宝:“关于高度危险作业致人损害的赔偿责任的几个问题”,载《政法论坛》(中国政法大学学报)1994 年第 4 期,第 24~30 页。
② 最高人民法院《关于民事诉讼证据的若干规定》(法释[2001]33 号)于 2001 年 12 月 6 日由最高人民法院审判委员会第 1201 次会议通过,2001 年 12 月 21 日最高人民法院公告公布,自 2002 年 4 月 1 日起施行。
③ 例如,1968 年 1 月 21 日,一架美国轰炸机在格陵兰西北坠毁,机上携有 6.2 公斤的钚发生泄露,当时有 1,200 名丹麦人和格陵兰人参与事后污染清除工作。如今尚存活 400 人,其中有 166 人起诉,要求美国政府赔偿,但被驳回。丹麦医学人员认为,欲证明这些人的健康受到了放射线照射的影响,并非易事。参见陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 205 页注释80。
④ 例如,台湾《游离辐射防护安全标准》(1970 年制定、1991 年 7 月 10 日修正)第三条、第六条就有类似的规定;其第九条规定,职业暴露的年个人剂量限度,全身的有效等效剂量,一年内不得超过 50 毫西弗;眼球水晶体的等效剂量,一年内不得超过 150 毫西弗;其他个别器官或组织的等效剂量,一年内不得超过 500 毫西弗。而一般人的年有效等效剂量限度为 5 毫西弗,个别器官或组织的年有效等效剂量限度为 50 毫西弗。
① 王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 460~466 页。
① 王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 536 页。
② 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 171~176 页;王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号),法律出版社 1999年 1 月第 1 版,第 457~559 页;曹明德著:《环境侵权法》,法律出版社 2000 年 10 月第 1 版,第 175~186页。
③ 王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 504~509 页。
① 李光灿等:《刑法因果关系论》,北京大学出版社 1986 年版,第 39 页。在涉及被害人以外之第三人行为或其他事件介入因果关系时,如第三人之故意或犯罪行为、第三人之过失行为、被害人自杀行为、自然事件之介入等,损害结果是否仍属被害人可得预见,英美判例上经常以因果关系是否中断,以探讨被害人是否应负损害赔偿责任。因果关系中断之原因,需为独立于被告行为之外,且非被告行为之直接、可预见或具有相当性之结果。参见陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,国立台湾大学《法学论丛》2001 年7 月第 30 卷第 4 期,第 271~280、301 页。
② 原因力是指在构成损害结果的共同原因中,各个原因对于损害结果的发生或扩大所发挥的作用力。单一原因对于结果的发生,原因力为 100%。因而考察原因力不具有实际意义,只有在共同原因中,考察原因力才具有现实的意义。原因力的大小决定于各个共同原因的性质、原因事实与损害结果的距离以及原因事实的强度。另外,原因力大小在共同侵权行为和混合过错的责任分担上具有相对的决定作用。参见杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 182 页。
③ 陈泉生著:《环境法原理》,法律出版社 1997 年版,第 232 页。
① 李薇:“日本侵权行为法的因果关系理论”,载《外国法译评》1995 年第 4 期。
② [宋]窦仪等撰,吴翊如点校:《宋刑统》,中华书局 1984 年 6 月第 1 版,第 330 页;[宋]窦仪等撰,薛梅卿点校:《宋刑统》,法律出版社 1999 年 9 月第 1 版,第 376 页。另可参见杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 174 页注释①。
① [德]骆克信著,许玉秀译:“客观归责理论”,载台湾《政大法学评论》1994 年 5 月第 50 期,第 11~26页。骆克信(Roxin)为德国慕尼黑大学刑法学教授,南韩汉阳大学、意大利乌尔比诺大学、葡萄牙空卜拉大学、希腊科摩提尼大学、西班牙马德里空普鲁坦瑟大学、西班牙巴塞隆纳大学等荣誉法学博士;许玉秀为台湾国立政治大学法研所教授,德国弗莱堡大学法学博士。
② 关于黑格尔的法哲学,可参见张乃根著:《西方法哲学史纲》,中国政法大学出版社 1997 年 7 月第 1 次修订,第 163~169 页。
① [日]国藤一郎:《公害法的生成与发展》,岩波书店 1968 年版,第 29 页。
② [日]新美育文:“日本的产品责任中的赔偿范围与责任限制”,载[日]加藤一郎、王家福主编:《民法和环境法的诸问题》,中国人民大学出版社 1995 年 12 月第 1 版,第 193 页。
③ 所谓流行病学观点,是指流行病学认为致病因素最终导致疾病产生应该满足以下四个条件:一是疾病因子于发病前的一定时期已经存在;二是疾病因子的作用越显著,罹病率越高;三是疾病因子分布消长的状况与有记载的流行病之流行特征未有明显反动;由疾病因子的作用机理观之,不存在生物学方面的矛盾。参见王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 532 页注释①。
④ [日]加藤一郎:“日本侵权行为法的现代发展”,载[日]加藤一郎、王家福主编:《民法和环境法的诸问题》,中国人民大学出版社 1995 年 12 月第 1 版,第 3~4 页;王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 526~533 页。
① 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 192 页。此处涉及到直接结果(direct consequence)理论和可预见性(foreseeability)理论。直接结果理论主张侵权人应当为其侵害行为所造成的直接损害结果承担法律责任。该理论具有两层含义: 其一,侵权人只为其对损害结果具有直接引发作用的侵害行为承担法律责任;其二,只要侵权人的侵害行为直接导致的损害结果,不论该结果对侵权人而言有否可预见性,该侵害行为均成为损害结果发生的法律上的原因。所谓直接原因或直接结果,是指于时间或空间上距离最近的一对引起与被引起的现象。目前,直接结果理论大体适用于侵权人行为时有主观故意的侵权案件。可预见性理论是适用于过失侵权案件的法律上原因之认定理论。其原则是,过失侵权人需要承担侵权责任的损害必须具有可预见性,即过失侵权人只对可以预见的损害承担责任,并且要对全部可预见的损害承担责任。参见王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 488~490 页。
② 陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,国立台湾大学《法学论丛》2001 年 7 月第 30 卷第 4 期,第196~197 页。
③ 王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号), 法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 499~501 页。
① Rylands v. Fletcher (1866) LR 1 Ex. 265. 关于此案,后文将具体阐述。
② 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 176~180 页。
① 杨立新教授认为,相当因果关系说和必然因果关系学说两种学说的根本区别在于:前者强调判断因果关系的客观标准是“可能性”,而后者强调的标准是“必然性”;前者的可能性取决于社会的一般的见解,而后者强调的必然性则是与人的认识无关的客观存在。相当因果关系的正确性在于,它不要求法官对每一个案件均脱离一般人的知识经验和认识水平,去追求客观和本质的必然联系,只要求判明原因事实与损害结果之间通常存在的联系的可能性。这种判断不是依法官个人的主观臆断,而是要求法官根据一般社会见解,按照当时社会所达到的知识和经验,只要一般人认为在同样条件下有发生同样结果的可能性即可;其客观依据则在于事实上这种原因事实已经发生了这样的结果。参见杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 177 页。
① 侵权民事责任构成中的因果关系要件,就是侵权法中的因果关系。它指的是违法行为作为原因,损害事实作为结果,在它们之间存在的前者引起后者,后者被前者所引起的客观联系。参见杨立新著:《侵权法论》,人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 168 页。
② 郑玉波著:《民法债编总论》,第 156 页。
③ 孙森淼著:《民法债编总论》,第 175 页。
④ 王伯崎:《民法债编总论》,第 77 页。转引自王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 191 页注释[2]。
① 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 189~191 页。
② 王利明等:《民法·侵权行为法》,中国人民大学出版社 1993 年版,第 144 页;杨立新著:《侵权法论》,人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 168 页。
③ [美]迈克尔·D·贝勒斯著,张文显等译:《法律的原则——一个规范的分析》,中国大百科全书出版社1996 年 1 月第 1 版,第 297、433 页。
④ 王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 475~476 页。
① 自由心证之原则,谓证据之调查取舍、证据方法及证明力,悉依法院自由判断之原则。自由心证之原则为证据法上之大原则与法定证据之原则对立。参见曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 287 页。
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 461、484~485页。
③ Hager NJW 1991, 134; Fikentscher, Schuldrecht, S. 797. 转引自王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社2001年7月第1版,第202~203页。Also see Environmental Liability Act of 10 December 1990, BGBl I 1990, 2634 (as amended) (English Translation by The Cologne Re), available at http://www.ucl.ac.uk/laws/global_law/german-statutes/index.shtml?environment_1990, viewed on 13 October 2004. 其第6条第1项的英文表述是“:§ 6. Presumption of causation (1) If a facility is inherently suited, on the facts of the particular case, to cause the damage that occurred, then it shall be presumed that this facility caused the damage. Inherent suitedness in a particular case is determined on the basis of the course of business, the structures used, the nature and concentration of the materials used and released, the weather conditions, the time and place at which the damage occurred, the nature of the damage, as well as all other conditions which speak for or against causation of the damage in the particular case.”
④ [日]野村好弘:《日本公害法概念》(中文版),第 337~338 页。
① 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 201~202 页。
② 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(上册),吉林人民出版社 2000 版,第 526~528 页。
③ Some residents could suffer immediate, predictable, deterministic effects, or random, latent, “stochastic” effects from radiation. Regarding latent effects, an expert witness in a personal injury case, arguing that radiation released in an incident caused someone’s cancer, faces a daunting task. It may be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to prove causation. See Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for:The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler TechnicalCarson City, Nevada, p.3, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004.
① 来小鹏等主编:《民法学》,陕西人民出版社 1998 年 6 月第 1 版,第 292 页。民事责任免除,以免除原因的不同,分为法定民事责任免除和意定民事责任免除,简称法定免除和意定免除。法定免除,是指依照法律规定的免除民事责任的条件而直接形成的民事责任免除;意定免除,是指依受害人、债权人一方不追究民事责任的意思表示,使民事责任无须承担而形成的民事责任免除。
② 郭明瑞、房绍坤、於向平著:《民事责任论》,中国社会科学出版社 1991 年 10 月第 1 版,第 92~93 页;来小鹏等主编:《民法学》,陕西人民出版社 1998 年 6 月第 1 版,第 292~293 页。郭明瑞等认为,免除民事责任的条件,按其确定根据可以分为约定免责条件和法定免责条件两类。约定免责条件,是指当事人事先约定的免除民事责任的情况。在各国立法上,对于侵权的民事责任,当事人一般不得事先约定免除。所以,约定免责条件主要是指合同当事人在合同中约定的不承担违约责任的情况,这是合同自由原则的体现。当然,当事人约定免责事由的自由也应受限制。法定免责条件,是指法律直接规定的行为人不承担民事责任或得减轻民事责任的情况(事由)。法定免责条件,按其性质可以分为两种:一种是行为人的行为阻却违法性;一种是损害的发生有行为人以外的因素。来小鹏等认为,免除民事责任的条件,可以分为意定免除民事责任条件和法定免除民事责任条件两类。意定免除民事责任条件,是指受害人、债权人使其损害赔偿等请求权消灭的单独行为。这种免除行为,依消灭该项损害赔偿等请求权的意思表示成立而发生效力,不以债务责任人的承诺为必要。意定免除民事责任的意思表示是法律行为,应依法律行为制度的单独法律行为的规定行使。这种行为属处分行为,行为人须有处分能力。
① 2004 年 2 月 12 日《巴黎公约》修正议定书不再将“特大自然灾害”作为法定免责事由,即《巴黎公约》的第 9 条由“The operator shall not be liable for damage caused by a nuclear incident directly due to an act of armed conflict, hostilities, civil war, insurrection or, except in so far as the legislation of the Contracting Party in whose territory his installation is situated may provide to the contrary, a grave natural disaster of an exceptional character.”改为“The operator shall not be liable for damage caused by a nuclear incident directly due to an act of armed conflict, hostilities, civil war, insurrection.”See I.J. of Protocol to Amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris_convention.pdf, viewed on 26 March 2004.《巴黎公约》的这种修订与《1997年核损害民事责任维也纳公约》第 IV(3)条的规定完全一致,但 1997 年《核损害补充赔偿公约》附件第 3(5)(b)条则规定,如果核装置国的法律无相反规定,营运人仍应对直接由特大自然灾害所引起的核事件所造成的核损害承担责任。
② 参见国务院 1986 年 3 月 29 日《批复》第五条;台湾 1997 年《核子损害赔偿法》第十八条、第十九条、第二十一条;Article IV(2-3) and (5) of 1963 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage; Article II (3-5) of Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships, 1962; Article 3 (5-7) of Annex to Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage; Article IV(2-3) and (5) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage; Article 9 of Paris Convention.
① w. of Section 11 of (U.S.) The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, in: Supplement to NLB 42, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-42-SUP.pdf, viewed on 10 November 2004. 原文如下:The term “public liability” means any legal liability arising out of or resulting from a nuclear incident or precautionary evacuation (including all reasonable additional costs incurred by a State, or a political subdivision of a State in the course of responding to a nuclear incident or precautionary evacuation), except: (i) claims under State or Federal workmen’s compensation acts of employees of persons indemnified who are employed at the site of and in connection with the activity where the nuclear incident occurs; (ii) claims arising out of an act of war; and (iii) whenever used in subsections a., c., and k. of section 170, claims for loss of, or damage to, or loss of use of property which is located at the site of and used in connection with the licensed activity where the nuclear incident occurs. “Public liability” also includes damage to property of persons indemnified: Provided, That such property is covered under the terms of the financial protection required, except property which is located at the site of and used in connection with the activity where the nuclear incident occurs.
② 英文表述分别是:“Section 25 Liability for nuclear installations (Adopted: 5 March 2001) (3) The provisions of Article 9 of the Paris Convention relating to the exclusion of liability for damage caused by nuclear incidents which are a direct consequence of acts in an armed conflict, hostilities, civil war, insurrection or a grave natural disaster of an exceptional character, shall not be applicable.…” “(4) The operator of a nuclear installation shall be liable, irrespective of the location of damage occurrence. Article 2 of the Paris Convention shall not apply.”See Section 25(3)-(4) of (Germany) Act on the Peaceful Utilisation of Atomic Energy and the Protection Against its Hazards (Atomic Energy Act) of 23 December 1959 (BGB1.I,p.814), as amended and promulgated on 15 July 1985 (BGB1.I, p.1565), last amendment by the Act of 22 April 2002 (BGB1.I, p.1351), in: Supplement to NLB 70, p.45, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-70/supplement.pdf, viewed on 25 December 2004.
③ 原文是“This Convention does not apply to nuclear incidents occurring in the territory of non-Contracting States or to damage suffered in such territory, unless otherwise provided by the legislation of the Contracting Party in whose territory the nuclear installation of the operator liable is situated, and except in regard to rights referred to in Article 6(e).”
④ 英文表述是“Section 31 Maximum amounts of liability (Adopted: 13 December 2001) (2) If the damage occurs in another State, paragraph (1) shall only apply insofar as, at the time of the nuclear incident, said other State has made provisions with the Federal Republic of Germany pursuant to paragraph (1) which are equivalent in terms of nature, terms and amount. Otherwise, if the damage occurs in another State, the liability of an operator of a nuclear installation for the compensation of damages caused by nuclear incidents, including any additional compensation on the basis of international conventions, shall be limited to the amount envisaged by the other State in relation to the Federal Republic of Germany at the time of the nuclear incident. In relation to States whose sovereign territory does not contain any nuclear installations, the liability of an operator of a nuclear installation is limited to the maximum amount as specified in the Brussels Supplementary Convention.” See Section 31 of (Germany) Atomic Energy Act, in: Supplement to NLB 70, p.50.
① See Article II(6)(b) of Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships, 1962. 原文是:“If the nuclear incident occurred as a consequence of any wreck-raising operations, against the person or persons who carried out such operation without the authority of the operator or persons who carried out such operation without the authority of the operator or of the State having licensed the sunken ship or of the State in whose waters the wreck is situated; …”
② See Article 6(f)(i-ii) of the Paris Convention. 原文是“The operator shall have a right of recourse only: i. if the damage caused by a nuclear incident results from an act or omission done with intent to cause damage, against the individual acting or omitting to act with such intent; ii. if and to the extent that it is so provided expressly by contract.” See also Article II(6)(a-c) of Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships, 1962; Article 10 of Annex to Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage; 参见国务院 1986 年 3 月 29日《批复》第四条;台湾 1997 年《核子损害赔偿法》第二十二条:“核子设施经营者,依本法之规定赔偿时,对于核子设施经营者以外之人,仅于下列情形之一有求偿权:1.依书面契约有明文规定者。 2.核子损害系因个人故意之行为所致者,对于具有故意之该个人。”
③ 原文是“Nothing in this Convention shall affect the liability of any individual for nuclear damage for which the operator , by virtue of paragraph 3 or 5 of this Article, is not liable under this Convention and which that individual caused by an act or omission done with intent to cause damage.”
④ 原文是“Nothing in this Convention shall affect the liability of a person duly authorized to operate a reactor comprised in a means of transport for damage caused by a nuclear incident when an operator is not liable for such damage….”
① 原文是“1.Each Contracting Party shall enact legislation in order to enable both the Contracting Party in whose territory the nuclear installation of the operator liable is situated and the other Contracting Parties who have paid contributions referred to in Article III.1(b), to benefit from the operator's right of recourse to the extent that he has such a right under either one of the Conventions referred to in Article I or national legislation mentioned in Article II.1(b) and to the extent that contributions have been made by any of the Contracting Parties. 2. The legislation of the Contracting Party in whose territory the nuclear installation of the operator liable is situated may provide for the recovery of public funds made available under this Convention from such operator if the damage results from fault on his part. 3. The Contracting Party whose courts have jurisdiction may exercise the rights of recourse provided for in paragraphs 1 and 2 on behalf of the other Contracting Parties which have contributed.”
② 原文是“g. If the operator has a right of recourse to any extent pursuant to paragraph (f) of this Article against any person, that person shall not, to that extent, have a right against the operator under paragraphs (d) or (e) of this Article. h. Where provisions of national or public health insurance, social security, workmen’s compensation or occupational disease compensation systems include compensation for damage caused by a nuclear incident, rights of beneficiaries of such systems and rights of recourse by virtue of such systems shall be determined by the law of the Contracting Party or by the regulations of the inter-Governmental organization which has established such systems.”
③ See Section 5 (1)-(2) of (Japan) The Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage (Law No.147 of 17th June 1961, as last amended on 31st March 1989), in: Supplement to NLB 45 (June 1990), p.6.
① 有关风险防范原则的研究,可参见唐双娥著:《环境法风险防范原则研究——法律与科学的对话》,高等教育出版社 2004 年 8 月第 1 版。该书颇具学术价值。
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 433 页。
③ [美]迈克尔·D·贝勒斯著,张文显等译:《法律的原则——一个规范的分析》,中国大百科全书出版社1996 年 1 月第 1 版,译后记,第 468 页。
④ 《辞海》(上)“原则”词条,上海辞书出版社 1999 年 9 月第 1 版,第 409 页。
⑤ 蔡守秋主编:《环境资源法学》,人民法院出版社/中国人民公安大学出版社 2003 年 7 月第 1 版,第 104 页。
① [美]迈克尔·D·贝勒斯著,张文显等译:《法律的原则——一个规范的分析》,中国大百科全书出版社1996 年 1 月第 1 版,译后记,第 468 页。
② 法律规则是规定法律上的权利、义务、责任的准则、标准,或是赋予某种事实状态以法律意义的指示、规定。法律规则是构成法律的首要成分,它具有微观的指导性、可操作性强和确定性程度高等特点。参见张文显主编:《法理学》,高等教育出版社和北京大学出版社 1999 年 10 月第 1 版,第 70 页。
③ 当某一案件的特殊事实导致使用原有规则不公正时,法律原则可以作为断案依据。例如,在美国著名的黑格斯诉帕尔默案中,一个 16 岁的男孩毒死了他的祖父,他能否继承被害人的遗产?根据一般的法律规则,他是合法继承人,应当继承遗产,但这与法律的目的和一般社会伦理不符。法院最终依据“一个人不能从他的不当行为中得利”这一法律原则剥夺了男孩的继承权。参见张文显主编:《法理学》,高等教育出版社和北京大学出版社 1999 年 10 月第 1 版,第 74 页。
④ 许多法律原则可直接作为断案依据,这些原则的作用与规则无异。例如,美国法中的正当程序原则常常作为直接的审判依据。参见张文显主编:《法理学》,高等教育出版社和北京大学出版社 1999 年 10 月第1 版,第 74 页。
⑤ 张文显主编:《法理学》,高等教育出版社和北京大学出版社 1999 年 10 月第 1 版,第 74~75 页。
① 台湾学者陈春生教授将核损害赔偿责任法领域一般所采取的原则归纳为:无过失责任、核设施所有人之责任集中、赔偿责任数额之限制、责任时效之限制、核电厂所有人风险责任之保险、对重大损害之国家补偿等。参见陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第433 页;《巴黎公约》的基础是五大原则,即 The Paris Convention is based upon five main principles with respect to liability for damage suffered by third parties: exclusive liability of the nuclear installation operator; absolute liability (no proof of fault or negligence required) of the nuclear installation operator; the nuclear installation operator's obligation to secure an insurance or other financial guarantee up to its liability amount; limitation on the amount of liability and the time for instituting damage claims; jurisdiction over claims generally to reside with the courts where the accident occurs. See “Background information note for the Press Communiqué on the revision of the Paris Convention on Nuclear Third Party Liability and of the Brussels Supplementary Convention”, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/general/press/2004/2004-01-note.html, viewed on 24 February 2004.
② 李雅云教授将核损害责任制度的基本原则归纳为:严格责任或绝对责任的原则、唯一责任的原则、责任限制的原则、实行强制性责任保险或财政保证的原则、国家干预原则等。参见李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 362~369 页;傅济熙、董保同两位先生将其总结为:绝对责任的原则、唯一责任的原则、有限责任的原则、实行强制性责任保险或财政保证的原则、单一管辖法院管辖的原则等。参见傅济熙、董保同:“浅谈第三方核责任法律制度”,载《中国核工业》1998 年第 3期,第 45~46 页;傅济熙先生将其总结为:严格责任(无过错责任)的原则、责任归结或唯一责任的原则、有限责任的原则、强制性的财务保证的原则、由单一管辖法院管辖的原则、国家干预等。参见傅济熙主编:《核损害的民事责任与赔偿》,原子能出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 9~15 页。
① 林灿铃著:《国际法上的跨界损害之国家责任》,华文出版社 2000 年 8 月第 1 版,第 56 页。
② 危险之物通常仅指与使用方式无关而本身具有明显危险性的物。参见[德]克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,焦美华译,张新宝审校:《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(下卷),法律出版社 2001 年 12 月第 1 版,第 413~414、463页。
③ 在英美法上,“无过失责任”(liability without fault)乃是较晚近出现之名词,原来系通称为 strict liability。但更早时期,则称为“绝对责任”(absolute liability)。故至今仍是三者并用之情形,惟比较上以 strict liability 为较常用。主要文献可参考 Winfield, The Myth of Absolute Liability, the Law Quarterly Review, vol. 42, 1926, p.38 f.f。又其首次使用 liability without fault 者,则为 E. Thayer (Harvard Law Review, vol. 29, 1916, p.801 f.f.),附此说明。参见邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10 月第 1 版,第 75 页注释 39。
④ 王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 154、131 页。
① 李亚虹著:《美国侵权法》,法律出版社 1999 年版,第 128 页。
② 吴兆祥:“侵权行为法上的严格责任”,载王利明主编:《民法典·侵权责任法研究》,人民法院出版社2003 年 2 月第 1 版,第 176~186 页。
③ 上古是指较早的古代,在我国历史分期上多指商周秦汉(约前 17 世纪初~公元 220 年)这个时期。中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室编:《现代汉语词典》,商务印书馆 1983 年版,第 1004、1556~1559页。
④ 在法学中,社会弱势群体是指由于社会条件和个人能力等方面存在障碍而无法实现其基本权利的群体。参见钱大军、王哲:“法学意义上的社会弱势群体概念”,载《当代法学》2004 年第 3 期。
① 魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社和高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 684 页。
② 《法国民法典》第 1384 条规定:“任何人不仅因自己的行为造成的损害负赔偿责任,而且对应由其负责之人的行为或由其照管之物造成的损害负赔偿责任。”参见罗结珍译:《法国民法典》,法律出版社 2005年 3 月第 1 版,第 1096 页。
③ Rylands v. Fletcher 一案的案情:原告 Fletcher 拥有和开采一家矿场,地下有一些竖坑与被告的土地相邻。谁都不知道存在这些旧的而且不再使用的采矿竖坑,这些竖坑将原告的工作与被告土地下其他先前的工作联接起来。被告是一家水磨坊的业主,他在他的土地上建造一个水库,他们雇佣有名望的承包商施工。当建造水库时,这些承包商发现了废弃的矿竖井,但是没有适当地填充。当水库蓄水时,水冲进竖井淹没了原告的矿。(1866) L.R.1EX265; Court of Exchequer Chamber (1868) L.R.3H.L.330; House of Lords. Rylands v. Fletcher(严格责任)规则的原始表述:该规则首先由 Blackburn, J.提出,他于 1866 年在 Court of Exchequer Chamber 听证会上,就 Rylands v. Fletcher 一案发表了看法:“一个人为了自己的目的,将任何物带进他的土地,并且聚集和保持在那里。如果该物发生泄漏,就可能产生损害,那么带进该物的这个人就必须控制住该物的危险;如果他不这样做,那么该物泄漏的自然结果所造成的所有损害,他都无可争议地要承担责任。”该案在 1868 年最后处理完毕时,这个观点被贵族院采纳和通过。参见徐爱国编著:《英美侵权行为法》,法律出版社 1999 年 10 月第 1 版,第 161、119 页;徐爱国著:《英美侵权行为法学》,北京大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版,第 138~143 页。Rylands v Fletcher, L.R.1 Ex.265 (1866), Blackburn, J. stated: “… the person who for his own purposes brings on his lands and collects and keeps there anything likely to do mischief if it escapes, must keep it in at his peril, and, if he does not do so, is prima facie answerable for all the damage which is the natural consequence of its escape. …” See (USA) Richard A. Epstein, Cases and Materials on Torts (Seventh Edition), CITIC Publishing House, 2003, p.114-115.
④ 魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社和高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 683 页。
⑤ 根据 Prosser 教授统计,否认赖兰斯法则适用可行性的州为:Maine, New Hampshire, New York, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, Texas, Wyoming (Prosser, Handbook for the Law of Torts, 4th ed.. p.509), Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Washington (Prosser/Wade/Schwartz, Handbook for the Law of Torts, 4th ed.. p.77, Footnote 9)等十州。惟根据小堀教授统计,认为尚应加上 New Jersey, Tennesee 两州,合计为十二州(小堀憲助《アメリカにおける Rylands v. Fletcher 事件の法理の发展》(二),法学新报第六八卷第九期,一九六一,第五三八页注七)。参见邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10 月第 1 版,第 76 页注释 46。
① 关于美国特别危险活动责任,其名词尚不一致,或有称之“极度危险活动”(ultra-hazardous activity),或有称之“高度危险活动”(highly dangerous activity)者,惟比较上以 abnormally dangerous activity 之使用较为普遍。参见邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10 月第 1 版,第 78 页注释 56。
② 林灿铃著:《国际法上的跨界损害之国家责任》,华文出版社 2000 年 8 月第 1 版,第 62 页。
③ 原来,Rylands v. Fletcher 判决时,认为被告 Fletcher 所以负担无过失责任,裁判者所持立场,尚不一致。Blackburn 法官,固以“持有危险物质”作为根据,但 Cairns 则认系土地“异常使用”(Nonnatural use)所致。后者,系依附于 Nuisance 法理而来,并不具创新意义,故或称之 Nuisance approach;前者始为危险归责原理之所在,或称之 Ultrahazardous approach。故严格说来,危险归责原理,系源于 Rylands v. Fletcher Principle 之 Blackburn’s rule,不宜泛称赖兰斯法则。参见邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10月第 1 版,第 76 页注释 43。 现代英格兰和爱尔兰普通法(不包括苏格兰)中最重要的严格责任就是 Rylands v. Fletcher 规则中的严格责任。规则设定了五个构成要件:1.必须有一旦失控产生危险的可能性很高的物;2.该物必须已经基于不动产所有权人的利益被带到了其不动产上或被贮放在其不动产上;3.该物的出现必须构成对特定类型不动产的“非自然使用”;4.该物必须脱离了其所被贮放的被告不动产而到了他人不动产上;5.物所导致的损害是可赔偿性损害。对这五个要件中的任何一个都有大量的案例。 参见[德]克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,焦美华译,张新宝审校:《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(下卷),法律出版社 2001 年 12 月第 1 版,第 462~463页。
④ See J.Gordon Arbuckle, etc: Environmental Law Handbook, Government Institutes, Inc. Rockville, MD, 1985 eighth edition, p.24. 转引自王明远著:《环境侵权救济法律制度》,中国法制出版社 2001 年 2 月第 1 版,第259 页注释①。
① See Frederick R.Anderson, Daniel R. Mandelker, A.dan Tarlock: Environmental Protection: Law and Policy, Little, Brown and Company 1984, p.56. 转引自王明远著:《环境侵权救济法律制度》,中国法制出版社 2001年 2 月第 1 版,第 259 页注释②。另可参见张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》(第二版),中国社会科学出版社 1998 年 8 月修订第 2 版,第 512~513 页。
② [美]迈克尔·D·贝勒斯著,张文显等译:《法律的原则——一个规范的分析》,中国大百科全书出版社1996 年 1 月第 1 版,第 283~284 页。
③ Ballantine, A Compensation Plan for Railway Accident Claims, 29 Harvard Law Review 705 (1916). 转引自王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 131 页。
① 王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 133~136 页;魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社和高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 682~683 页;林灿铃著:《国际法上的跨界损害之国家责任》,华文出版社 2000 年 8 月第 1 版,第 64 页。
② 英文表述概括为“The operator of a nuclear installation is strictly liable for the nuclear damage caused by it regardless of fault (risk or objective liability). ”或者“Liability of the operator is absolute, i.e. the operator is held liable irrespective of fault.”
① 林灿铃著:《国际法上的跨界损害之国家责任》,华文出版社 2000 年 8 月第 1 版,第 80~83 页。
② The liability of the operator for nuclear damage under this Convention shall be absolute. See Article IV(1) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage; Article 3(1) of Annex to Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage.
③ See Section 11(j) of The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, in: NLB 42, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-42-SUP.pdf, viewed on 10 November 2003.
④ The PAA contains other provisions intended to minimize protracted litigation and eliminate the need to prove fault or allocate liability among potential defendants. In the case of an "extraordinary nuclear occurrence" or "ENO," the Act requires the waiver of any defense related to the conduct of the claimant or the fault of any indemnified person. See Section 170(n) of AEA, in DOE, 1999, p.12, quoted from Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for: The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler Technical Carson City, Nevada, p.5, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004. Waivers of defenses - Pursuant to the 1966 amendments to the Price-Anderson Act, when the NRC determines that a nuclear incident was an ENO, claimants then need only show (1) personal injury or property damage, (2) monetary amount of loss, and (3) a causal link between the loss and the radioactive material released. Claimants would not need to establish the fault of any party to prevail on their claims. See ENO. See Appendix A (Glossary) of Report to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accidents, available at http://www.state.nv.us/nucwaste/news/rpccna/pcrcna11.htm, viewed on 3 February 2005.
① See Section 3 (1)-(2) of The Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage (Law No.147 of 17th June 1961, as last amended on 31st March 1989), in: Supplement to NLB 45, p.5. The English version is unofficial translation by the NEA Secretariat.
② The operator of a nuclear installation shall be liable to pay compensation due under this Act even if there has been no fault or negligence on his part. See Section 11 a) of (Sweden) Nuclear Liability Act of 8th March 1968, as Amended by an Act of 10th May 1974 and by an Act of 22nd December 1982, in: Supplement to NLB 33, p.27.
③ 例如,德国《原子能法》(2002年4月22日最新修正)第一条第2、3款规定的英译文如下:“The purpose of this Act is: … 2. to protect life, health and property against the hazards of nuclear energy and the detrimental effects of ionising radiation and to provide compensation for damage and injuries caused by nuclear energy or ionising radiation; 3. to prevent danger to the internal or external security of the Federal Republic of Germany from the application or release of nuclear energy; … ” See NLB 70 (2002), Unofficial translation kindly provided by the German Authorities.
① [德]鲁道夫·冯·耶林著:《罗马私法中的过错观念》,1867 年版,第 40 页。转引自蓝承烈著:《民法专题研究与应用》,群众出版社 2002 年 8 月第 1 版,第 262 页;Rudolf von Jhering, Das Schuldmoment im r?mischen Privatrecht, 1867, S.40: “Nicht der Schaden verpflichtet zum Schadensersatz, sondern die Schuld, ein einfacher Satz, ebenso einfach wie derjenige des Chemikers, dass nicht das Licht brennt, sondern der Sauerstoff der Luft.” 参见王泽鉴著:“侵权行为法之危机及其发展趋势”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 144~145 页;王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 13 页。
② Andre Tunc, Introduction, Torts, International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, Vol.XI, 1974, Chap, 1, p.64f. 转引自王泽鉴:“侵权行为法之危机及其发展趋势”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 145 页注释[2]。另可参见王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 13~14 页。逻辑力量:一个人就自己过失行为所肇致之损害,应负赔偿责任。在重视理性之时代,系当然自明之道理,无须证明。相反,若行为非出于过失者,不必负赔偿责任。在逻辑上亦具有同样之说服力。道德观念:一个人就自己过失行为所肇致之损害,应负赔偿责任。系正义之要求,亦被认为无须证明。反之,若行为非出于过失,行为人已尽注意之能事者,在道德上即无须加以非难。社会价值:任何法律必须调和“个人自由”与“社会安定”两个基本价值。而过失责任主义被认为最能达成此项任务。个人若已尽其注意,即得免负侵权责任,则自由不受束缚,聪明才智可予发挥。人人尽其注意,一般损害可以避免,社会安定也可足以维护。人类尊严:过失责任主义肯定人类之自由,承认个人抉择、区别善恶的能力。个人基于其自由意思决定,从事某种行为,造成损害,因其具有过失,法律予以制裁,使负赔偿责任,最可表现对人类尊严之尊重。
① 王泽鉴:“侵权行为法之危机及其发展趋势”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社 1998年 1 月第 1 版,第 162 页。
② 梁慧星著:《民法学说判例与立法研究》,中国政法大学出版社 1993 年版,第 138~141 页。
③ 王明远著:《环境侵权救济法律制度》,中国法制出版社 2001 年 2 月第 1 版,第 157 页。
④ 英文表述概括为“All nuclear damage is channeled onto the operator. Liability is channelled exclusively to the operators of the nuclear installations. This means that only the operator will be liable for the damage resulting from a nuclear incident with the exclusion of any other possible injurer.”
⑤ Article II(5) of the 1963/1997 Vienna Convention; Article 6(b) and Article 6(c)(ii) of the Paris Convention. 原文分别是“Except as otherwise provided in this Convention, no person other than the operator shall be liable for nuclear damage.…” “The operator shall incur no liability outside this Convention for damage caused by a nuclear incident.”
① Article 10 of Annex to Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage. 原文是“The operator shall incur no liability for damage caused by a nuclear incident outside the provisions of national law in accordance with this Convention.”
① 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 364 页;also see Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for:The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler Technical Carson City, Nevada, pp.3-4, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004.
② See NLB 45, pp.68-70, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-45-EN.pdf, viewed on 3 March 2004.
③ See Section 4 (1) of The Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage (Law No.147 of 17th June 1961, as last amended on 31st March 1989), in: Supplement to NLB 45, p.5.
① [日]野村好弘著,康树华译:《日本公害法概论》,中国环境管理、经济与法学学会 1982 年版,第 387页;柯泽东:《环境法论(二)》,台湾三民书局 1995 年版,第 134~135 页。转引自王明远著:《环境侵权救济法律制度》,中国法制出版社 2001 年 2 月第 1 版,第 158 页。
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 456~457页。
③ Article II(7) of the 1963/1997 Vienna Convention; 原文是“Direct action shall lie against the person furnishing financial security pursuant to Article VII, if the law of the competent court so provides.” Article 3(9) of Annex to Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage; 原文是“The right to compensation for nuclear damage may be exercised only against the operator liable, provided that national law may permit a direct right of action against any supplier of funds that are made available pursuant to provisions in national law to ensure compensation through the use of funds from sources other than the operator.” Article 6(a) of the Paris Convention. 原文是“The right to compensation for damage caused by a nuclear incident may be exercised only against the operator liable for the damage in accordance with this Convention, or, a direct right of action against the insurer or other financial guarantor furnishing the security required pursuant to Article 10 is given by national law, against the insurer or other financial guarantor.”
① 例如,《中华人民共和国海商法》第十一章(第二百零四至二百一十五条)就“海事赔偿限额”问题作了具体规定。该法于 1992 年 11 月 7 日第七届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第二十八次会议通过,自 1993年 7 月 1 日起施行。1989 年 1 月 3 日国务院第 31 次常务会议通过、自 1989 年 5 月 1 日起施行的《国内航空运输旅客身体损害赔偿暂行规定》第六至七条规定:“承运人按照本规定应当承担赔偿责任的,对每名旅客的最高赔偿金额为人民币二万元。”“旅客可以自行决定向保险公司投保航空运输人身意外伤害险。此项保险金额的给付,不得免除或减少承运人应当承担的赔偿金额。”根据 1993 年 11 月 29 日《国务院关于修改﹤国内航空运输旅客身体损害赔偿暂行规定﹥的决定》(自 1994 年 1 月 1 日起施行),对每名旅客的最高赔偿金额提高到人民币七万元。1993 年 11 月 7 日国务院批准、1993 年 11 月 15 日交通部令第 5 号发布的《关于不满 300 总吨船舶及沿海作业船舶海事赔偿限额的规定》第三、四条分别对此类的海事赔偿限额作了具体的规定。在国际海事公约方面,《1976 年海事赔偿责任限制公约》(LLMC)1996 年议定书(尚未生效)规定,旅客人身伤亡赔偿责任限额为 175000 SDR,而船员人身伤亡按照公约计算则更要低得多;《1969 年国际油污损害民事责任公约》(CLC)1992 年议定书规定的责任限额为 59700000 SDR,包括基金的最高赔偿限额为 135000000 SDR;《1996 年国际海上运输有害有毒物质损害责任和赔偿公约》(HNS)规定的责任限额为 100000000 SDR,包括基金的最高赔偿限额为 250000000 SDR;《1974 年海上旅客及其行李运输雅典公约的 2002 年议定书》及其修订后的《2002 年海上旅客及其行李运输雅典公约》采用单层责任限额体系还是双层责任限额体系。
② 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 365 页。
① 英文表述概括为“The amount for which the operator will be liable is limited.” And “The liability of the operator is also subjected to a time limit.”
① 英文表达是“Strict liability means the utility must waive legal defenses against paying claims,relieving victims of the necessity of proving negligence.”
① 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号, 第 364 页。
② Retrospective premiums - As provided in the 1975 and 1988 amendments to the Price-Anderson Act, these premiums can be assessed by the nuclear insurance pools on each licensed nuclear power plant operator for the prorated share of damages in excess of the $200 million in primary insurance. The 1988 amendments provide that plant operators are responsible for maximum retrospective premium assessments (or deferred premiums) of $63 million per reactor, subject to inflation indexing and a 5 percent surcharge, but no more than $10 million per reactor, per year. See Appendix A (Glossary) of Report to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accidents, available at http://www.state.nv.us/nucwaste/news/rpccna/pcrcna11.htm, viewed on 3 February 2005.
① 2001 年 9 月 11 日上午(美国东部时间),国际恐怖主义分子劫持美国航空公司和美国联合航空公司的 4架民航客机,其中两架客机分别撞击世界贸易中心北部一号大楼和南部二号大楼(世贸双塔)的顶部,并引发大火;一架客机撞击华盛顿五角大楼(美国国防部)和国家草地广场(位于国会大厦和华盛顿纪念碑之间),也引发大火;第四架被劫持飞机坠毁在西南宾夕法尼亚州匹兹堡附近的乡村社区。这次事件直接导致世界贸易中心大楼整体倒塌,2,792 人遇难。为了报复,美国先后发动了对阿富汗塔利班政权、伊拉克萨达姆政权的所谓反恐战争。截止到 2004 年 4 月,美国“9·11”事件赔偿基金管理机构向在“9·11”事件中死亡或受伤者的亲属支付的赔偿金额,已达 26 亿多美元。综合新华社消息。另可参见赵秉志、王志祥、王文华等译:《“9·11”委员会报告——美国遭受恐怖袭击国家委员会最终报告》(The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (Authorized Edition)), 中国人民公安大学出版社 2004 年 9 月第 1 版。
② (November 2001) Who Foots the Bill in the Event of a Nuclear Accident? The Price-Anderson Act Comes up For Renewal, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/fall01.htm#price, viewed on 4 April 2004.
③ Section 170(d) (5) of The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, in: NLB 42, p.26.
④ 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 436 页。
① A defendant must waive any statute of limitations more restrictive than a 3-year discovery rule. This means that a person affected by an ENO may/must make a personal injury claim within three years of discovering the injury, such as cancer, regardless of how long it has been since the incident. See Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for:The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler Technical Carson City, Nevada, pp.3, 5, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004.
② See Sections 4, 9, 15 of (France) Act on Third Party Liability, in Supplement to NLB 46 (December 1990), pp.3-4, 7.
① See Article VI (3) of the 1963/1997 Vienna Convention; 原文分别是:“The law of the competent court may establish a period of extinction or prescription of not less than three years from the date on which the person suffering nuclear damage had knowledge or should have had knowledge of the damage and of the operator liable for the damage, provided that the period established pursuant to paragraphs 1 and 2 of this Article shall not be exceeded.”“Rights of compensation under the Convention shall be subject to prescription or extinction, as provided by the law of the competent court, if an action is not brought within three years from the date on which the person suffering damage had knowledge or ought reasonably to have had knowledge of the damage and of the operator liable for the damage, provided that the periods established pursuant to sub-paragraphs (a) and (b) of paragraph 1 of this Article shall not be exceeded.” See also Article 8 (c) of the Paris Convention. 原文是:“National legislation may establish a period of not less than two years for the extinction of the right or as a period of limitation either from the date at which the person suffering damage has knowledge or from the date at which he ought reasonably to have known of both the damage and the operator liable: provided that the period established pursuant to paragraphs (a) and (b) of this Article shall not be exceeded.”
② 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 365 页。
③ 2002 年 4 月 25 日,官方公布的最低免税收入为 17 Ukrainian Hryvnia (UAH),约合 3.3 美元或 3.6 欧元(EUR)。下同。See footnote 2 of (Ukraine) 2001 Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security.
④ Article 6(1-5) of (Ukraine) 2001 Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security.
⑤ 英文表述是:where conclusive evidence of the death of that person is not available, after three years from the date an order presuming the person to be dead is made by a court having jurisdiction in those matters.
① 有人提议删去 10 年诉讼时效的法律规定,因为大多数辐射致癌都有 10 年以上的潜伏期(Most radiation-induced cancers take more than 10 years to develop)。See Gordon Edwards, ‘The Historical Origins of Canada’s Nuclear Liability Act’, available at http://www.ccnr.org/insurance.html, viewed on June 18, 2003.
② See Articles 13, 31 of Canada Nuclear Liability Act. 考虑到 7500 万元这一责任限制数额过低,该法的建议修正案提出将责任限制标准提高到 5 亿元。但也有人提议提高到至少 10 亿元,以有利于国库 (In order to protect the public purse, let us raise the liability limit to at least one billion dollars.)。See Gordon Edwards, ‘The Historical Origins of Canada’s Nuclear Liability Act’, available at http://www.ccnr.org/insurance.html, viewed on 18 June 2003.
③ Article 13 of (Republic of Korea) Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage.
④ 国函(1986)44 号采取了两级赔偿机制,即一级是营运人对全体受害人的最高赔偿额为人民币 1, 800万元;这一规定与 1963 年《维也纳公约》第 5 条第 1 款“营运人的赔偿责任可以由装置国限制为每一核事件不得少于 500 万美元”具有一致性,因为按照当时 1:3.6 的美元对人民币汇率将 500 万美元折合成人民币 1,800 万元。二级是国家财政补偿的最高限额为人民币 3 亿元,即所谓的“国家兜底”。这也体现了国家从政策上促进核电发展,同时也关心和保护受害人利益。3 亿元人民币在当时相当于 8, 333 多万美元。参见核电发展战略研究(续编)编委会编写:《核电发展战略研究(续编)》,(北京)中国言实出版社 2001年 1 月第 1 版,第 209 页。
① 台湾《原子能法》(中华民国六十年十二月二十四日公布施行)第一条。
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 483 页。
③ 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年增订版,第 445~453 页。
④ 参见 K?tz, Gef?hrdungshaftung, Gutachten und Vorschl?ge zur überarbeitung des Schuldrechts, Bd. II. 1981, S 1826。转引自王泽鉴著:“‘公路法’关于损害赔偿特别规定与‘民法’侵权行为一般规定之适用关系”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(6),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 47 页注释[2]。
⑤ 王泽鉴著:“‘公路法’关于损害赔偿特别规定与‘民法’侵权行为一般规定之适用关系”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(6),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 46~48 页。
① See U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Theoretical Possibilities and Consequences of Major Accidents in Large Nuclear Power Plants, Washington 1957 (WASH-740); International Problems of Financial Protection Against Nuclear Risk, New York 1959 (A Forum Report), p.45. 转引自陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 445 页。
① 德国学者关于德国责任法、道路交通法及航空法上之损害,赔偿最高限额规定之存废问题,争论非常激烈,多数学者反对设最高限额之规定。K?tz 教授在其关于德国债法修正关于“危险责任”之研究报告中,建议废除最高限额, Gef?hrdungshaftung, aaO., S. 1825f。参阅 Well, Quellen erh?hter Gefahr, 1980, S.30。转引自王泽鉴著:“‘公路法’关于损害赔偿特别规定与‘民法’侵权行为一般规定之适用关系”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(6),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 48 页注释[1]。
① Royners, Limiting the Liability of the Nuclear Operator, NEA Newsletter 4 (1986), No. 1, p.3 ff. 转引自陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 465 页,脚注 112。
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 503 页。台湾《核子损害赔偿法》(1997 年 5 月 14 日修正)第二十八条采纳了陈春生教授的建议。
③ In Japan, since there is no specific provision governing the limitation period during which claims for compensation for nuclear damage should be entered, the general rules governing prescription under the law of tort pursuant to the Civil Code are applicable. Under Section 724 of the Civil Code, the right to compensation for damage shall be extinguished if an action is not brought within three years from the date on which the person suffering damage had knowledge both of the damage and of the person liable for such damage. The right to compensation shall also be fully extinguished twenty years after the date on which a tort occurs. See Tokai-Mura Accident, Japan: Third Party Liability and Compensation Aspects, prepared by the Secretariat of the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency in collaboration with the Japanese authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb-/Nlb-66/013-022.pdf, viewed on 7 April 2004.
④ 韩国以前在核责任领域也实行无限责任制度,但根据韩国 2001 年 1 月 16 日《第 6350 号法令》的规定,将在其核责任法领域引入有限责任的原则。
⑤ 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 365 页。
① 傅济熙、董保同:“浅谈第三方核责任法律制度”,载《中国核工业》1998 年第 3 期,第 47 页;陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 466~467 页。陈春生教授认为,美国采取反应器所有人的责任限额制度。同时,他将“Retrospective Premium System”译为“相互补偿制度”。
② 英文表述概括为“The operator is required to have and maintain insurance or other financial security to cover his liability; if such security is insufficient, the Installation State is obliged to make up the difference up to the limit of the operator’s liability.”
③ 邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版;覃有土主编:《保险法教程》(2002 年修订本),法律出版社 2002 年 4 月第 1 版,第 299~308 页。
④ 刘士国著:《现代侵权损害赔偿研究》,法律出版社 1998 年版,第 26 页。
① 王泽鉴著:《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 163 页;台湾《保险法》(民国 93 年 1 月 13 日制定、修正,民国 93 年 2 月 4 日公布、施行)第 90 条(责任保险人之责任):“责任保险人于被保险人对于第三人,依法应负赔偿责任,而受赔偿之请求时,负赔偿之责。”。
② 《中华人民共和国保险法》于 1995 年 6 月 30 日第八届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第十四次会议通过,1995 年 6 月 30 日中华人民共和国主席令第 51 号公布,自 1995 年 10 月 1 日起施行。
③ 填补损害也是各国侵权行为法的共同目的和最重要的功能,主导着侵权行为法的发展。例如,我国《民法通则》基本上是采取全部赔偿的原则,即侵权责任的构成要件一旦具备,加害人应对所生的损害负全部赔偿责任,不因加害人的故意或过失而异其赔偿范围。财产上的损害,除恢复原状外,亦得以金钱加以赔偿。关于精神损害的金钱赔偿,是民法学上一项重大争论问题。参见王泽鉴著:“《中华人民共和国民法通则》之侵权责任:比较法的分析”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(6),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1版,第 280 页。填补损害系基于公平正义的理念,其主要目的在于使受害人的损害能获得实质、完整迅速的填补,有助于促进侵权行为法的发展,如过失责任的客观化、举证责任的倒置、无过失责任的建立及损害赔偿数额的合理化等。参见王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1版,第 8 页。
④ 第一人保险是指以被保险人的人身或财产(自身利益)为保险标的、以意外事故为承保危险的保险。被保险人利用第一人保险的目的是保护其自身免受意外事件造成的经济上的不利后果。而该意外事件的发生并不考虑民事责任的归责原则。由此可见,第一人保险的保险危险如果发生,必将立即造成被保险人的财产或利益的灭失或减损,被保险人将失去利用它们的机会。第一人保险的保险标的为被保险人的财产或利益,该财产或利益将因意外事故的发生而受到直接的损失。参见邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社1999 年 11 月第 1 版,第 31~32 页。
① 邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版,第 30~32 页。
② 社会保险和属于强制保险范围的责任保险具有本质的差别:社会保险由国家设立的社会保险机构经营,实行法定费率制度。有义务交纳社会保险费的机构或个人,不论是否实际交纳保险费,享受社会保险利益的被保险人均可取得法定利益;而责任保险由商业保险公司经营,被保险人以投保责任保险为条件,享受责任保险的利益。保险公司按照商业保险的经营理念,开展责任保险业务。参见邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版,第 58 页。
① 《中华人民共和国保险法》第 49 条第 1 款规定:“保险人对责任保险的被保险人给第三者造成的损害,可以依照法律的规定或者合同的约定,直接向该第三者赔偿保险金。”
② 《中华人民共和国保险法》第 44 条第 1 款规定:“因第三者对保险标的的损害而造成保险事故的,保险人自向被保险人赔偿保险金之日起,在赔偿金额范围内代位行使被保险人对第三者请求赔偿的权利。”
③ 邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版,第 58~66 页。
④ See Latent Harms and Risk-Based Damages (Notes), Harvard Law Review, Vol.111, 1998, p.1522. 转引自王明远著:《环境侵权救济法律制度》,中国法制出版社 2001 年 2 月第 1 版,第 261 页注释①。
⑤ 现代西方国家侵权行为法的功能已经逐渐由“损失的移转”发展为“损失的分散”。立法者或法院在决定何人应该负担侵权责任时,政策上所考虑的,不是加害人的行为在道德上是否可资非难,而是他是否能够依市场上的价格机能和责任保险制度,将损失分散给社会大众,由大家共同承担。参见王泽鉴著:“《中华人民共和国民法通则》之侵权责任:比较法的分析”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(6),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 281 页。
① 邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版,第 33~36 页;陈欣著:《保险法》,北京大学出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 174~175 页。
② 吕忠梅著:《环境法学》法律出版社 2004 年 9 月第 1 版,第 175 页。
① 邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版,第 369~371 页。
② 覃有土主编:《保险法教程》(2002 年修订本),法律出版社 2002 年 4 月第 1 版,第 299 页。
③ [日]加藤一郎著:《不法行为》(增补版),有斐阁,第 40~41 页。
① 王泽鉴著:“侵权行为法之危机及其发展趋势”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 163 页。
② 覃有土主编:《保险法教程》(2002 年修订本),法律出版社 2002 年 4 月第 1 版,第 300 页。
① 曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版,第 10 页。
① 王泽鉴著:“侵权行为法之危机及其发展趋势”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 164~165 页;邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版,第 45~51页;刘士国著:《现代侵权损害赔偿研究》,法律出版社 1998 年版,第 26~28 页。
② 责任保险依据不同的划分标准,可以有不同的分类。以责任保险承保的风险性状为标准,责任保险可分为公众责任保险、产品责任保险、雇主责任保险、专家责任保险、展览会责任保险、环境责任保险、汽车第三者责任保险、飞机第三者责任保险、工程承包商第三者责任保险、承运人旅客责任保险等;以责任保险适用的范围和承保对象为标准,责任保险可分为企业责任保险、专家责任保险和个人责任保险三大类;以保险人承担保险责任的基础为标准,责任保险可分为索赔型责任保险(liability insurance on a claims-made basis)和事故型责任保险(liability insurance on an occurrence basis);以责任保险的效力或依据为标准,责任保险可分为自愿责任保险和强制责任保险。其中,自愿责任保险,是指投保人(被保险人)和责任保险人在自愿、平等、互利的基础上,经协商一致而订立的责任保险合同。契约自由是自愿责任保险存在的效力基础,而这种契约自由是一种建立在定式合同基础上的受限制的契约自由。参见邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版,第 67~72 页。
③ 邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版,第 72~76 页。
① 除核领域外,责任保险和财务保证法律制度也适用于其他若干领域,如运输领域。例如,《2002 年海上旅客及其行李运输雅典公约》第 4bis 条中规定: “When passengers are carried on board a ship registered in a State Party that is licensed to carry more than twelve passengers, and this Convention applies, any carrier who actually performs the whole or a part of the carriage shall maintain insurance or other financial security, such as the guarantee of a bank or similar financial institution, to cover liability under this Convention in respect of the death of and personal injury to passengers.”
② 覃有土主编:《保险法教程》(2002 年修订本),法律出版社 2002 年 4 月第 1 版,第 303 页。
① 英文表述是“A contract of liability insurance for nuclear damage (hereinafter referred to a‘sliability insurance contract’) means a contract under which an insurer (a person who is authorised to engage in liability insurance in accordance with the Insurance Business Act) agrees to indemnify a nuclear operator for loss arising from compensation of nuclear damage resulting from specified causes and under which the nuclear operator agrees to pay a premium to the insurer, in case the operator becomes liable for the compensation of nuclear damage in accordance with the provisions of Article 3.”
② 按 1 SDR 约等于 1.4 USD 计算,1.5 亿 SDRs 等于 2.1 亿 USD;按 1 SDR 约等于 11.5 RMB 计算,1.5亿 SDRs 约等于 17.25 亿 RMB。
③ Dwight Eisenhower(1890~1969),美国陆军五星上将,曾于 1953~1961 年出任美国第 34~35 任总统。他是出任之前就相当了解核武器的第一位美国总统。著有回忆录《远征欧陆》、《授权变革》、《争取和平》等书。
④ “Atoms for Peace”, Address by Mr. Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, to the 470th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, Tuesday, 8 December 1953, 2:45 p.m., available at http://www.iaea.org/About/history_speech.html, viewed on 7 December 2003. 艾森豪威尔在整个演说过程中,没有被一次掌声打断过,演说结束后,会场也非常寂静,但包括俄国人在内的 3500 名代表随之立即爆发出了热情洋溢的雷鸣般的掌声,其壮观场景在联合国历史上是空前的。艾森豪威尔的思想在现代又得 到了新发展,人们提出了“Atoms for Peace, Atoms for Prosperity” 的口号。
① 一译“化刀剑为犁锄”,亦即“化干戈为玉帛”、“化战争为和平”之意。
② 这两句话所在的段落原文分别是:“We shall carry into these private or diplomatic talks a new conception. The United States would seek more than the mere reduction or elimination of atomic materials for military purposes. It is not enough to take this weapon out of the hands of the soldiers. It must be put into the hands of those who will know how to strip its military casing and adapt it to the arts of peace.”“To the making of these fateful decisions, the United States pledges before you, and therefore before the world, its determination to help solve the fearful atomic dilemma - to devote its entire heart and mind to finding the way by which the miraculous inventiveness of man shall not be dedicated to his death, but consecrated to his life.”另可参见[美]麦乔治·邦迪著,楮广友等译:《美国核战略》,世界知识出版社1991年7月第1版,第392~402页。McGeorge Bundy, Danger and Survival—Choices about the Bomb in the First Fifty Years, Random House, Inc., 1988, 201E. 50th Street, New York, NY, U.S.A.
① See Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for:The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler Technical Carson City, Nevada, p.2, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004.
② Gordon Edwards, “The Historical Origins of Canada’s Nuclear Liability Act”, available at http://www.ccnr.org/insurance.html, viewed on June 18, 2003; “Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 2003”, available at http://www.ans.org/pi/news/sd/1049495547-redline.pdf, viewed on 18 September 2003; Omer F Brown II, “Nuclear Liability: A Continuing Impediment To Nuclear Commerce”, The Uranium Institute 24th Annual Symposium 8-10 September 1999: London, available at http://www. world-nuclear.org/sym/1999/pdfs/brown.pdf, viewed on 14 July 2003; David S. Ziegler, “Report on the Price-Anderson Act and its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final March 10, 2003) ”, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/price003.htm, viewed on 18 September 2003; American Nuclear Society, “The Price-Anderson Act ”(Background Report, March 2001, Revised November 2002, November 2004 ), available at http://www.ans.org/pi/ps/docs/ps54-bi.pdf, viewed on 18 September 2003 and 25 January 2005.
① 王泽鉴著:“侵权行为法之危机及其发展趋势”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 174~175 页。
② 李亚虹著:《美国侵权法》,法律出版社 1999 年版,第 129 页。
① 王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 132~133 页;王明远著:《环境侵权救济法律制度》,中国法制出版社 2001 年 2 月第 1 版,第 144~152 页;李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 366 页。
① 王晓丽:“论环境责任保险制度”,载《行政与法》2005 年第 6 期,第 113 页。另可参见 Nick Lockett, Environmental Liability Insurance, Cameron May London 1996。
① 王明远著:《环境侵权救济法律制度》,中国法制出版社 2001 年 2 月第 1 版,第 145~146 页。
② The term “financial protection” means the ability to respond in damages for public liability and to meet the costs of investigating and defending claims and settling suits for such damages. See Section 11(k) of The Price-Anderson Amendment Act of 1988, in: Supplement to NLB 42, p.19.
③ 核风险比单纯的核事件风险(a risk of a nuclear incident)更加宽泛,核能的和平利用也包括核武器扩散(proliferation of nuclear weapons)和核材料非法贸易的风险。See Mitsuru KUROSAWA, “Nuclear Non- Proliferation and Export Control”, Osaka University Law Review, No.49 (February 2002), pp.1-18. 本书仅指核事件风险。
① 大多数核保险基金都给营运人自身及第三人责任提供赔偿。营运人的强制性责任保险范围一般包括核设施营运人因核事件导致损害的合同(契约)外责任(extra-contractual liability)的赔偿,即使该核事件是直接由于重大自然灾害(grave natural disaster)所造成。应该将这种做法与对营运人本身造成潜在损害进行投保的做法明确区分开来。
② Tom vanden Borre, “Chanelling of Liability: A Few Juridical and Economic Views on an Inadequate Legal Construction”, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, pp.16-17.
① Article VII(1)(a-b), (3-4) of the 1997 Vienna Convention. 原文如下:1. a.The operator shall be required to maintain insurance or other financial security covering his liability for nuclear damage in such amount, of such type and in such terms as the Installation State shall specify. The Installation State shall ensure the payment of claims for compensation for nuclear damage which have been established against the operator by providing the necessary funds to the extent that the yield of insurance or other financial security is inadequate to satisfy such claims, but not in excess of the limit, if any, established pursuant to Article V. Where the liability of the operator is unlimited, the Installation State may establish a limit of the financial security of the operator liable, provided that such limit is not lower than 300 million SDRs. The Installation State shall ensure the payment of claims for compensation for nuclear damage which have been established against the operator to the extent that the yield of the financial security is inadequate to satisfy such claims, but not in excess of the amount of the financial security to be provided under this paragraph. b. Notwithstanding sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph, where the liability of the operator is unlimited, the Installation State, having regard to the nature of the nuclear installation or the nuclear substances involved and to the likely consequences of an incident originating therefrom, may establish a lower amount of financial security of the operator, provided that in no event shall any amount so established be less than 5 million SDRs, and provided that the Installation State ensures the payment of claims for compensation for nuclear damage which have been established against the operator by providing necessary funds to the extent that the yield of insurance or other financial security is inadequate to satisfy such claims, and up to the limit provided pursuant to sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph. 2. Omitted. 3.The funds provided by insurance, by other financial security or by the Installation State pursuant to paragraph 1 of this Article or sub-paragraphs (b) and (c) of paragraph 1 of Article V shall be exclusively available for compensation due under this Convention. 4. No insurer or other financial guarantor shall suspend or cancel the insurance or other financial security provided pursuant to paragraph 1 of this Article without giving notice in writing of at least two months to the competent public authority or, in so far as such insurance or other financial security relates to the carriage of nuclear material, during the period of the carriage in question.
② Article 10 (a-c) of the Paris Convention. 原文如下:a. To cover the liability under this Convention, the operator shall be required to have and maintain insurance or other financial security of the amount established pursuant to Article 7 and of such type and terms as the competent public authority shall specify. b. No insurer or other financial guarantor shall suspend or cancel the insurance or other financial security provided for in paragraph (a) of this Article without giving notice in writing of at least two months to the competent public authority or in so far as such insurance or other financial security relates to the carriage of nuclear substances, during the period of the carriage in question. c. The sums provided as insurance, reinsurance, or other financial security may be drawn upon only for compensation for damage caused by a nuclear incident.
① The term “legal costs” means the costs incurred by a plaintiff or a defendant in initiating, prosecuting, investigation, settling, or defending claims or suits for damage arising under such section. See Section 11(jj.) of The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, in: NLB 42, p.22.
② Note that some reports say that damage could exceed the caps by a large margin.
③ See Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for:The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler Technical Carson City, Nevada, pp.7-8, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004.
④ See “Increase of nuclear liability and property insurance coverage”, in: NLB 19 (1977), p.17, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-19-EN.pdf, viewed on 1 March 2004.
① See “Financial protection requirements and indemnity agreements (1988)”, in: NLB 43 (June 1989), pp.82-83, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-43-EN.pdf, viewed on 2 March 2004.
② See “Amendment of Regulations concerning financial protection consequent upon the 1988 amendment of the Price-Anderson Act (1989)”, in: NLB 44 (December 1989), pp.53-54, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-44-EN.pdf, viewed on 3 March 2004.
③ 本段最后一句的英文表述是:Licensee may not be charged more than its pro rata share of the aggregate public liability claims and costs arising out of the incident.
① See Section 170(b)(C) of The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, in :Supplement to NLB 42, pp.22-24 or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-42-SUP.pdf, viewed on 10 November 2003. Also see “Regime applicable to large power reactors (1990)”, in: NLB 45 (June 1990), pp.67-68, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-45-EN.pdf, viewed on 3 March 2004.
② The term “Consumer Price Index” means the Consumer Price Index for all the urban consumers published by the Secretary of Laboor. See t(2) of The Price-Anderson Amendment Act of 1988, in: Supplement to NLB 42, p.39.
③ See “Increase of limits (1993)”, in: NLB 52 (December 1993), p.70, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-52-EN.pdf, viewed on 2 March 2004.
① The Reauthorization Act would: (1) Reauthorize the PAA for 15 years, to August 1, 2017; (2) Through retrospective premium increases, raise the industry's indemnity for nuclear power plants and related facilities to $10.2 billion, plus a potential five percent surcharge; (3) Raise the aggregate indemnity for DOE contractors from $9.43 billion to $10 billion, and require an inflation adjustment to the indemnification limit at least once every five years; (4) Require the Secretary of Energy to issue industrial health and safety regulations applicable to contractors at DOE facilities, providing worker protection and establishing civil penalties equivalent to the regulations of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration; and (5)Authorize the Attorney General to bring a federal action to recover amounts paid by the federal government under an indemnification agreement for public liability resulting from the intentional misconduct of any corporate officer, manager, or superintendent of a DOE contractor, subcontractor, or supplier. See Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for:The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler Technical Carson City, Nevada, p.13, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004.
② 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 367~368 页。
① See Sections 13-14 of 1959 Act on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy and Protection against its Hazards (Atomic Energy Act), as amended in 2002, in:Supplement to NLB 70 (2002).
② Article 7(1-2) of (Ukraine) 2001 Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security.
③ Article 8(1-5) and Article 9 of (Ukraine)2001 Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security.
④ Articles 15-17 of Canada Nuclear Liability Act.
① “Minister” means such member of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada as is designated by the Governor in Council as the Minister for the purposes of this Act. See Article.2 of Canada Nuclear Liability Act. “Privy Council” means body of statesmen, politicians, etc appointed by the sovereign formerly as advisers on affairs of State, but now (in Britain) more as a personal honour for its members. See Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary (Fourth Edition), The Commercial Press and Oxford University Press 1997, p1175.
② 英文表述是“The Minister may designate as an approved insurer for the purposes of this Act any insurer or association of insurers that meets the requirements that, in his opinion, are necessary for the proper performance of the obligations to be undertaken by an approved insurer.”
③ 英文表述是“All amounts payable by Her Majesty pursuant to an agreement entered into under section 16 shall be paid out of the Consolidated Revenue Fund and charged to a special account in the accounts of Canada to be known as the Nuclear Liability Reinsurance Account, and all amounts received by Her Majesty pursuant to the agreement shall be paid into the Consolidated Revenue Fund and credited to that Account.”
④ 台湾《核子损害赔偿法施行细则》,中华民国八十七年三月二十五日行政院原子能委员会,会综字第五 三七○号令发布,全文十二条,自中华民国八十七年五月十四日施行。参见 http://www.aec.gov.tw/start.php,2004 年 4 月 7 日浏览。
① 李疌:“中国核共体遭遇分保难题”,2003 年 9 月 12 日《中国证券报》第 11 版;赵冰:“中国核保险亟待突破”,2003 年 9 月 12 日《国际金融报》,或 http://www.chinaacc.net/new/2003_8/30826100210.htm,2004年 3 月 14 日浏览。
② “为发展核电事业提供必要保障 中国核保险共同体成立”, 1999 年 9 月 6 日《证券时报》。
① 郑丽虹、杨静虹:“平安保险 14 亿美元保单承保广东岭澳核电站”,2001 年 12 月 12 日《南方都市报》。
② 李光茹:“中国人保为秦山三期核电站提供全程保险服务”,2001 年 12 月 28 日 17:48 新华网。
① “人保财险成功续保大亚湾、岭澳核电站保险项目”,2003 年 12 月 10 日 13:57:00 中国人民财产保险股份有限公司网站,http://www.picc.com.cn:89/gate/big5/www.picc.com.cn/cn/xwzx/rbcz/3560.shtml,2004 年 3月 24 日浏览。
② 苏莉:“从‘9·11’事件看国际保险业的调整”,载《世界经济与政治》2002 年第 2 期,第 46~48 页;吴爱雯:“世界保险公司暴露在‘9·11’创伤之下”,载《金融与保险》2001 年第 11 期。
① See Article 13 (a) of the Paris Convention. 英文表述概括为“Jurisdiction over claims concerning nuclear incidents shall lie exclusively with the courts of the Contracting Party in whose territory the nuclear incident occurred.”
② See Article 13 (a)-(e) of Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982.
③ See I.M.a)-f) of Protocol to Amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris_convention.pdf, viewed on 26 March 2004.
① See Articles XI(1-4), XII(1-2) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage.
② See Articles XIII(1-6) of Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage.
③ 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 465 页。
④ 大审法院(庭)(Tribunal de Grande Instance),是指法国民事系统的法院,按照 1958 年 12 月 22 日颁布的民事诉讼法典规定,各行政区设大审法庭,由审判长 1 人、法官 2 人和检察官 1 人组成。参见陈春龙主编:《法汉汉法法律词典》,中国社会科学出版社 2003 年版,第 613 页;《英汉法律词典》编写组编:《英汉法律词典》(修订本),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 826 页。在法国,第一审普通法院是大审法院,具有一般管辖权和专门管辖权。原则上,每省拥有一个大审法院,其中设一个民事审判庭、一个轻罪 法庭,如果在当地无商事法庭,则设一个商事审判庭。审判人员由院长、副院长和若干法官组成。大审法院原则上采用合议制。参见[法]雅克·盖斯旦(Jacques Ghestin)、吉勒·古博(Gilles Goubeaux)著,缪黑埃·法布赫·马南(Muriel Fabre-Magnan)协著,陈鹏、张丽娟等译:《法国民法总论》,法律出版社 2004年 5 月第 1 版,第 374~376 页。
① 原文是:“In implementation of this Act, where the nuclear incident occurs in the territory of the French Republic or where, in implementation of the Paris Convention, a French court has jurisdiction, such jurisdiction shall lie only with the‘Tribunal de Grande Instance de Paris’. However, the Public Prosecutor and the examining magistrate of the court within whose jurisdiction the nuclear incident occurred are empowered to take any emergency measures required. The records of proceedings are subsequently transferred to the‘Tribunal de Grande Instance de Paris’. In no case shall a criminal court in which proceedings may be instituted entertain a civil claim.”See Section 17 of (France) Act No. 68-943 of 30th October 1968 on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Field, as Amended by Act No. 90-488 of the 16th June 1990, in: Supplement to NLB 46 (December 1990), p.7. The English version is unofficial translation by the NEA Secretariat.
② “Original jurisdiction”可译为“初审管辖权、初审审判权、原始管辖权。”参见《英汉法律词典》编写组编:《英汉法律词典》(修订本),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 562 页。
③ With respect to any public liability action arising out of or resulting from a nuclear incident, the United States district court in the district where the nuclear incident takes place, or in the case of a nuclear incident taking place outside the United States, the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, shall have original jurisdiction without regard to the citizenship of any party or the amount in controversy. Upon motion of the defendant or of the Commission or the Secretary, as appropriate, any such action pending in any State court (including any such action pending on the date of the enactment of the Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988) or United States district court shall be removed or transferred to the United States district court having venue under this subsection. Process of such district court shall be effective throughout the United States.… See Section 170(n)(2)-(3) of The Price-Anderson Amendment Act of 1988, in: NLB 42, pp.35-36.
④ The term “public liability action”, as used in section 170, means any suit asserting public liability. A public liability action shall be deemed to be an action arising under section 170, and the substantive rules for decision in such action shall be derived from the law of the State in which the nuclear incident involved occurs, unless such law is inconsistent with the provisions of such section. See Section 11(hh.) of The Price-Anderson Amendment Act of 1988, in: NLB 42, p.22.
① Article 14 of Canada Nuclear Liability Act, available at http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/N-28/86947.html, viewed on 24 August 2003. See 1970 Act on Nuclear Third Party Liability, in: Supplement to NLB 6 and its 1985 Amendment, in: NLB 44, p.34.
② 环境法中的国家干预是指国家以社会公共利益代表者的资格(并非仅以国有资源所有者的资格),依法对各种开发利用环境资源的活动直接进行管理的政府行为。国家干预是国家行使环境管理权的充分体现。国家对环境干预有以下主要手段:由国家向不发达或待开发地区大量投资,促使其生产均衡发展;实行财政援助或发放低息贷款、优惠贷款,帮助企业修建防污、排污设施;利用税收杠杆促进对环境的保护和改善;征收排污费或排污税制度等。国家对环境问题的干预还表现在国家强化公民的环境意识方面。国家干预离不开公众参与,应该通过必要的国家干预,使保护环境成为全体国民的自觉行动,这才是环境保护所追求的最佳效果。参见周珂著:《生态环境法论》,法律出版社 2001 年 3 月第 1 版,第 70~71 页。
③ 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 441 页。
① 《中华人民共和国宪法》(1982 年 12 月 4 日通过和公布施行,分别于 1988 年 4 月 12 日、1993 年 3 月29 日、1999 年 3 月 15 日和 2004 年 3 月 14 日修正)。总结我国 2003 年抗击非典(Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, SARS)的经验教训,并借鉴国际上的普遍做法,需要完善应对严重自然灾害、突发公共卫生事件、人为重大事故等紧急状态的法律制度。因此,2004 年的宪法修正案将“戒严”修改为“紧急状态”,使“紧急状态”包括“戒严”又不限于“戒严”,适用范围更宽,既便于应对各种紧急状态,也同国际上通行的做法相一致。参见 2004 年 3 月 8 日在第十届全国人民代表大会第二次会议上,全国人民代表大会常务委员会副委员长王兆国作的《关于〈中华人民共和国宪法修正案(草案)〉的说明》。
② 参见“中华民国宪法”(民国 35 年 12 月 25 日制定,民国 36 年 12 月 25 日公布施行)前言,http://www.6law.idv.tw/law/憲法.doc,2004 年 4 月 30 日浏览。
③ 陈慈阳著:《环境法总论》,台湾元照出版公司 2003 年 1 月第 2 版,第 426 页。
① See Article VII(1)(a-b) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage: “1. a. The operator shall be required to maintain insurance or other financial security covering his liability for nuclear damage in such amount, of such type and in such terms as the Installation State shall specify. The Installation State shall ensure the payment of claims for compensation for nuclear damage which have been established against the operator by providing the necessary funds to the extent that the yield of insurance or other financial security is inadequate to satisfy such claims, but not in excess of the limit, if any, established pursuant to Article V. Where the liability of the operator is unlimited, the Installation State may establish a limit of the financial security of the operator liable, provided that such limit is not lower than 300 million SDRs. The Installation State shall ensure the payment of claims for compensation for nuclear damage which have been established against the operator to the extent that the yield of the financial security is inadequate to satisfy such claims, but not in excess of the amount of the financial security to be provided under this paragraph. b. Notwithstanding sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph, where the liability of the operator is unlimited, the Installation State, having regard to the nature of the nuclear installation or the nuclear substances involved and to the likely consequences of an incident originating therefrom, may establish a lower amount of financial security of the operator, provided that in no event shall any amount so established be less than 5 million SDRs, and provided that the Installation State ensures the payment of claims for compensation for nuclear damage which have been established against the operator by providing necessary funds to the extent that the yield of insurance or other financial security is inadequate to satisfy such claims, and up to the limit provided pursuant to sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph.” Also see Article 5 (1)(a-b) of Annex to Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage.
② See Article XV of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage: “The Contracting Parties shall take appropriate measures to ensure that compensation for nuclear damage, interest and costs awarded by a court in connection therewith, insurance and reinsurance premiums and funds provided by insurance, reinsurance or other financial security, or funds provided by the Installation State, pursuant to this Convention, shall be freely transferable into the currency of the Contracting Party within whose territory the damage is suffered, and of the Contracting Party within whose territory the claimant is habitually resident, and, as regards insurance or reinsurance premiums and payments, into the currencies specified in the insurance or reinsurance contract.”
① Articles VI-VII of Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage.
② See Section 170 (Indemnification and Limitation of Liability) of The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988.
③ In the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accidents, Members: Steve C. Griffith, Jr., Chairman, Gerald G. Fain,Kenneth RL Feinberg, S. Robert Foley,Theodore J. Garrish, John J. Kearney, William F. Kennedy,Arthur W. Murphy, Norman C. Rasmussen, Raymond W. Stahl;Commission Staff:Jerome Saltzman, Executive Director,Susan W. Beach, Deputy Executive Director, John Imber; Consultants:Rochelle Cooper Dreyfuss, Joseph B. Knotts, Jr., Peter H. Woodin. SeeReport to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accidents, available at http://www.state.nv.us/nucwaste/news/rpccna/pcrcna03.htm, viewed on 20 March 2004.
④ SeeReport to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accidents, which includes the following parts: Index ; Cover Page ; Letter to the Senate ; Study Participants ; Table of Contents ; Introduction ; Conclusions And Recommendations ; Chapter 1 Background, Assumptions and Observations ; Chapter 2 Procedure for the Resolution of Price-Anderson Claims ; Chapter 3 Claim Priority ; Chapter 4 Standards and Procedures for Latent Illnesses ; Appendix A Glossary ; Appendix B The Nature of Severe Nuclear Accidents ; Appendix C The Provisions of the Act Pertaining to Latent Illness Claims ; Appendix D Latent Illness Claims Under Present Law ; Appendix E Atomic Veterans Legislation ;Appendix F Ontario Workers' Compensation Law ; Appendix G BNFL/UKAEA Agreement with Unions; Appendix H Probability of Causation Recommendation: Detailed Discussion and Examples ; Appendix I Bibliography. Available at http://www.state.nv.us/nucwaste/news/rpccna/, viewed on 20 March 2004.
① 德国《原子能法》第 13 条第 1~3 项。
② 德国《原子能法》第 14 条第 1 项。
③ 德国《原子能法》第 34、36 条。
④ 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 454~455页。
⑤ 德国《原子能法》第 25 条第 4 项。
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 460~465页。
② 德国《原子能法》第34条的英文表述是:“Section 34 Indemnification (Adopted: 22 April 2002) (1) If, as a result of the effects of a nuclear incident, the operator of a nuclear installation located within the territorial scope of this Act has become legally liable to pay compensation for damage under the provisions of the Paris Convention in conjunction with Section 25, paragraphs (1)-(4) and the Paris Convention and the Joint Protocol in conjunction with Section 25, paragraphs (1), (2) and (4) or under foreign laws applicable to the incident or in the cases outlined in Section 26, paragraph (1a), the operator of the nuclear installation or owner of radioactive material shall be indemnified against any liability to pay compensation for damage to the extent such liability is not covered by or cannot be satisfied out of the financial security provided. The maximum amount of indemnification shall be 2.5 billion euros. The obligation to indemnify the operator shall be restricted to this maximum amount minus the amount which is covered by and can be met out of the financial security provided. (2) If, after the occurrence of a harmful incident, recourse to such indemnification seems likely, the operator of the nuclear installation or holder of radioactive material shall be obliged to: 1. notify the Federal Ministry designated by the Federal Government and the L?nder authorities designated by the L?nder Governments without delay of such anticipation; 2. inform the responsible Federal Ministry and the responsible L?nder authorities without delay of any claims for compensation which have been raised or preliminary investigations which have been instituted, and provide, upon request, all information which is necessary to examine the circumstance and appreciate the merits of the case; 3. comply with the instructions of the responsible L?nder authorities with regard to negotiations, in and out of court, concerning the claims for compensation which have been raised; 4. refrain from acknowledging or satisfying any claim for compensation without the consent of the responsible L?nder authorities unless such acknowledgement or satisfaction cannot be refused without obvious inequity.”See Section 34 of (Germany) Atomic Energy Act, in: Supplement to NLB 70, pp.51-52.
① 原文是“Section 37(1) establishes, in certain cases, the state’s right of recourse vis-à-vis the liable operator with regard to indemnification granted pursuant to Section 34 of the Atomic Energy Act. A new paragraph 2 now entitles the state to such recourse irrespective of whether the prerequisites pursuant to paragraph 1 are met, if the operator is not of German nationality and does not have his domicile, principal place of business or permanent residence either within the territory of a European Union State, a Paris Convention State, a Vienna Convention/Joint Protocol State or any other state with which Germany has concluded an agreement on compensation for nuclear damage.” See Amendment to the nuclear third party liability provisions of the Atomic Energy Act (2001), Nuclear Law Bulletin 67, pp.34-35. Also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-67/029_058.pdf, viewed on 30 October 2003. 德国《原子能法》第37条的英文表述是:“Section 37 Recourse in the case of indemnification (Adopted: 5 March 2001) (1) If the operator of a nuclear installation or holder of radioactive material has been indemnified of the liability to pay compensation for damage pursuant to Section 34, recourse may be taken against such an operator of a nuclear installation or against such a holder of radioactive material to the extent of the indemnities paid if 1. the operator has violated the obligations pursuant to Section 34, paragraphs (2) or (3); however, recourse shall be excluded to the extent that such violation has not affected the ascertainment of the damage nor the ascertainment or extent of the indemnities paid; 2. the operator or, in the event of a legal entity, its legal representatives, in the discharge of the functions incumbent on them, caused the damage wilfully or by gross negligence; 3. the indemnities have been paid because the extent and amount of the financial security provided did not correspond to the extent and amount as determined by the authority in charge. (2) Recourse may be taken against the operator of a nuclear installation or holder of radioactive material without the existence of the requirements cited in paragraph (1) if said individual is not a German citizen and his domicile, residence, or place of permanent abode is in a state which is neither a Party to the Treaties of the European Communities, nor to the Paris Convention in conjunction with the Joint Protocol, nor to any other convention with the Federal Republic of Germany concerning liability for nuclear damages which is in force at the time of the nuclear incident.” See Section 37(1)-(2) of (Germany) Atomic Energy Act, in: Supplement to NLB 70, p.53.
② 英文表述是:“Section 38 Compensation from the Federation (Adopted: 5 March 2001) (1) If a party which suffered from the effects of a nuclear incident within the territorial scope of this Act cannot claim compensation pursuant to the laws of another Contracting State of the Paris Convention or the Vienna Convention in conjunction with the Joint Protocol which apply to such incident because: 1. the nuclear incident occurred in the territory of a Non-Contracting State of the Paris Convention or the Vienna Convention in conjunction with the Joint Protocol; 2. the damage was caused by a nuclear incident which is a direct consequence of acts in an armed conflict, hostilities, civil war, insurrection or a grave natural disaster of an exceptional kind; 3. the applicable laws do not provide for any liability for damage to the means of transport upon which the nuclear substances were located at the time of the nuclear incident; 4. the applicable laws do not provide for any liability of the operator if the damage is caused by ionising radiation emitted by another radiation source located in the nuclear installation; 5. the applicable laws provides a shorter limitation period or term of preclusion than is provided for herein; or 6. the total amount available for compensation is lower than the maximum amount of the governmental indemnification; the Federation shall grant compensation up to the maximum amount of the governmental indemnification.
(2) The Federation shall further grant compensation up to the maximum amount of the governmental indemnification if the foreign laws applicable to damage suffered within the territorial scope of this Act, or the provisions of an international treaty, provide for such compensation to be paid to the injured person as, with regard to nature, terms and amount, is far lower than the compensation which the injured person would have been awarded had this Act been applied, or if prosecution in the state in whose territory the harmful event originated has no prospect of success. (3) Paragraphs (1) and (2) above shall not apply to injured persons who are not Germans as defined in Article 116, paragraph (1), of the Basic Law and who do not have their habitual residence within the territorial scope of this Act, unless their mother country had provided, at the time of the nuclear incident, for an arrangement which, in relation to the Federal Republic of Germany, is equivalent as to nature, terms and amount.
(4) Claims under paragraphs (1) and (2) above shall be lodged with the Federal Office of Administration [Bundesverwaltungsamt – BVA]. Such claims shall lapse three years after the time at which the decision on compensation rendered under foreign or international law has become unappealable, or it becomes apparent that prosecution pursuant to paragraph (2) has no prospect of success.” See Section 38 of (Germany) Atomic Energy Act, in: Supplement to NLB 70, p.54.
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 481 页。
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 480 页。
② 台湾《核子损害赔偿法》中多处使用“国家”的表述,但台湾只是中华人民共和国的一个省或地区,是中华人民共和国不可分割的部分,世界上只有一个中国,即中华人民共和国。
③ 英文表述是:“Section 5: Compensation in excess of the operator’s liability shall be paid by the State under the conditions and within the limits specified in the Brussels Supplementary Convention. In the case of installations for other than peaceful purposes, victims who under the terms of the Brussels Convention would have been entitled to compensation if the installations were for peaceful uses shall be compensated by the State, provided that the total compensation paid shall not exceed 2500 million francs per incident.”“Section 8: If the victims of a nuclear incident are unable to recover compensation from the insurer, guarantor or operator, this shall be met in the last resort by the State, up to the limit set in Section 4 and without prejudice to the application of Section 5.”See Section 5 and Section 8 of (France) Act on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, in: Supplement to NLB 46, p.4.
④ The Government of the Russian Federation provides for the payment of compensation for loss and damage that has been caused by radiation exposure and for which the operating organization is liable, for that part of the liability of the operating organization that exceeds the upper limits of the liability laid down in article 55 of this Federal Law by granting the sums required to make up full compensation for the loss and damage caused, and also in cases for which there is provision in the legislation of the Russian Federation. See Article 57 of (Russian Federation) Federal Law on the Use of Atomic Energy (Adopted by the State Duma on 20 October 1995), in: Supplement to NLB 57 (June 1996), p.33.
① Article 10 (1-4) and Article 11 of (Ukraine) 2001 Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security (Unofficial translation established by the NEA Secretariat.), in: Supplement to NLB 69 (2002), pp.11-17, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-69/Ukraine.pdf, viewed on 24 August 2003.
② Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage (Republic of Korea). Act No. 2094 of 24 January 1969, as amended by: Act No. 2765 of 7 April 1975, Act No. 3549 of 1 April 1982 (the Atomic Energy Act), Act No. 3849 of 12 May 1986, Act No. 4940 of 1 January 1995 (the Atomic Energy Act), and Act No. 6350 of 16 January 2001. Unofficial translation kindly provided by the Korean authorities. See Nuclear Law Bulletin No. 68, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 August 2003.
① See Annex to the Convention of 31 January 1963 Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29 July 1960 on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, as Amended by the Additional Protocol of 28 January 1964, by the Protocol of 16 November 1982 and by the Protocol of 12 February 2004: “THE GOVERNMENTS OF THE CONTRACTING PARTIES declare that compensation for nuclear damage caused by a nuclear incident not covered by the Supplementary Convention solely by reason of the fact that the relevant nuclear installation, on account of its utilisation, is not on the list referred to in Article 13 of the Supplementary Convention (including the case where such installation, which is not on the list, is considered by one or more but not all of the Governments to be outside the Paris Convention): a. shall be provided without discrimination among the nationals of the Contracting Parties to the Supplementary Convention; and b. shall not be limited to less than 1 500 million euro. In addition, if they have not already done so, they shall endeavour to make the rules for compensation of persons suffering damage caused by such incidents as similar as possible to those established in respect of nuclear incidents occurring in connection with nuclear installations covered by the Supplementary Convention.”
② Article XIII(1) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage: “This Convention and the national law applicable thereunder shall be applied without any discrimination based upon nationality, domicile or residence.”
③ Articles III (2)(a-b) of Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage: “2. a. Compensation for nuclear damage in accordance with paragraph 1(a) shall be distributed equitably without discrimination on the basis of nationality, domicile or residence, provided that the law of the Installation State may, subject to obligations of that State under other conventions on nuclear liability, exclude nuclear damage suffered in a non-Contracting Party. b. Compensation for nuclear damage in accordance with paragraph 1(b), shall, subject to Articles V and XI.1(b), be distributed equitably without discrimination on the basis of nationality, domicile or residence.”
④ I.M. g) i-ii) of Protocol to Amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (12 February 2004), p.21, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris_convention.pdf, viewed on 26 March 2004. 原文是“g) The Contracting Party whose courts have jurisdiction shall ensure that in relation to actions for compensation of nuclear damage: i) any State may bring an action on behalf of persons who have suffered nuclear damage, who are nationals of that State or have their domicile or residence in its territory, and who have consented thereto; and ii) any person may bring an action to enforce rights under this Convention acquired by subrogation or assignment.”
① Article 8 of Protocol to Amend the Convention of 31st January 1963 Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (12 February 2004), p.16, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/brussels_supplementary_convention.pdf, viewed on 26 March 2004. 原文是“Any person who is entitled to benefit from the provisions of this Convention shall have the right to full compensation in accordance with national law for nuclear damage suffered, provided that where the amount of such damage exceeds or is likely to exceed 1 500 million euro, a Contracting Party may establish equitable criteria for apportioning the amount of compensation that is available under this Convention. Such criteria shall be applied whatever the origin of the funds and, subject to the provisions of Article 2, without discrimination based on the nationality, domicile or residence of the person suffering the damage.”
② The provisions of this Law are applied without discrimination based upon nationality, domicile or residence. See Article 2 of (Romania) Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (adopted on 3 December 2001), unofficial translation kindly provided by the Romanian Authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 11 July 2003.
③ This Act shall apply to any other State on condition of reciprocity, i.e. if a State prohibits or restricts compensation for nuclear damage suffered by an individual, legal person, entity or government of the Republic of Korea, this Act may exclude from or restrict in its application thereof any individual, legal person, entity or Government of such State. See Article 2-2 of (Republic of Korea) Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage, as Last Amended on 16 January 2001, in: NLB 68, p.5. Translation kindly provided by the Korean authorities.
① 梁西主编:《国际法》(修订第二版),武汉大学出版社 2000 年 3 月修订版,第 70~71 页。
② 联合国大会 1970 年 10 月 24 日通过。
① [英]詹宁斯、瓦茨修订,王铁崖等译:《奥本海国际法》(第一卷第一分册),中国大百科全书出版社 1995年版,第 288~290、361 页。
① “Unless the States concerned have agreed otherwise for the protection of the interests of persons, natural or juridical, who may be or are exposed to the risk of significant transboundary harm as a result of an activity within the scope of the present articles, a State shall not discriminate on the basis of nationality or residence or place where the injury might occur, in granting to such persons, in accordance with its legal system, access to judicial or other procedures to seek protection or other appropriate redress.” See Article 15 of Draft articles on Prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities, adopted by the International Law Commission at its fifty-third session (2001), in: the Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its Fifty-third session, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixth session, Supplement No. 10 (A/56/10), chp.V.E.1, p.375.
② The Council of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has adopted a recommendation on implementation of a regime of equal right of access and non-discrimination in relation to transfrontier pollution. Paragraph 4 (a) of that recommendation provides as follows: Countries of origin should ensure that any person who has suffered transfrontier pollution damage or is exposed to a significant risk of transfrontier pollution shall at least receive equivalent treatment to that afforded in the country of origin in cases of domestic pollution and in comparable circumstances, to persons of equivalent condition or status…. See Commentaries to the draft articles on Prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities adopted by the International Law Commission at its fifty-third session (2001), in: the Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its Fifty-third session, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixth session, Supplement No. 10 (A/56/10), chp.V.E.2, pp.427-429.
① [法]亚历山大·基斯著,张若思编译:《国际环境法》,法律出版社 2000 年 7 月第 1 版,第 64~65、105~108页。
① 来小鹏等主编:《民法学》,陕西人民出版社 1998 年 6 月第 1 版,第 290 页。
② 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 193 页。
① 韩世远著:《违约损害赔偿研究》,法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 14 页。
② 陈慈阳著:《环境法总论》,台湾元照出版公司 2003 年 1 月第 2 版,第 226~238、426~427 页。
① 台湾《核子事故紧急应变法》(民国 92 年 12 月 9 日制定、修正,民国 92 年 12 月 24 日公布、施行)第二条第七、八款规定:“应变措施:指核子事故发生或有发生之虞时,为防止事故持续恶化及保护民众生命、身体及财产安全所进行之各项作为。”“复原措施:指核子事故经控制不再持续恶化,至受事故影响区域可恢复正常生活状况前,所需完成之暂时移居、地区进出管制、食物及饮水管制等相关防护措施。” 第十至十二款规定:“民众防护:指核子事故发生或有发生之虞时,为减少辐射曝露,保障民众生命、身体安全,所实行之掩蔽、服用碘片、疏散收容、食物及饮水管制、暂时移居、地区进出管制、污染清除、医疗救护等措施。”“掩蔽:指核子事故发生或有发生之虞时,民众停留于室内,并立即关闭门窗及通风系统,以降低吸入放射性核种及辐射曝露可能性之措施。”“碘片:指核子事故发生或有发生之虞时,适时服用一定剂量,可防止外释放射性碘积存于人体甲状腺部位,以避免或减少甲状腺癌发生之碘化钾药剂。”
② 台湾“民法”第一百九十六条 ( 修正):(修正前条文)不法毁损他人之物者,应向被害人赔偿其物因毁损所减少之价额。(立法理由 )物因毁损所减少之价额,有时难于估计,且被毁损者有回复原状之可能时,被害人有时较愿请求回复原状。为使被害人获得周密之保护,不宜剥夺被害人请求回复原状之权利。爰以修正,赋予被害人选择之自由,使被害人得请求赔偿其物因毁损所减少之价额,亦不排除其选择请求回复原状。第二百一十三条 (修正):(修正前条文 )负损害赔偿责任者,除法律另有规定或契约另有订定外,应回复他方损害发生前之原状。因回复原状而应给付金钱者,自损害发生时起,加给利息。(立法理由 )民法损害赔偿之方法,以回复原状为原则,金钱赔偿为例外。然回复原状,若必由债务人为之,对被害人有时可能缓不济急,或不能符合被害人之意愿。为期合乎实际需要,并使被害人获得更周密之保障,爰增设第三项,使被害人得请求支付回复原状所必要之费用,以代回复原状。参见台湾 “民法历年修正条文及理由”,http://www.6law.idv.tw/law2/民法歷年修正條文及理由.doc#a884021,2004 年 4 月 26 日浏览。
① 参见郑冲、贾红梅译:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 1999 年 5 月第 1 版,第 50 页。该书将德国民法第249 条译为“负损害赔偿义务的人,应回复损害发生前的原状。因人身或者损毁物件而应赔偿损害时,债权人可以要求以金钱赔偿代替回复原状。”另可参见陈卫佐译著:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 2004 年 5 月第 1 版,第 75 页。
② 王泽鉴著:“物之损害赔偿制度的突破与发展”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(6),中国政法大学出版社1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 26~27 页。
③ 王泽鉴著:“物之损害赔偿制度的突破与发展”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(6),中国政法大学出版社1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 22 页。
④ 曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版,第 1 页。
⑤ 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 572 页。
① 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 8 页。
② 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 572~573 页。
① [美]迈克尔·D·贝勒斯著,张文显等译:《法律的原则——一个规范的分析》,中国大百科全书出版社1996 年 1 月第 1 版,第 311、433 页。
② 郑冲、贾红梅译:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 1999 年 5 月第 1 版,第 51 页。此条为《德国民法典》253 条第 1 款,一译:“只有在法律规定的情况下,才能因财产损害以外的损害而请求金钱赔偿。”参见陈卫佐译注:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 2004 年 5 月第 1 版,第 76 页。
③ [德]Larenz 著,王泽鉴译:“德国法上损害赔偿制归责原则”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(5),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 263、277 页。另外,曾世雄教授分别对肯定和否定危险责任下非财产上之损害赔偿的理由(各有四方面的理由)进行了全面而深刻地分析和检讨,颇具学术参考价值。参见曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 376~382 页。
④ 王利明、杨立新著:《侵权行为法》,法律出版社 1997 年版,第 76 页。
① 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 204~206 页。
① 参见罗结珍译:《法国民法典》,中国法制出版社 1999 年 10 月北京第 1 版,第 514 页。例如,《法国民法典》规定:“任何人均不得提前抛弃时效;但可以抛弃已取得的时效。”(第 2220 条)“不得让与财产的人,不得抛弃已经取得的时效。”(第 2222 条)“法官不得依职权援用因时效所产生的方法。” (第 2223条)“对不属于商事交易之内的物,不得主张适用时效之规定。”(第 2226 条)“国家、公共机构以及市镇行政区,同于个人,受相同的时效规定的约束,并且可以主张时效。”(第 2227 条)这些规定多为现代各国民法的时效制度所采纳。
② 胡长清:《中国民法总论》,中国政法大学出版社 1997 年版,第 349~350 页。另外,除语言表述略有不同外,史尚宽所著《民法总论》、梅仲协所著《民法要义》等著作中均有相同论述。参见于敏:“侵权损害赔偿请求权的消灭时效”,载王利明主编:《民法典·侵权责任法研究》,人民法院出版社 2003 年 2 月第 1版,第 284~328 页。
③ 史尚宽:《民法总论》,中国政法大学出版社 2000 年版,第 625 页。
④ 郑冲、贾红梅译:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 1999 年 5 月第 1 版,第 202 页。
① 参见于敏:“侵权损害赔偿请求权的消灭时效”,载王利明主编:《民法典·侵权责任法研究》,人民法院出版社 2003 年 2 月第 1 版,第 287 页。
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 503 页。
③ 傅济熙编著:《核损害的民事责任与赔偿》,原子能出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 51、57 页。
④ 1997 年《核损害补充赔偿公约》(附件)第 9 条;1997 年《核损害民事责任维也纳公约》第 VI 条;2004年《巴黎公约》修正议定书对原第 8 条的修订;台湾 1997 年《核子损害赔偿法》第 28~30 条。另外,按照我国《民法通则》的规定,侵权行为法的最长时效是 20 年。如果受害人不能知道自己的权利受到损害的事实,则自权利被侵害之日起,受害人在 20 年内不提出诉讼请求的,法院不再予以保护。对于侵权行为法的最长时效,侵权特别法也有特殊的规定。例如,我国《产品质量法》第 33 条第 2 款规定:“因产品存在缺陷造成损害要求赔偿的请求权,在造成损害的缺陷产品交付用户、消费者满 10 年丧失;但是,尚未超过明示的安全使用期的除外。”按照这一规定,产品侵权责任的最长时效为 10 年,不适用 20 年的最长时效,并且最长时效期间届满,消灭的是请求权的实体权利,而不是胜诉权。杨立新教授建议,在民法典关于诉讼时效制度的规定上,明确规定诉讼时效的适用范围为债权请求权,自债权请求权人知道或者应当知道权利受到侵害之时起计算。参见杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 227 页。
① 郑冲、贾红梅译:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 1999 年 5 月第 1 版,第 38 页。德国民法典第 195 条规定:“普通消灭时效期间为三年。”《债法现代化法》自 2002 年 1 月 1 日起施行后,德国民法典上的普通消灭时效期间不再是三十年,而是三年。三年的普通消灭时效期间适用于大部分合同上的请求权,包括给付请求权和损害赔偿请求权,也是用于由法定债务关系产生的请求权,如侵权行为产生的请求权。参见陈卫佐译注:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 2004 年 5 月第 1 版,第 56 页注释[5]。
② 罗结珍译:《法国民法典》(下册),法律出版社 2005 年 3 月第 1 版,第 1603 页。
③ 曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版,第 401~402 页。
① 根据我国《民法通则》的规定,我国民事立法的诉讼时效制度,是采诉权消灭主义,即诉讼时效完成,权利人消灭的只是胜诉权,不消灭起诉权,更不消灭实体权利(但《产品质量法》例外,该法关于最长时效的规定,就不是消灭诉权,而是消灭请求权)。在侵权行为法中,侵权行为的诉讼时效与此相同,诉讼时效完成,侵权损害赔偿请求权人丧失的是胜诉权,即法院对起诉到法院的当事人的诉讼请求,不再予以支持,但是可以起诉;当事人不起诉,加害人自愿履行赔偿义务的,法律予以准许。关于诉讼时效的最终法律后果究竟是消灭胜诉权,还是合理抗辩的问题,法学界学者提出了若干不同意见。参见杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 223~224 页。
② 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 574~574 页。
① 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 30~31、39~55 页。以下是曾世雄教授就维生上不利益所作的阐述。维生上不利益:人类营社会生活需要各种生活资源。生活资源有具财产价值,不具财产价值。具财产价值之生活资源受到破坏,衍生财产上不利益或生理、心理上不利益。不具财产价值之生活资源受到破坏,衍生生理、心理上不利益。财产上不利益,概念单一,包括财产之积极减少及财产之消极不增加。非财产上不利益,概念多元,有痛苦、不适、不愉快、不方便等。
① 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 577~579 页。台湾学者曾世雄教授认为,侵权行为之场合,仅直接被害人有损害赔偿请求权,第三人有赔偿请求权而为赔偿请求权利人者,有被害人之法定扶养权利人、被害人指父母、配偶及子女、被害人死亡支付丧葬费之人。参见曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 30~31 页。
② Z.B.OVG Lüneburg, DBVI. 1975, 190; 1981, 664. 又在 VG Oldenburg, Urteil v. 10.11.1978 判决中,肯定距离 400 公里之原告适格,对有关原告放射线负担之可能性,要求专家之鉴定。转引自陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 266 页,注释 22。
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 262~266页。
② [美]迈克尔·D·贝勒斯著,张文显等译:《法律的原则——一个规范的分析》,中国大百科全书出版社1996 年 1 月第 1 版,第 258 页。
③ 关于人身伤害赔偿责任的法律规定在很早以前就获得了很大的发展。最重要的例子就是那些极为严重的导致受害人格完全丧失的事故。在这些事故中,受害人虽然还活着,但已无任何知觉和感觉能力且是无法恢复的。他遭受了非财产损失吗?这个问题得到了越来越多的肯定回答。重要的是把这样一种极为严重的人格侵害本身就看作是一种可赔偿性损害。比利时、德国、法国、意大利、西班牙、葡萄牙和奥地利等都是这样看待这个问题的,而在荷兰和瑞士则尚有争议。参见[德]克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,焦美华译,张新宝审校:《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(下卷),法律出版社 2001 年 12 月第 1 版,第 23~25 页。
① 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(上册),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版,第 530~531 页。台湾“民法”第二百一十六条第一项规定:“损害赔偿,除法律另有规定或契约另有订定外,应以填补债权人所受损害及所失利益为限。”依此规定,损害赔偿的范围可分为一般法定赔偿范围、特殊法定赔偿范围与约定赔偿范围三种。一般法定赔偿范围包括被害人所受损害及所失利益。被害人所受损害,学说上称为积极损害;被害人所失利益,学说上称为消极损害。特殊法定赔偿范围有过失相抵、损益相抵、赔偿义务人生计之酌减等;约定赔偿范围包括赔偿额之预定和事后约定赔偿额。参见曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年版 3 月第 1 版,第 413~417 页。
② Section 11 of (U.S.) The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, in: Supplement to NLB 42, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-42-SUP.pdf, viewed on 10 November 2004. 原 文 如 下 : The term “precautionary evacuation” means an evacuation of the public within a specified area near a nuclear facility, or the transportation route in the case of an accident involving transportation of source material, special nuclear material, byproduct material, high-level radioactive waste, spent nuclear fuel, or transuranic waste to or from a production or utilization facility, if the evacuation is: 1. The result of any event that is not classified as a nuclear incident but that poses imminent danger of bodily injury or property damage from the radiological properties of source material, special nuclear material, byproduct material, high-level radioactive waste. spent nuclear fuel, or transuranic waste, and causes an evacuation; and 2. Initiated by an official of a State or a political subdivision of a State, who is authorized by State law to initiate such an evacuation and who reasonably determined that such an evacuation was necessary to protect the public health and safety.
① Latent injuries - The term used in the Price-Anderson Act to refer to disease or illness, principally cancer, caused by exposure to radiation as a result of a nuclear incident but delayed in manifestation for some years or decades. See Appendix A (Glossary) of Report to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accidents, available at http://www.state.nv.us/nucwaste/news/rpccna/pcrcna11.htm, viewed on 3 February 2005.
② Phrase One: In the first phrase, claims are filed, removed and consolidated in a “central” federal court; Phrase Two: In the second phrase, the court groups claimants by subclass (using, perhaps, registry information), identifies common issues, and holds generic hearings. Its decisions create rebuttable or conclusive determinations; Phrase Three: In the final phrase, the parties receive individualized treatment on a multi-tier model. See Chapter Two ( Procedure for the Resolution of Price-Anderson Claims) of Report to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accident.
① See Chapter Three (Claim Priority) and Chapter Four (Standards and Procedures for Latent Illnesses) of Report to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accident; Report to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accidents (1990), in: NLB 46, pp.75-76.
② See Article VIII(1)-(2) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage: “1. Subject to the provisions of this Convention, the nature, form and extent of the compensation, as well as the equitable distribution thereof, shall be governed by the law of the competent court. 2. Subject to application of the rule of sub-paragraph (c) of paragraph 1 of Article VI, where in respect of claims brought against the operator the damage to be compensated under this Convention exceeds, or is likely to exceed, the maximum amount made available pursuant to paragraph 1 of Article V, priority in the distribution of the compensation shall be given to claims in respect of loss of life or personal injury.”
① [法]亚历山大·基斯著,张若思编译:《国际环境法》,法律出版社 2000 年 7 月第 1 版,第 71~83 页。
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 476~478、503~505 页。
③ 有关核责任领域的若干双边或多边协定,可参见 OECD/NEA 出版的各期 Nuclear Law Bulletin。Issues 1968-2000 are available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-1968-2000.html, issues 2001-2004 are available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/index.html.
① 有关人身损害和财产损害的赔偿,可参见杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1月第 2 版,第五编“损害赔偿”,第 604~732 页。该书的论述非常全面和缜密,颇具理论和实践意义。另可参见曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版;曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版;王泽鉴著:“侵害生命权之损害赔偿”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(4),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 293~316 页。
② 可参阅以下相关文章:夏光、赵毅红:“中国环境污染损失的经济计量与研究”,载《管理世界》1995年第 6 期,,第 198~205 页;郑易生等:“90 年代中期中国环境污染经济损失估算”,,载《管理世界》1999年第 2 期,,第 189~197 页。
③ 严格地说,“环境侵害”应该有广狭两义。广义的环境侵害是指只要是对环境有害的行为就构成侵权行为,这是一种侵犯“环境之权”的行为。狭义的环境侵害是指因为对环境的侵害进而造成了人身或财产损害后果的侵权行为,这是一种侵犯“人之权利”的行为。一般采用的是狭义的环境侵害的概念。因为,人类的生存与发展都必然会对环境造成一定的不利影响,如果只要对环境有不利影响,法律就规定为侵权行为,将对人类发展造成影响,不符合可持续发展的价值目标。参见吕忠梅著:《环境法学》,法律出版社 2004年 9 月第 1 版,第 167 页注释[2]。
① 吕忠梅著:《环境法学》,法律出版社 2004 年 9 月第 1 版,第 167~168 页。
② [德]克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,焦美华译,张新宝审校:《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(下卷),法律出版社2001 年 12 月第 1 版,第 506~507 页。
① 韩健、陈立虎著:《国际环境法》,武汉大学出版社 1992 年 7 月第 1 版,第 291 页。
② 参见 http://www.kepu.com.cn/gb/technology/nuclear/scrap/200207310076.html,2004 年 4 月 6 日浏览。
③ [苏] В·Я·沃兹尼亚克等著,伍仁毅、杜凡等译:《切尔诺贝利核事故与教训》,中国劳动出版社 1991年 5 月北京第 1 版,第 112~113、129 页。
① 刘国华等:“森林在净化放射性核污染中的作用”,载《世界林业研究》2002 年 8 月第 4 期,第 34~37页。
② 肖剑鸣著:《比较环境法》,中国检察出版社 2001 年 12 月第 1 版,第 358 页。《瑞典环境损害赔偿法》的中译文可参见 http://www.riel.whu.edu.cn/ruleshow.asp?ID=1275, 2005 年 2 月 16 日浏览。
① 罗结珍译:《法国民法典》,法律出版社 2005 年 3 月第 1 版,第 1073、1096、1081~1086 页。
① [德]克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,焦美华译:《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(下卷),法律出版社 2001 年 12 月第 1 版,第 512 页、第 512 页注释 658。
② 准据法(applicable law, lex causae)是国际私法中的一个特有概念,它是指经冲突规范指引用来确定国际民事关系的当事人的权利义务关系的具体实体法规范。参见韩德培主编:《国际私法》,高等教育出版社和北京大学出版社 2000 年 8 月第 1 版,第 105 页。
③ [法]亚历山大·基斯著,张若思编译:《国际环境法》,法律出版社 2000 年 7 月第 1 版,第 363~367、 376~379 页。
① 陈慈阳著:《环境法总论》,台湾元照出版公司 2003 年 1 月第二版,第 423 页。
② Bundesgerichtshof, 13 May 1975 (1975) 28 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 2061-3. Also see Peter Wetterstein, Harm to the Environment: The Right to Compensation and the Assessment of Damages, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1997, pp.139-140.
① 高家伟著:《欧洲环境法》,工商出版社 2000 年 11 月第 1 版,第 150 页。
② 1978 年 3 月,超级油轮“阿莫科·卡迪兹”号在离法国布列塔尼海岸不远处触礁,从而酿成了世界上最严重的石油污染事件之一。该致害油轮的登记船东是利比里亚的阿莫科运输公司,其真实的所有人是阿莫科运输公司的母公司——总部设在美国伊利诺州的 STANDARD 跨国石油公司。该油轮泄漏造成污染损害事故后,考虑到其实际造成的损失额远远超出《1969 年国际油污损害民事责任公约》(CLC1969)中规 定的责任限额,包括法国国家和地方政府、自然保护者协会、专业团体等在内的赔偿请求人为寻求更切合实际的保护,回避适用 CLC1969,向该船舶真实所有人 STANDARD 跨国石油公司的住所地法院——美国法院提起诉讼,因为美国不是 CLC1969 的成员国,其国内的《1990 年油污法》规定的赔偿范围比 CLC1969更为具体而且范围广,责任限额也更高。
① [法]亚历山大·基斯著,张若思编译:《国际环境法》,法律出版社 2000 年 7 月第 1 版,第 365~367 页。
① 参见“《中国国民经济核算体系(2002)》:附属表”,中国统计信息网 2003-05-26 14:25:52,或 http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjdt/gmjjhs/t20030527_80216.htm, 2004 年 4 月 2 日浏览。
② 参见“森林资源核算将纳入绿色 GDP”,载《科技日报》2004 年 4 月 13 日第 11 版。另可参见高敏雪、谷弘:“对环境经济核算的总体认识”,载《统计研究》1998 年第 3 期,第 22~25 页。
③ 潘岳:“谈谈绿色 GDP”,载《科技日报》2004 年 4 月 9 日第 6 版。
① [苏] В·Я·沃兹尼亚克等著,伍仁毅、杜凡等译:《切尔诺贝利核事故与教训》,中国劳动出版社 1991年 5 月北京第 1 版,第 107、177 页。
② 董应璧:“切尔诺贝利仍在哭泣——纪念切尔诺贝利核事故 18 周年”,载《科技日报》2004 年 4 月 26日第 2 版。
③ 傅济熙编著:《核损害的民事责任与赔偿》,原子能出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 111 页。
① 傅济熙编著:《核损害的民事责任与赔偿》原子能出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 112 页。
② 参见 http://www.kepu.com.cn/gb/technology/nuclear/scrap/200207310077.html,2004 年 4 月 4 日浏览。
③ The Price-Anderson Act: Background Report (March 2001, Revised November 2002, November 2004), available at http://www.ans.org/pi/ps/docs/ps54-bi.pdf, viewed on September 16, 2003 and 30 January 2005.
① See Tokai-Mura Accident, Japan: Third Party Liability and Compensation Aspects, prepared by the Secretariat of the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency in collaboration with the Japanese authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb-/Nlb-66/013-022.pdf, viewed on 7 April 2004. 此例内容丰富翔实,对核损害赔偿颇具参考和示范意义。所谓临界事故,又称临界效应或临界状态,是指一定以上的量的核分裂物质或原料(如铀或钸)集中后,会发生激烈的、自然的核子分裂,此时需限制核分裂物质的集中量,此即“临界安全管理”,否则过度集中的分裂物质会因发热而熔解及至爆炸,酿成临界事故。
② 两名工人分别死于 1999 年 12 月 21 日和 2000 年 4 月 27 日。
① 1961 Basic Law for Countermeasures against Disaster, which deals principally with natural disasters, was not deemed appropriate for the countermeasures necessary for this criticality accident: pursuant to the 1961 Law, local governments are directly responsible for the disaster prevention system of nuclear facilities, upon the advice of the government. In order to strengthen the emergency response regime, a Special Law on Emergency Preparedness for Nuclear Disaster was enacted in December 1999 in order to clarify the responsibilities of the government, local authorities and operators in nuclear emergencies. See Footnote 2 of Tokai-Mura Accident, Japan: Third Party Liability and Compensation Aspects, prepared by the Secretariat of the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency in collaboration with the Japanese authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb-/Nlb-66/013-022.pdf, viewed on 7 April 2004.
② This Committee issued its “Urgent Recommendations – Interim Report” on 5 November 1999. This Interim Report described the social and economic effects of the accident as follows:“With evacuation of approximately 50 households within 350 metres and the recommendation to remain indoors for approximately 300 000 people living within a 10 km radius, transportation facilities were cancelled and schools and other public facilities were temporarily closed as were private companies. The effects of the accident were very large both socially and economically. Residents living near the site were not only inconvenienced due to the evacuation and the recommendation to stay indoors, but they also were subjected to the mental and physical effects caused by rumours. At the same time, sufficient measures including psychological counselling are necessary. Following the accident, there are many adverse effects due to rumours from misunderstanding”.The final report was issued by the Investigation Committee on 24 December 1999.
① It is difficult to estimate how much compensation JCO could provide. JCO’s assets were estimated to be approximately JPY 4 billion, but in general, companies cannot mobilise the full amount of the estimated value of their assets. See Footnote 9 of Tokai-Mura Accident, Japan: Third Party Liability and Compensation Aspects, prepared by the Secretariat of the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency in collaboration with the Japanese authorities.
① 参见傅济熙编著:《核损害的民事责任与赔偿》,原子能出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 117~118 页。2003年 3 月 3 日日本茨城县水户地方法院对于 1999 年 9 月在茨城县东海村 JCO 东晦事务所发生的临界事故中,以业务过失致死罪被起诉的原事业所所长越岛建三(56 岁)等 6 名成员及该公司作出了判决。该公司被罚款100 万日元;越岛被判 3 年监禁,缓期 5 年执行,并罚款 50 万日元;宣布另外 5 名被告受缓期执行的有罪判决。 判决指出,JCO 是一场极其重大的事故,它给社会造成了很大影响,致使国民对原子能安全性的信赖感产生了动摇。参见《国外核新闻》2003 年第 6 期。
① 2005 年 11 月 20 日至 22 日,由全国人民代表大会环境与资源保护委员会主办、联合国环境规划署协办的“环境立法与可持续发展国际论坛”在北京友谊宾馆举行,论坛的主题为“环境立法与中国可持续发展战略”。本书作者有幸应邀参会,并提交题为“中国核损害责任制度的构建”的论文,收入“环境立法与可持续发展国际论坛论文汇编”。同时,作者还有幸于 22 日上午在专场 12(“资源与能源立法问题”)做了题为“中国核损害责任制度的构建”的主题报告。在此特向全国人大环资委和 “环境立法与可持续发展国际论坛”组委会的邀请和宁波大学法学院的支持表示感谢。
② 耿云卿著:《侵权行为之研究》,台湾商务印书馆股份有限公司,中华民国七十年第三版,第 154~175页;陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 431~488页。
③ 台湾国立清华大学目前仍设有“原子科学院原子科学系”、“原子科学技术发展中心”。民国 44 年,美国和台湾订立原子和平用途协议,台湾当局决定设立原子科学研究机构,发展原子科学研究,乃电召梅贻琦校长赴台筹议。组设清华大学研究院筹备委员会,勘定校址于新竹,筹划复校,创办原子科学研究所。民国 45 年 1 月,在台北成立筹备处,聘陈可忠为主任,正式展开筹备工作。同年 7 月,原子科学研究所成立,招考第一研究生。民国 50 年,具有一千功率的水池式核子反应器(原子炉)一座,完成初步临界运转,开始作业。一方面适应教学研究需要,一方面配合台湾的政策,展开原子能和平用途的推广工作,这成为台湾进入原子能时代的里程碑。民国 59 年,原子科学研究所核工组改设为原子核工程研究所。民国 70 年,增设动力机械工程、材料科学工程、原子核工程研究所博士班。核子工程学系自七十年度开始招生。具体可查询 http://www.nthu.edu.tw/intro/intro.htm, 2005 年 10 月 2 日浏览。
④ 台湾《原子能法》(民国 60 年 12 月 14 日修正)第 1 条。
① 台湾《原子能法》(中华民国六十年十二月二十四日公布施行)第一条。
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 483 页。
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 476~478页。
② 台湾于 1987 年开始建造核电站,目前拥有核一、核二、核三共三座核电站,核四即龙门核电站正在建造之中。
③ 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 472~488、503~505 页。
① 但是,台湾现行《核子损害赔偿法施行细则》并未规定单一管辖法院的问题。参见《核子损害赔偿法施行细则》,中华民国八十七年三月二十五日行政院原子能委员会 会综字第五三七○号令发布。
① See Chapter Three (Claim Priority) of Report to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accident.
① 《核材料实物保护公约》(Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material,Vienna and New York,1980)是一项以保护用于和平目的的核材料的国际运输为主要目的的公约,1980 年 3 月 3 日在维也纳和纽约同时开放签署,1987 年 2 月 8 日生效。1988 年 12 月 2 日,中华人民共和国政府向国际原子能机构总干事交存加入书,同时声明不受公约第 17 条第 2 款规定的两种争端解决程序的约束。该公约于 1989 年 1 月2 日对我国生效。
② 《核事故及早通报公约》(Convention on Early Notification of Nuclear Accident,Vienna,1986)的目的是建立一个核事故及早通报制度,以便最大限度地减少核事故造成的跨界影响。1986 年 9 月 26 日签订于维也纳,1986 年 10 月 27 日正式生效。1986 年 9 月 26 日,中华人民共和国政府代表作了有待核准的签署,1987 年 9 月 10 日向国际原子能机构交存《公约》批准书,同时声明:一、不受公约第 11 条第 2 款规定的两种争端解决程序的约束;二、在公约对我国生效前,我国接受公约第 13 条临时适用条款。该公约于 1987年 10 月 11 日对我国生效。
③ 《核事故或辐射紧急情况援助公约》(Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency,Vienna,1986)的宗旨是建立一个便利在发生核事故时迅速提供援助以减轻事故后果的国际框架。1986 年 9 月 26 日签订于维也纳,1986 年 10 月 27 日正式生效。1986 年 9 月 26 日,中华人民共和国政府代表作了有待核准的签署,同时声明:一、不受公约第 13 条第 2 款规定的两种争端解决程序的约束;二、在由于个人重大过失而造成死亡、受伤、损失或毁坏的情况下,我国不适用该公约第10 条第 2 款。该公约于 1987 年 10 月 14 日对我国生效。
④ 《核安全公约》(Convention on Nuclear Safety,Vienna,1994)的目的是加强本国措施和国际合作,在世界范围内实现和维持高水平的核安全。1994 年 6 月 17 日通过于维也纳,1996 年 10 月 24 日正式生效。1996 年 4 月 9 日,中国代表向国际原子能机构总干事提交国家批准书。该公约于 1996 年 10 月 24 日对我国生效。
① 参见核电发展战略研究(续编)编委会编写:《核电发展战略研究(续编)》,(北京)中国言实出版社2001 年 1 月第一版,分报告“核损害民事责任”,第 199~222 页。
② 原子能法是调整原子能科学研究和开发利用及其规制,以维护社会公共利益,保证原子能安全、合理、有效利用和保护环境的法律规范的总称。原子能法调整的原子能关系分为两类:第一类,原子能科学研究主体和开发利用主体权利能力取得、变更和终止而发生的原子能支配关系;第二类,原子能科学研究主体和开发利用主体与政府之间因政府对原子能科学研究和开发利用的规制而发生的原子能事业关系。因此,核工业不是纯市场和商业性的物质活动,而是受到政府严格规制的市场和商业性的活动。参见肖乾刚、肖国兴编著:《能源法》,法律出版社 1996 年 6 月第 1 版,第 192~193 页。我国目前涉及放射性管理的法律法规主要有:《中华人民共和国放射性污染防治法》(2003 年 6 月 28 日第十届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第三次会议通过,自 2003 年 10 月 1 日起施行)、《中华人民共和国民用核设施安全监督管理条例》(1986年 10 月 29 日国务院发布)、《中华人民共和国核材料管理条例》(1987 年 6 月 15 日国务院发布)、《核电厂核事故应急管理条例》(1993 年 8 月 4 日国务院令第 124 号发布)、《核电厂核事故应急管理条例实施细则之一——核电厂营运单位的应急准备和应急响应》(1998 年 5 月 12 日国家核安全局批准发布)、《放射性同位素与射线装置放射防护条例》(1989 年 10 月 24 日国务院令第四十四号发布)、《放射事故管理规定》(2001年 8 月 26 日卫生部、公安部发布)、《核电厂核事故应急报告制度》(2001 年 12 月 11 日国防科学技术工业委员会发布)、《核事故辐射影响越境应急管理规定》(2002 年 2 月 4 日国防科学技术工业委员会发布)、《核电厂核事故应急演习管理规定》(2003 年 2 月 28 日国防科学技术工业委员会发布)、《核事故医学应急管理规定》(1994 年 10 月 8 日卫生部发布)、《核电厂设计安全规定》(1991 年 7 月 27 日国家核安全局发布)、《核电厂运行安全规定》(1991 年 7 月 27 日国家核安全局发布)、《核电厂质量保证安全规定》(1991 年 7月 27 日国家核安全局发布)、《中华人民共和国国家标准电离辐射防护与辐射源安全基本标准》(GB18871-2002 2002 年 10 月 8 日发布)等。
① 耿志成:“关于建立原子能法体系的初步探讨”,载《中国能源》1991 年第 5 期, 第 22 页。在该文中,作者提出的原子能法律体系如下:法律,《中华人民共和国原子能法》;行政法规,《放射性矿产资源勘察开采条例》、《放射性矿产资源勘察开采登记条例》、《核电站投资管理条例》、《促进核电设备技术国产化条例》、《核设施管理条例》、《核材料运输管理条例》、《核材料管理条例》、《放射性同位素及其制品和辐射装置管理条例》、《民用核设施安全监督管理条例》、《核事故应急条例》、《核承压设备管理条例》、《核电站保护条例》、《核损害赔偿条例》。
② 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号, 第 369~370 页。
③ 1984 年有关部门就开始起草《原子能法》,并曾于 1989 年将《原子能法》(草案)报请国务院审议。根据中共中央批准的第八届全国人大常委会立法规划,《原子能法》已列入第八届全国人大常委会计划审议的第一类立法项目。但由于种种原因,《原子能法》至今仍未能颁布。参见李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号, 第 371 页。
④ 《中华人民共和国国家赔偿法》于 1994 年 5 月 12 日第八届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第七次会议通过,自 1995 年 1 月 1 日起施行。有人望文生义,认为《国家赔偿法》就是国家关于赔偿的法律,是关于赔偿责任的(包括侵权损害赔偿和违约损害赔偿等所有的赔偿)最高法律。这种认识是错误的。
① 例如,王家福著:《民法债权》,法律出版社 1991 年版,第 514 页;陈泉生著:《环境法原理》,法律出版社 1997 年版,第 224 页;金瑞林主编:《环境法学》,北京大学出版社 2002 年 4 月重排本,第 147 页。
② 吕忠梅著:《环境法学》,法律出版社 2004 年 9 月第 1 版,第 176~181 页。
③ 参见秦志军、郭伟:“建立核损害赔偿机制 促进核电发展”,载《中国电力企业管理》2004 年第 11 期。
① 张文显教授认为,应该用“法的形式”指代“法的渊源”。法的形式指法的具体的外部表现形态,主要是法由何种国家机关制定或认可,具有何种表现形式或效力等级。法的形式问题具有重要意义:第一,法的形式是区分法律规范同其他社会规范的一个重要标志;第二,不同法的形式由不同国家机关或主体产生, 立法者不能产生不属于自己权限范围的法的形式;第三,不同法的形式可表现法的不同效力等级;第四,不同法的形式适合于调整不同社会关系。参见张文显主编:《法理学》,高等教育出版社/北京大学出版社1999 年 10 月第 1 版,第 58~60 页。另可参见姜明安主编:《行政法与行政诉讼法》,高等教育出版社/北京大学出版社 1999 年 10 月第 1 版,第 33~34 页。
① 《中华人民共和国产品质量法》于 1993 年 2 月 22 日第七届全国人大常委会第三十次会议通过,根据2000 年 7 月 8 日第九届全国人大常委会第六次会议《关于修改<中华人民共和国产品质量法>的决定》修正。
① 秦志军、郭伟:“建立核损害赔偿机制 促进核电发展”,载《中国电力企业管理》2004 年第 11 期,第58 页;吴齐:“中国核电工业迎来黄金发展时期目前有 6 座核电站”(新华网 2004 年 10 月 8 日),http://www.chinagateway.com.cn/chinese/gongye/32185.htm ,2005 年 8 月 9 日浏览。
② 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 370 页。
③ 注意原则:人们应该尽其注意,该注意为,与他们的年龄、经验及生理特征一致的合理谨慎之人在相同条件下所尽之注意。可预见性原则:注意之义务应展延至且仅可展延至由于可预见的原因类型而对可预见的人产生的损害。参见[美]迈克尔·D·贝勒斯著,张文显等译:《法律的原则——一个规范的分析》,中国大百科全书出版社 1996 年 1 月第 1 版,第 269、274 页。
① 张文显主编:《法理学》,高等教育出版社、北京大学出版社 1999 年 10 月第 1 版,第 271 页。
② 陈俊:“我国核法律制度研究基本问题初探”,载《中国法学》1998 年第 6 期,第 59 页;李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 370~371 页。
① 在汉语中,“保护和保障”是同义语,都是指尽力照顾或保护生命、财产、权利等,使之不受侵犯和破坏或损害。通常讲权利保障,有两个层面的含义:一是指权利实现时的无阻却性保障;二是指权利实现出现障碍时的司法救济性保障。权利保障可分为广狭两义:狭义的权利保障是指权利未受侵犯或破坏之前就存有的各项措施或制度的保障;广义的权利保障除上述含义外,还包括权利受侵犯或破坏之后而存在的权力救济。参见吕忠梅著:《环境法学》,法律出版社 2004 年 9 月第 1 版,第 112~113 页;范进学:“论权利的制度保障”,载《法学杂志》1996 年第 6 期;杨春福:《权利法哲学研究导论》,南京大学出版社 2000 年版,第 148 页。
② 参见《世界人权宣言》和国际人权两个公约,即《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》和《经济、社会和文化权利国际公约》。它们共同构成了“国际人权宪章”,并且是联合国人权规划的支柱。联合国大会于 1966年 12 月 20 日通过的《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》和《经济、社会和文化权利国际公约》是当代得到普遍接受的最低人权标准的最权威的表达。目前国际社会中已有三分之二的国家成为这两个公约的缔约国。
③ code civil, Librairie Dalloz, Paris, 1999. 罗结珍译:《法国民法典》,中国法制出版社 1999 年 10 月北京第1 版,第 4 页。
④ See Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, done at Aarhus, Denmark, on 25 June 1998.
⑤ See Principle 1 of Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, adopted by the U.N. Conference on the Human Environment at Stockholm, 16 June 1972. Report of the UN Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 5-16 June 1972, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.48/14/Rev. 1 at 3 (1973), U.N. Doc. A/CONF. 48/14 at 2-65, and Corr. 1 (1972), 11 I.L.M. 1416 (1972). 原文如下:“Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations. …”
① 吕忠梅著:《环境法学》,法律出版社 2004 年 9 月第 1 版,第 85~133 页。有关“环境权”的探讨,还可参见周训芳著:《环境权论》,法律出版社 2003 年 12 月第 1 版;蔡守秋:“论环境权”,载《金陵法律评论》2002 年春季卷;吕忠梅:“论公民环境权”,载《法学研究》1995 年第 6 期;吕忠梅:“再论公民环境权”,载《法学研究》2000 年第 6 期,等等。另可参见杨成铭主编:《人权法学》,中国方正出版社 2004 年1 月北京第 1 版。
② [日]富井利安等:《环境法的新展开》,法律文化社 1995 年版,第 101~103 页。转引自吕忠梅著:《环境法学》,法律出版社 2004 年 9 月第 1 版,第 90 页。
① 中国共产党第十六届中央委员会第四次全体会议于 2004 年 9 月 16 日至 19 日在北京召开,2004 年 9 月19 日通过《中共中央关于加强党的执政能力建设的决定》。
② 傅治平著:《和谐社会导论》,人民出版社 2005 年 3 月第 1 版,第 2~3、26~27、110 页。
③ 《国际原子能机构规约》于 1956 年 10 月 26 日订于联合国总部,1957 年 7 月 29 日生效,曾经两次修订。1984 年 1 月 1 日我国政府向美国政府交存接受书,同日对我国生效。
① 中国民法典立法研究课题组(负责人:梁慧星):《中国民法典草案建议稿》,法律出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 321 页。
② 徐国栋主编:《绿色民法典(草案)》,社会科学文献出版社 2004 年 5 月第 1 版,第 719~720 页。2004年 5 月 13 日,适逢徐国栋教授应邀到宁波大学法学院讲学,本书作者有幸当面向他请教,他就其书中有关核责任的几个条款的起草经过做了解释和说明。在此谨向徐国栋教授再次表示感谢。
① 《中华人民共和国民法(草案)》(2002 年 12 月 22 日九届全国人大常委会第三十一次会议讨论稿)“第八编 侵权责任法”;中国人民大学民商事法律科学研究中心:《<中国民法典·侵权行为法编>草案建议稿》(课题负责人:王利明),均载于王利明主编:《民法典·侵权责任法研究》,人民法院出版社 2003 年 2 月第 1 版,第 2~57 页。
② 王利明主编:《中国民法典草案建议稿及说明》,中国法制出版社 2004 年 11 月第 1 版,第 248~249 页。
③ See (Germany) Act on the Peaceful Utilisation of Atomic Energy and the Protection Against its Hazards (Atomic Energy Act), in: Supplement to NLB 70, pp.5-69.
④ See (Russian Federation) Federal Law on the Use of Atomic Energy (Adopted by the State Duma on 20 October 1995), in: Supplement to NLB 57 (June 1996), pp.3-39.
① See (Ukraine) Law on the Use of Nuclear Energy and Radiation Safety, in: Supplement to NLB 56.
② See (Ukraine) Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security (adopted on 13 December 2001), in: NLB 69.
③ See (United Kingdom) Nuclear Installations Act 1965, as Amended, in: Supplement to NLB 33, pp.42-68.
④ See (Japan) The Law of 17th June 1961 on Compensation for Nuclear Damage, as Last Amended on 31st March 1989, in: Supplement to NLB 45, pp.3-12; (Republic of Korea) Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage, as Last Amended on 16 January 2001, in: NLB 68, pp.3-10.
⑤ See (France) Act No. 68-943 of 30th October 1968 on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, as Amended by Act No. 90-488 of 16th June 1990, in: Supplement to NLB 46, pp.3-9.
⑥ See (Sweden) Nuclear Liability Act of 8th March 1968, as Amended by an Act of 10th May 1974 and by an Act of 22nd December 1982, in: Supplement to NLB 33, pp.22-41; (Canada) Nuclear Liability Act, available at http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/N-28/86947.html, viewed on 10 June 2003.
⑦ See (Romania) Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (adopted on 3 December 2001), available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 11 July 2003.
⑧ This Convention shall not apply to nuclear installations used for non-peaceful purposes. See Article IB of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage.
① The purpose of this Act is: 1. to phrase out the use of nuclear energy for the commercial generation of electricity in a structured manner, and to ensure on-going operation up until the date of discontinuation; 2. to protect life, health and property against the hazards of nuclear energy and the detrimental effects of ionizing radiation and to provide compensation for damage and injuries caused by nuclear energy or ionizing radiation; 3. to prevent danger to the internal or external security of the Federal Republic of Germany from the application or release of nuclear energy; 4.to enable the Federal Republic of Germany to meet its international obligations in the field of nuclear energy and radiation protection. See (Germany) Act on the Peaceful Utilisation of Atomic Energy and the Protection Against its Hazards (Atomic Energy Act), in: Supplement to NLB 70, pp.5-6. Unofficial translation kindly provided by the German Authorities.
② The present Federal Law defines the legal basis and the principles of the regulation of relations arising in the use of atomic energy, is aimed at safeguarding human health and life and protecting the environment, protecting property in the use of atomic energy and technology, is called upon to promote the development of nuclear science and technology, and to contribute to the strengthening of international procedures for the safe use of atomic energy. The main principles of legal regulation in the sphere of the use of atomic energy are: … compensation for damage caused by radiation; provision of social and economic compensation for the adverse health effects of radiation and the additional risk factors for workers in plants using atomic energy; and the guaranteeing of social protection for those who live and /or work in areas where such plants are situated. See Articles 1-2 of (Russian Federation) Federal Law on the Use of Atomic Energy (Adopted by the State Duma on 20 October 1995), in: Supplement to NLB 57 (June 1996), pp.3-4. Unofficial translation prepared by the NEA Secretariat.
③ It is the purpose of this Law to protect persons suffering from nuclear damage and also to contribute to the sound development of nuclear industry by establishing the basic system regarding compensation in case of the occurrence of nuclear damage through reactor operation, etc. See Section 1 of (Japan) The Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage, in: Supplement to NLB 45, p.3. Unofficial translation by the NEA Secretariat.
④ The provisions of this Act shall apply to any individuals or bodies corporate, public or private, operating a civil or military installation to which the Paris Convention applies, … See Section 2 of (France) Act No. 68-943 of 30th October 1968 on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, as Amended by Act No. 90-488 of 16th June 1990, in: Supplement to NLB 46, p.3. Unofficial translation by the NEA Secretariat.
⑤ The purpose of this Act is to protect victims and to contribute to the sound development of nuclear industry by establishing matters relating to compensation in the event of nuclear damage arising during the operation of a nuclear reactor. See Article 1 of (Republic of Korea) Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage, as Last Amended on 16 January 2001, in: NLB 68, p.3. Unofficial translation kindly provided by the Korean Authorities.
① This Law governs relations in respect of civil liability for nuclear damage, establishes the rules and procedures for compensation for damage caused by a nuclear incident, defines the methods of ensuring financial security of civil liability and establishes its limits. See (Ukraine) Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security (adopted on 13 December 2001), in: NLB 69.
② The objective of this Law is to regulate civil liability for the compensation of damage resulting from activities involving the utilisation of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. See Article 1 of (Romania) Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (adopted on 3 December 2001), unofficial translation kindly provided by the Romanian Authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 11 July 2003.
① 按照我国《民法通则》的规定,侵权行为法的最长时效是 20 年。如果受害人不能知道自己的权利受到损害的事实,则自权利被侵害之日起,受害人在 20 年内不提出诉讼请求的,法院不再予以保护。对于侵权行为法的最长时效,侵权特别法也有特殊的规定。例如,我国《产品质量法》第 33 条第 2 款规定:“因产品存在缺陷造成损害要求赔偿的请求权,在造成损害的缺陷产品交付用户、消费者满 10 年丧失;但是,尚未超过明示的安全使用期的除外。”按照这一规定,产品侵权责任的最长时效为 10 年,不适用 20 年的最长时效,并且最长时效期间届满,消灭的是请求权的实体权利,而不是胜诉权。杨立新教授建议,在民法典关于诉讼时效制度的规定上,明确规定诉讼时效的适用范围为债权请求权,自债权请求权人知道或者应当知道权利受到侵害之时起计算。参见杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 227 页。
1.Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage, 23 July 1998.
2.Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, 21 May 1963.
3.Protocol to Amend the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, 23 July 1998.
4.1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, 12 September 1997.
5.Protocols to amend the Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy and the Brussels Convention Supplementary to the Paris Convention.
6.Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 29 December 1972.
7.Code of Practice on the International Transboundary Movement of Radioactive Waste, 21 September 1990.
8.Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention, 21 September 1988.
9.Nordic Mutual Emergency Assistance Agreement in Connection with Radiation Accidents, 17 October 1963.
10.Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management.
11.Optional Protocol Concerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes to Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, 14 October 1999.
12.Convention on the Establishment of a Security Control in the Field of Nuclear Energy, 20 December 1957.
13.Treaty on Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, 15 August 1963.
14.Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, 22 March 1989.
15.Convention on Nuclear Safety, 17 July 1994.
16.The Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, 3 March 1980.
17.Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident, 26 September 1986.
18.Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency, 26 September 1986.
19.Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982.
20.Convention of 31st January 1963 Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982.
21.Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships, 25 May 1962.
22.Convention Relating to Civil Liability in the Field of Maritime Carriage of Nuclear Material, 17 December 1971.
23 . Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, 25 June 1998.
24.Protocol to Amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (12 February 2004).
25.Protocol to Amend the Convention of 31st January 1963 Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (12 February 2004).
1.《注册核安全工程师岗位培训丛书》编委会编著:《核安全相关法律法规》,中国环境科学出版社 2004 年 10 月第 1 版。
2.台湾《原子能法》,中华民国六十年十二月二十四日公布实施。
3.台湾《原子能法施行细则》,行政院原子能委员会中华民国九十一年十一月二十二日公布。
4.台湾《核子损害赔偿法》,中华民国八十六年五月十四日修正公布。
5.台湾《核子损害赔偿法施行细则》,中华民国八十七年三月二十五日行政院原子能委员会,会综字第五三七○号令发布。
6.台湾《核子反应器设施管制法》,中华民国九十二年元月十五日华总一义字第○九二○○○○五四八○号令公布。
7.台湾《放射性物料管理法》,中华民国九十一年十二月二十五日华总一义字第○九一○○二四八七六○号令公布。
8.台湾《放射性物料管理法施行细则》,中华民国九十二年七月三十日会物字第○九二○○一八九三五○号函发文实施。
9.台湾《核子事故紧急应变法》,中华民国九十二年十二月二十四日华总一义字第○九二○○二四○九八一号令公布。
10.United Kingdom - 1965 Nuclear Installations Act (NLB 1); 1965 Nuclear Installations Act, as amended in 1983 (NLB 33).
11.Sweden - 1968 Nuclear Liability Act (NLB 2); 1968 Nuclear Liability Act; as amended in 1982, (NLB 33).
12.Germany - 1959 Act on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy and Protection against its Hazards (Atomic Energy Act) (Supplement to NLB 4), as amended in 1975 (Supplement to NLB 15), 1976 (Supplement to NLB 18), 1985 (Supplement to NLB 36) and 2002 (Supplement to NLB 70).
13.Germany - 1976 Nuclear Financial Security Ordinance (Supplement to NLB 18).
14.Germany - 1977 Ordinance concerning the Procedure for Licensing Nuclear Installations (Supplement to NLB 19), as amended in 1982 (Supplement to NLB 30).
15.Germany - 1977 Ordinance concerning the Procedure for Licensing Nuclear Installations (Supplement to NLB 19), as amended in 1982 (Supplement to NLB 30).
16.Canada - 1970 Act on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (Supplement to NLB 6).
17.Japan - 1961 Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage, as amended in 1971 (Supplement to NLB 9) and 1989 (Supplement to NLB 45) and its 1962 Enforcing Ordinance, as amended in 1989 (Supplement to NLB 45).
18.Japan - 1961 Law on Indemnity Agreement for Compensation on Nuclear Damage, as amended 1971(Supplement to NLB 11).
19.Japan-1961 Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage, as amended in 1988 (Supplement to NLB 9) and 1989 and its 1962 Enforcing Ordinance, as amended in 1989 (Supplement to NLB 45).
20.Japan - 1997 Law on Indemnity for Compensation of Nuclear Damage (as amended 1998) (Supplement to NLB 45).
21.France - 1963 Decree concerning Nuclear Installations, as amended in 1973 (Supplement to NLB 12).
22.France - 1968 Act on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy (NLB 2), as amended in 1990 (Supplement to NLB 46).
23.Canada - 1974 Atomic Energy Regulations (Supplement to NLB 14).
24.United States-1954 Price-Anderson Act (Supplement to NLB 17); USA - 1954 Price-Anderson Act as amended in 1988 (Supplement to NLB 42).
25.Ukraine - 1995 Law on the Use of Nuclear Energy and Radiation Protection (Supplement to NLB 56).
26 . Russian Federation - 1995 Federal Law on the Use of Atomic Energy (Supplement to NLB 57).
27.Ukraine-Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security (2001) (Supplement to NLB 69).
28 . Republic of Korea-Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage (2001) (Supplement to NLB 68).
29.Finland-Nuclear Liability Act of 8th June 1972 as Amended by the Act of 15th September 1989.
30.United States- Price-Anderson Act (Indemnification and Limitation of Liability Provisions of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 ) as Amended, Revised as of 31st December 1975, Supplement to NLB 17 (April 1974).
31.Netherlands- Nuclear Third Party Liability Act of 1979, As Last Amended by the Act of Parliament of 26 June 1991.
32.Belgium- Act of 22nd July 1985 on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy.
1.陈俊:“我国核法律制度研究基本问题初探”,载《中国法学》1998 年第 6 期。
2.李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号。
3.林月晓、施安政:“1997 年世界核能核安全发展综述”,载《全球科技经济嘹望》1998 年第 4 期。
4.傅济熙、董保同:“浅谈第三方核责任法律制度”,载《中国核工业》1998 年第 3 期。
5.耿志成:“关于建立原子能法体系的初步探讨”,载《中国能源》1991 年第 5期。
6.秦志军、郭伟:“建立核损害赔偿机制 促进核电发展”,载《中国电力企业管理》2004 年第 11 期。
7.Flak., FN:“国际核安全公约:核法律的里程碑”,载《国际原子能机构通报》1994 年第 3 期。
8.张新宝:“美国有害物体侵权行为法介评”,载《外国法译评》1994 年第 1 期。
9.张新宝:“日本的健康保险法律制度”,载《外国法译评》1995 年第 1 期。
10.张新宝:“关于高度危险作业致人损害的赔偿责任的几个问题”,载《论坛译评》(中国政法大学学报)1994 年第 4 期。
11.张新宝:“侵权行为法的一般条款”,载《法学研究》2001 年第 4 期。
12.李浩:“民事证据立法与证据制度的选择”,载《法学研究》2001 年第 5 期。
14.叶自强:“举证责任的确定性”,载《法学研究》2001 年第 3 期。
15.汪习根、陈焱光:“论知情权”,载《法制与社会发展》2003 年第 2 期。
16.金瑞林:“环境侵权与民事救济——兼论环境立法中存在的问题”,载《中国环境科学》1997 年第 3 期。
17.谭大刚:“环境核辐射污染及防治对策”,载《沈阳师范学院学报》(自然科学版)1999 年第 1 期。
18.任德曦:“我国核电站人-机-环境的安全性及失误的预防”,载《衡阳工学院学报》1994 年第 12 期。
19.王曦译:“国际法未加禁止之行为引起有害后果之国际责任条款草案”,载《法学评论》1999 年第 6 期。
20.岳莹、蒋扬帆:“论国际法不加禁止行为造成损害后果的国际责任”,载《福建政法管理干部学院学报》2003 年第 1 期。
21.王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版。
22.陈聪富:“侵权行为法上之因果关系”,国立台湾大学《法学论丛》2000 年 1月第 29 卷第 2 期。
23.陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,国立台湾大学《法学论丛》2001年 7 月第 30 卷第 4 期。
24.[德]骆克信著,许玉秀译:“客观归责理论”,台湾《政大法学评论》1994 年5 月,第 50 期。
1.Omer F Brown II, Nuclear Liability: A Continuing Impediment To Nuclear Commerce, The Uranium Institute 24th Annual Symposium 8-10 September 1999: London, available at http://www. world-nuclear.org/sym/1999/pdfs/brown.pdf, viewed on 14 July 2003.
2.Yoshio Baba, The Problems Facing Nuclear Power in Japan: Emphasising Law and Regulations, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 July 2003.
3.Betsy Forinash, The US National System for Disposal of High-level and Transuranic Radioactive Wastes: Legislative History and its Effect on Regulatory Approaches, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 July 2003.
4.Dr. Axel Vorwerk, The 2002 Amendment to the German Atomic Energy Act Concerning the Phase-out of Nuclear Power, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, OR http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-69/nlb69-vorwerk.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003.
5.Gordon Edwards, The Historical Origins of Canada’s Nuclear Liability Act, available at http://www.ccnr.org/insurance.html, viewed on 18 June 2003.
6.David S. Ziegler, Report on the Price-Anderson Act and its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final March 10, 2003), available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/price003.htm, viewed on 18 September 2003.
7.American Nuclear Society, The Price-Anderson Act (Background Report, March 2001, Revised November 2002), http://www.ans.org/pi/ps/docs/ps54-bi.pdf, viewed on 18 September 2003.
8.Dr. Martina Palm, The New German Radiation Protection Ordinance 2001, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, OR http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-68/039_046.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003.
9.Ben McRae, The Compensation Convention: Path to a Global Regime for Dealing with Legal Liability and Compensation for Nuclear Damage, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/NLB-61/benfinal.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003.
10.Philippe Sands and Paolo Galizzi, The 1968 Brussels Convention and Liability forNuclear Damage, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/Nlb-64/sands&galizzi.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003.
11.Monika Hinteregger, The New Austrian Act on Third Party Liability for Nuclear Damage, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/Nlb-62/hintereg.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003.
12.Jon L.Woodard, Comparative Aspects of the French and German Nuclear Energy Regimes: Working Toward an International Legal Framework, Dickinson Journal of International Law, Spring 1998.
13.Bernd Kunth and Herbert Posser, Recent Developments in German Nuclear Energy Law, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-60-EN.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003.
14.Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for: The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler Technical Carson City, Nevada, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004.
15.Tokai-Mura Accident, Japan: Third Party Liability and Compensation Aspects, prepared by the Secretariat of the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency in collaboration with the Japanese authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb-/Nlb-66/013-022.pdf, viewed on 7 April 2004.
1.王成孝编著:《核能与核技术应用》,原子能出版社 2002 年版。
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3.程建秀主编:《核设施质量保证基础教程》,原子能出版社 2001 年版。
4.刘天齐主编:《环境保护》,化学工业出版社 2000 年 4 月第 2 版。
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11.王曦编著:《国际环境法》(第二版),法律出版社 2005 年 5 月第 2 版。
12.杨立新著:《侵权法论》(上、下),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版。
13.蔡守秋主编:《欧盟环境政策法律研究》,武汉大学出版社 2002 年 6 月第 1版。
14.付立忠著:《环境刑法学》,中国方正出版社 2001 年 3 月第 1 版。
15.卓泽渊著:《法的价值总论》,人民出版社 2001 年 9 月第 1 版。
16.王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版。
17.林灿铃著:《国际法上的跨界损害之国家责任》,华文出版社 2000 年 8 月第
1 版。
18.张文显主编:《法理学》,高等教育出版社、北京大学出版社 1999 年 10 月第
1 版。
19.高敏雪著:《环境统计与环境经济核算》,中国统计出版社 2000 年 4 月第 1版。
20.曹明德著:《环境侵权法》,法律出版社 2000 年 10 月第 1 版。
21.刘士国著:《现代侵权损害赔偿研究》,法律出版社 1998 年版。
22.韩健、陈立虎著:《国际环境法》,武汉大学出版社 1992 年 7 月第 1 版。
23.李亚虹著:《美国侵权法》,法律出版社 1999 年版。
24.周忠海等著:《国际法学述评》,法律出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版。
25.吕忠梅著:《环境法学》,法律出版社 2004 年 9 月第 1 版。
26.乔世明著:《环境损害与法律责任》,中国经济出版社 1999 年 4 月第 1 版。
27.李浩培著:《条约法概论》,法律出版社 2003 年 1 月第 2 版。
28.魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社和高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1版。
29.梁西著:《国际组织法》(总论),武汉大学出版社 2001 年 6 月第 5 版。
30.万鄂湘等著:《国际条约法》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 10 月第 1 版。
31.梁西主编:《国际法》,武汉大学出版社 2000 年 3 月修订版。
32.王铁崖主编:《国际法》,法律出版社 1995 年 8 月修订版。
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35.蔡守秋主编:《环境资源法学》,人民法院出版社/中国人民公安大学出版社2003 年 7 月第 1 版。
36.陈泉生著:《可持续发展与法律变革》,法律出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版。
37.周珂著:《生态环境法论》,法律出版社 2001 年 3 月第 1 版。
38.邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版。
39.覃有土主编:《保险法教程》(2002 年修订本),法律出版社 2002 年 4 月第 1版。
40.陈欣著:《保险法》,北京大学出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版。
41.于敏著:《日本侵权法》,法律出版社 1998 年 11 月第 1 版。
42.胡平著:《精神损害赔偿制度研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 6 月第 1版。
43.王利明主编:《民法典·侵权责任法研究》,人民法院出版社 2003 年 2 月第1 版。
44.林灿铃著:《国际环境法》,人民出版社 2004 年 4 月第 1 版。
45.张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》(第二版),中国社会科学出版社 1998 年 8月修订第 2 版。
46.张新宝著:《侵权责任原理》,中国人民大学出版社 2005 年 3 月第 1 版。
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1 版。
48.来小鹏等主编:《民法学》,陕西人民出版社 1998 年 6 月第 1 版。
49.江朝国著:《保险法基础理论》,中国政法大学出版社 2002 年版。
50.徐爱国编著:《英美侵权行为法》,法律出版社 1999 年 10 月第 1 版。
51.徐爱国著:《英美侵权行为法学》,北京大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版。
52.罗结珍译:《法国民法典》,中国法制出版社 1999 年 10 月北京第 1 版。
53.罗结珍译:《法国民法典》(上/下),法律出版社 2005 年 3 月第 1 版。
54.郑冲、贾红梅译:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 1999 年 5 月第 1 版。
55.陈卫佐译注:《德国民法典》(Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch),法律出版社 2004年 5 月第 1 版。
56.高家伟著:《欧洲环境法》,工商出版社 2000 年 11 月第 1 版。
57.杨成铭主编:《人权法学》,中国方正出版社 2004 年 1 月北京第 1 版。
58.李寿平著:《现代国际责任法律制度》,武汉大学出版社 2003 年 12 月第 1版。
59.傅济熙编著:《核损害的民事责任与赔偿》,原子能出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版。
60.王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1版。
61.曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版。
62.陈慈阳著:《环境法总论》,台湾元照出版公司 2003 年 1 月第 2 版。
63.曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版。
64.邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10月第 1 版。
65.王泽鉴著:《民法学说与判例研究》(1~6),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1月第 1 版。
66.耿云卿著:《侵权行为之研究》,台湾商务印书馆股份有限公司,中华民国七十年第三版。
67.陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年11 月增订版。
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69.[日]原田尚彦著,于敏译:《环境法》,法律出版社 1999 年 4 月第 1 版。
70.[法]亚历山大·基斯著,张若思编译:《国际环境法》,法律出版社 2000 年 7月第 1 版。
71.[英]詹宁斯、瓦茨修订,王铁崖等译:《奥本海国际法》(第一卷第一分册),中国大百科全书出版社 1995 年 12 月第 1 版。
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74.[德]克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,焦美华译,张新宝审校:《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(下卷),法律出版社 2001 年 12 月第 1 版。
75.[德] 克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,张新宝译:《欧洲比较侵权法》(上卷),法律出版社 2001 年版。
76.[美]迈克尔·D·贝勒斯著,张文显等译:《法律的原则——一个规范的分析》,中国大百科全书出版社 1996 年 1 月第 1 版。
77.[奥]曼弗雷德·诺瓦克著,毕小青、孙世彦主译:《民权公约评注——联合国<公民权利和政治权利国际公约>》(上、下册),生活·读书·新知三联书店 2003 年 10 月北京第 1 版。
78.[美]E·博登海默著,邓正来译:《法理学:法律哲学与法律方法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年 1 月修订版。
79.[美]约翰·罗尔斯著,何怀宏等译:《正义论》,中国社会科学出版社 1988年 3 月第 1 版。
80.[美]约翰·罗尔斯著,姚大志译:《作为公平的正义——正义新论》,上海三联书店 2002 年 4 月第 1 版。
1.Edward H.P. Brans, Liability for Damage to Public Natural Resources: Standing, Damage and Damage Assessment, Kluwer Law International, the Hague/London/New York 2001.
2.Peter Wetterstein, Harm to the Environment: The Right to Compensation and the Assessment of Damages, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1997.
3.Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999.
4.Lucas Bergkamp, Liability and Environment: Private and Public Law Aspects of Civil Liability for Environmental Harm in an International Context, Kluwer Law International, the Hague/London/New York 2001.
5.Stephen Tromans and James Fitzgerald, The Law of Nuclear Installations and Radioactive Substances, London Sweet & Maxwell 1997.
6.Nick Lockett, Environmental Liability Insurance, Cameron May London 1996.
7.Federal Environmental Laws (1988 Edition), St. Paul, Minn., West Publishing Co., 1988.
8.Overview of Nuclear Legislation in Central and Eastern Europe and the EIS (2000), available at http://www1.oecd.org/publications/e-book/6600181/E.PDF, viewed on 17 July 2003.
9.The Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety Public Relations Division, Nuclear Safety in Germany — Report under the Convention on Nuclear Safety by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany for the Second Review Meeting in April 2002, available at http://www.bmu.de, viewed on 17 July 2003.
10.Luther J. Carter, Nuclear Imperatives and Public Trust ― Dealing withRadioactive Waste, Resources for the Future, Inc.-Washington, D.C. 1987.
11.David Hunter, James Salzman and Durwood Zaelke, International Environmental Law and Policy, (U.S.A.) Foundation Press 1998.
12.Lakshman D.Guruswamy, Sir Geoffrey W.R.Palmer and Burns H.Weston, Supplement of Basic Documents to International Environmental Law and World Order ― A Problem-Oriented Coursebook, West Publishing Co., St. Paul, Minn., 1994.
13.Warren Freedman, Hazardous Waste Liability: 1989 Cumulative Supplement, The Michie Company, Law Publishers, Charlottesville, Virginia, 1989.
14.Lawrence Susskind, William Moomaw and Kevin Gallagher, Transboundary Environmental Negotiation: New Approaches to Global Cooperation, (U.S.A.) John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002.
15.Roger W. Findley and Daniel A. Farber, Environmental Law, West Publishing Co., 1992.
16.OECD/NEA, Paris Convention: Decisions, Recommendations, Interpretations, OECD 1990, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris-convention-dec-rec-int.pdf, viewed on 24 September 2003.
17.(Britain) Alastair Mullis & Ken Oliphant, Torts (2nd edition), Law Press, Beijing, China, 2003.
18.OECD/NEA, Nuclear Law Bulletin: Index Nos 1 to 72 (1968/2003).
19.Francesco Francioni and Tullio Scovazzi (Editors), International Responsibility for Environmental Harm, Graham & Trotman, 1991.
20.(USA) Richard A. Epstein, Cases and Materials on Torts (Seventh Edition), CITIC Publishing House, 2003.
21.OECD: The Strategic Plan of the Nuclear Energy Agency 2005-2009, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/nea/strat04.pdf, viewed on 10 August 2005.
② 本节和下一节“核能和平利用与环境保护”中有部分内容和数据参考了中国国家原子能机构网站上(http://www.caea.gov.cn)的相关资料,恕无法一一具体列明,在此特向该网站和有关作者致谢。 中国学术期刊(光盘版)电子杂志社编者注:本文中出现的“中华民国**年”均应为“公元****年”;涉及台湾的“中华民国”、“行政院”、“总统”均应加双引号。 接禁制区之地区,可确保在其边界上之人于核子事故发生后,所接受之辐射剂量小于主管机关规定之限值者。”参见 http://www.aec.gov.tw/start.php,2004 年4 月 7 日浏览。
① 参见华凌:“细微之处见安全——访法国驻华大使馆核工业参赞沙瓦尔德”,载《科技日报》2004 年 2月 27 日第 8 版。另可参见我国《核电厂运行安全规定》(,1991 年 7 月 27 日国家核安全局令第 1 号发布 1991年修改);《核电厂设计安全规定》,(1991 年 7 月 27 日国家核安全局令第 1 号发布 1991 年修改);《核设施的安全监督》,(1995 年 6 月 14 日国家核安全局发布 1995 年修改)等。
② 如 1982 年 12 月美国原子核协调委员会才批准建造海上核电站的计划,并同意设计用于电站的核反应堆。在海上建造核电站具有若干突出优点:其一,造价要比陆地上的核电站低;其二,在选核电站地址时,不像在陆地上那样要考虑地震、地质等条件,以及是否在居民稠密区等各种情况的影响,而且选择的余地大;其三,海上的工作条件几乎到处都一样,不存在陆地上那种“因地而异”的种种问题。特别是像英国、日本、新西兰等岛国,陆地面积适宜建造核电站的地方少,而海岸线却很长,就可充分利用这一优势,大力发展海上核电站。 海底核电站是随着海洋石油开采不断向深海海底发展而提出的一项大胆设想,实际上也是远见卓识的创新。要勘探和开采海底,特别是五、六百米以上深海海底的石油和天然气,需要从陆地上的发电站向海洋采油平台远距离供电。如果在采油平台的海底附近建造海底核电站,就可轻而易举地将富足的电力送往采油平台,而且还可为其他远洋作业设施提供廉价的电源。美国最先开始研究海底核电站。早在 1974 年,美国原子能委员会就提出了发电容量为 3000 千瓦的海底发电站的设计方案。英国研究海底核电站也较早,是在 20 世纪 70 年代初期“石油危机”后开始研制试验的。1978 年,为了开采海底石油,英国几家公司联合提出了海底核电站的设计方案。
③ 台湾《核子反应器设施管制法》(中华民国九十二年元月十五日华总一义字第○九二○○○○五四八○号令公布)第二条第四款、第五款分别界定了“停役”和“除役”,即“停役:指核子反应器设施计画性停止运转达一年以上者。”“除役:指核子反应器设施永久停止运转后,为使设施及其土地资源能再度供开发利用,所采取之各项措施。”参见http://www.aec.gov.tw/start.php,2004 年4 月7 日浏览。
① 参见 http://www.kepu.com.cn/gb/technology/nuclear/station/index.html, 2004 年 4 月 2 日浏览。
② 火星虽是地球的近邻,但其运行轨道在地球的运行轨道之外,火星绕太阳一周的时间是 687 个地球日,火星和地球相互接近的时间间隔是两年零 50 天,即 26 个月或 780 天。火星和地球一般距离在 8000 多万公里以上,只有在火星大冲时两者距离才最近,在 5000 万公里至 6000 多万公里,而这要每隔 15 年到 17年才有一次。飞往火星,单程需要 9 个月,较好的发射时机每隔一年才有一次,到火星后,也要隔一年半才有合适的时机,整个行程将长达 3 年(往返途中各 9 个月,在火星表面停留一年半)。就技术而言,登“火”并不比登月复杂,只是所需燃料和给养大大超过登月。参见张保淑:“地球人的红色情结——火星登陆篇”,载《科技日报》2004 年 2 月 18 日第 8 版。
① 参见 http://www.kepu.com.cn/gb/technology/nuclear/station/200207310015.html, 2005 年 8 月 8 日浏览。
② See OECD: The Strategic Plan of the Nuclear Energy Agency 2005-2009, p.8, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/nea/strat04.pdf, viewed on 10 August 2005. 另可参见(中国科学院科技政策与管理科学研究所)段异兵:“核电的现状与前景”, http://www.cas.ac.cn/html/Books/O61BG/a1/2002/5/5.4_2.htm, 2005年 8 月 10 日浏览。
① See Vanda Lamm, Protection of Civilian Nuclear Installations in Time of Armed Conflict, in Nuclear Law Bulletin 72 (2004) or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-72/029_038.pdf, viewed on 9 March 2004.
② The term nuclear terrorism is used in the sense of the definitions given in Articles 1 and 2 of the Draft International Convention for the suppression of acts of nuclear terrorism, which is prepared by the Ad Hoc Committee of the Genenal Assembly of the United Nations on terrorism, annexed to the report on the Sixth Session of the Genenal Assembly of the United Nations: A/C.6/53/L.4. Article 2 provides:“1. Any person commits an offence within the meaning of this convention if that person unlawfully or intentionally: (a) Possesses radioactive material or makes or possesses a device: (i) With the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury; or (ii) With the intent to cause substantial damage property or the environment; (b) Uses in any way radioactive material or a device, or uses or damages a nuclear facility in a manner which releases or risks the release of radioactive material: (i) With the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury; or (ii) With the intent to cause substantial damage to property or the environment; or (iii) With the intent to compel a natural or legal person, an international organization or a State to do or refrain from doing an act. … ” See Gilles Arbellot du Repaire, The Nuclear Weapon Non-Proliferation Treaty and Terrorism: The Consequences of 11 September 2001 on the Treaty Review Process, footnotes 11 and 90, in Nulear Law Bulletin 71(2003), or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-71/017_043.pdf, viewed on 9 March 2004. 另可参见郑启燕等:“核电站遭受恐怖袭击后可能的环境影响”,载《环境保护》2004 年第 5 期,第 51~54 页。
③ [日] 保木本一郎:《原子力法 1988 年》,第 290 页。转引自陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 255 页。
④ [苏] В·Я·沃兹尼亚克等著,伍仁毅、杜凡等译:《切尔诺贝利核事故与教训》,中国劳动出版社 1991年 5 月北京第 1 版,第 2、5~7、11~12 页。
⑤ 曲静原:“辐射防护与核电站安全”,载《中国环境报》2003 年 8 月 12 日第 4 版。此部分内容非常专业,特向其作者致谢。另可参见刘洪涛等编著:《人类生存发展与核科学》,北京大学出版社 2001 年 2 月第 1版,第 112~129 页。
① 我国已发布《核电厂核事故应急报告制度》(2001 年 12 月 11 日国防科学技术工业委员会发布)、《核事故辐射影响越境应急管理规定》(2002 年 2 月 4 日国防科学技术工业委员会令第 11 号发布)、《核电厂核事故应急管理条例》(1993 年 8 月 4 日国务院发布)、《核电厂核事故应急演习管理规定》(2003 年 2 月 28 日国防科学技术工业委员会发布)等。
① 陈春生,德国慕尼黑大学法学博士,国立台北大学法律学院法律系教授。他在自我介绍中写道:原子能法领域方面,敝人自博士论文《核能电厂设立许可程序中之司法角色》以来,逾十年持续专注于原子能法之研究,惜国内关于核能利用争议,均非从司法救济途径探讨着手,而是诉诸政治社会运动等社会成本巨大之方式解决。拙著《核能利用与法之规制》即一再点出此点,该书亦为国内首次探讨核能利用有关法律问题之体系论着。至于《核设施除役问题之比较法研究》一文,则更是国内法学者较少探讨之问题,相信对我国此方面之研究有参考价值。详情请浏览 http://www.ntpu.edu.tw/law/teacher/chen-cs/chen-cs.htm,2003 年 8 月 29 日浏览。
② Proceedings of the NEA's international symposium on the reform of civil nuclear liability. The Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) announces the publication of the Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Reform of Civil Nuclear Liability, held in Budapest from 31 May to 3 June 1999. This symposium, which was organised by the NEA in co-operation with the International Atomic Energy Agency and the European Commission, was attended by participants from over fifty countries, and by several international organisations. The purpose of the meeting was to review nuclear liability and compensation issues in the context of the recent revision of the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, the adoption of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage and the current negotiations on the amendment of the Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy and the Brussels Supplementary Convention. The effective implementation of this reform, which is a challenge to both governments and the nuclear industry, will create opportunities to promote greater public confidence in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy and broader adherence to an international system which establishes both liability for nuclear damage and compensation for victims. The Proceedings reproduce all papers presented at the symposium in their original language (English or French) accompanied by an abstract in the other language, as well as the transcripts of the discussions during each session and of the round table debate on the new global regime of nuclear liability. This symposium also served as a forum for examining the difficulties faced by Central and Eastern European countries (CEEC) and by the New Independent States (NIS) in joining an international regime on civil nuclear liability. The reports submitted by participants from these countries can also be found in the Proceedings. REFORM OF CIVIL NUCLEAR LIABILITY, Budapest Symposium 1999; OECD, Paris, 2000; ISBN92-64-058850 - 570 pages; FF 800 - ￡ 79 - US$ 129 - DM 239 - $ 13 850. See http://www.nea.fr/html/general/press/2000/2000-04.html, viewed on 3 August 2005.
① Indemnification of Damage in the Event of a Nuclear Accident, Workshop Proceedings: Paris, France, 26-28 November 2001, OECD Publishing, Version: Print (Paperback); Availability: Available; Publication date: 21 Mar 2003; Language: English / French; Pages: 420; ISBN: 9264099190; Price: €90 | $117 | ￡58 | $11000 |. Available at http://www.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/display.asp?sf1=identifiers&st1=662003033P1, viewed on 29 July 2005.
② The Second International Workshop on the Indemnification of Nuclear Damage took place from 18-20 May 2005 in Bratislava, Slovak Republic. The workshop was co-organised by the NEA and the Nuclear Regulatory Authority of the Slovak Republic and attracted 108 participants from 27 countries, the majority of which are NEA members. The purpose of the workshop was to assess the third party liability and compensation mechanisms that would be implemented by participating countries in the event of a nuclear accident taking place within or near their borders. To accomodate this objective, two fictuous accident scenarios were developed: one involving a fire in a nuclear installation located in the Slovak Republic with very broad-reaching consequences in terms of nuclear damage and the other a fire on board a ship transporting enriched uranium hexafluoride along the Danube River with more geographically limited resulting damage. The NEA intends to publish the proceeding of this workshop in 2005. See http://www.nea.fr/html/law/bratislava/welcome.html, viewed on 29 July 2005.
① See Peter Wetterstein, Harm to the Environment: The Right to Compensation and the Assessment of Damages, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1997.
② 国家环保总局通报的违法开工项目建设单位及名称可参见国家环保总局网站 http://www.zhb.gov.cn/eic/649094490434306048/20050118/4630.shtml,2005 年 2 月 18 日浏览。
③ 中国共产党第十六届中央委员会第三次全体会议,于 2003 年 10 月 11 日至 14 日在北京举行,并通过《中国共产党第十六届中央委员会第三次全体会议公报》。
④ 主要书籍有:核电发展战略研究(续编)编委会编写:《核电发展战略研究(续编)》,(北京)中国言实出版社 2001 年 1 月第 1 版。该书专设“核损害民事责任”一章,对此方面的内容作了简介;傅济熙编著:《核损害的民事责任与赔偿》,原子能出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版。该书概述了核责任的国际和国内立
法情况;主要论文有:陈俊:“我国核法律制度研究基本问题初探”,载《中国法学》1998 年第 6 期;李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号;傅济熙、董保同:“浅谈第三方核责任法律制度”,载《中国核工业》1998 年第 3 期;耿志成:“关于建立原子能法体系的初步探讨”,载《中国能源》1991 年第 5 期;秦志军、郭伟:“建立核损害赔偿机制 促进核电发展”,载《中国电力企业管理》2004 年第 11 期。
① 佟柔主编:《中国民法》,法律出版社 1990 年 11 月第 1 版,第 565 页。
② 中国民法典立法研究课题组(负责人:梁慧星):《中国民法典草案建议稿》第 1545 条(损害的定义),法律出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 306 页。
③ 徐国栋主编:《绿色民法典》第 1505 条(损害),社会科学文献出版社 2004 年 5 月第 1 版,第 705 页。
④ 张新宝著:《侵权责任法原理》,中国人民大学出版社 2005 年 3 月第 1 版,第 53 页。
⑤ 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 3、5 页。
⑥ 王泽鉴:《不当得利》,中国政法大学出版社 2002 年版,第 34 页。转引自王利明著:《侵权行为法研究》(上卷),中国人民大学出版社 2004 年 7 月第 1 版,第 350 页;王泽鉴著:“慰抚金”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 241 页。
⑦ 佟柔主编:《民法原理》(修订本),法律出版社 1985 年版,第 240 页。
① 陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,载《台大法学论丛》2001 年 7 月第 30 卷第 4 期,第 114、116 页。
② [德] 克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,焦美华译,张新宝审校:《欧洲比较侵权法》(下卷),法律出版社 2001年 12 月第 1 版,第 3~4、6~8、13~14 页。
① 《中华人民共和国民法通则》于 1986 年 4 月 12 日第六届全国人民代表大会第四次会议通过,1987 年7 月 1 日起施行。最高人民法院《关于贯彻执行〈中华人民共和国民法通则〉若干问题的意见(试行)》于1988 年 1 月 26 日最高人民法院审判委员会讨论通过,1988 年 4 月 2 日法(办)发[1988]6 号发布。
② 王利明著:《侵权行为法研究》(上卷),中国人民大学出版社 2004 年 7 月第 1 版,第 350~351 页。
③ 魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社和高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 687~688 页。
④ 在汉语里,“损害”是指“使事业、利益、健康、名誉等蒙受损失”;而“损失”是指“没有代价地消耗或失去;没有代价地消耗或失去的东西”。参见中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室编:《现代汉语词典》,商务印书馆 1983 年 1 月第 2 版,第 1101~1102 页。据《国语??楚辞上》:“子实不睿圣,于倚相何害”,韦昭注:“害,伤也”。《说文解字》解释为:“害,伤也”;“损,减也”。由此可见,“损害”一词包含了人身伤害和财产损失的后果。参见王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1月修订版,第 371 页。在英语里,“损害”多用“damage”这一名词表示,其意为“loss of value, attractiveness or usefulness caused by an event or accident, etc.”,含有“损失、损害、毁损”之意;而“损失”多用“loss”一词表示,其意为“act, instance or process of losing”,含有“丧失、损失”之意。参见霍比恩原著、李北达编译:《牛津高阶英汉双解词典》(第四版)商务印书馆和牛津大学出版社 1997 年 9 月第 1 版,第 357、881 页;另可参见英汉法律词典编写组编:《英汉法律词典》(修订本),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 211、476 页;See Henry Campbell Black, M.A.: Black’s Law Dictionary (fifth edition): Definitions of the Terms and Phrases of American and English Jurisprudence, Ancient and Modern, St. Paul Minn. West Publishing Co. 1979, p.351, pp.851-852. 该法律词典对“damage”和“loss”两个名词的解释非常详尽,现择其主要释义如下:“Damage”means“loss, injury, or deterioration, caused by the negligence, design, or accident of one person to another, in respect of the latter’s person or property. The word is to be distinguished from its plural, ‘damages’, which means a compensation in money for a loss or damage. An injury produces a right in them who have suffered any damage by it to demand reparation of such damage from the authors of the injury. By damage we understand every loss or diminution of what is a man’s own, occasioned by the fault of another. The harm, detriment, or loss sustained by reason of an injury. …”“Loss is a generic and relative term. It signifies the act of losing or the thing lost; it is not a word of limited, hard and fast meaning and has been held synonymous with, or equivalent to, ‘damage’, ‘damages’, ‘deprivation’, ‘detriment’, ‘injury’, and ‘privation’.”
① 陶广峰、刘艺工主编:《比较侵权行为法》,兰州大学出版社 1996 年版,第 121~122 页;龚赛红著:《医疗损害赔偿立法研究》,法律出版社 2001 年 9 月第 1 版,第 121~122 页;胡平著:《精神损害赔偿制度研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 6 月第 1 版,第 36~40 页;王利明著:《侵权行为法研究》(上卷),中国人民大学出版社 2004 年 7 月第 1 版,第 351 页。
② 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 118~131 页;龚赛红著:《医疗损害赔偿立法研究》,法律出版社 2001 年 9 月第 1 版,第 117~121 页;韩世远著:《违约损害赔偿研究》,法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 22~37 页。
③ 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 118~119 页。
④ 此为德国民法典第 249 条第 1 款,也译为“损害赔偿义务人必须恢复假如没有发生引起赔偿义务的情况所会存在的状态。”参见陈卫佐译注:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 2004 年 5 月第 1 版,第 75 页。
① 法国法上有句格言与此非常相近,即 Sans inttérêt pas d’action(无利益无诉权)。参见曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 119 页。
② 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 120~123 页。曾世雄教授在书中通过若干具体例子对这四种例型进行了非常详细而生动的阐述。
③ 此为德国的著名案例,对于面包工厂,是依合同还是依不当得利令其承担责任,一些评论者主张后者,认为尽管面包工厂得利,然而面包店并未因此而遭受损失。而在另一种意义上,面包店却的确受有损失:由于其得到的面包比约定的小,因而其财产减少了。See G.H. Treitel, Remedies for Breach of Contract, International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, 1976, §47. 转引自韩世远著:《违约损害赔偿研究》,法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 26 页注释①。
① 曾世雄教授分别就损益相抵、修补因果关系及第三人损害赔偿等三个方面的问题举出三个例证。例证一:某学童爱好集邮,多年收集邮票近 5000 枚。一天早晨,其邻居家失火并殃及该学童,使其多年收集的邮票付之一炬,该学童感到非常伤心。此事经报纸披露后,很多热心人纷纷向该学童赠寄邮票,数目竟高达 2 万张。如依利益说,则该学童因邮票被焚而受损害,存在二财产状况之差额。然而,因其已收到多方赠送邮票的结果,该差额实际上已不存在。依利益说,该学童未受有损害,也不得请求赔偿。例证二:某甲因某乙的过失行为而身体受损害。某甲原经营一书店,现因受伤行动不便而需延用店员。因雇佣店员所增加的支出,某甲也请求某乙赔偿。不久,因战事爆发,壮丁全被征召服役。某甲因身体受伤行动不便而免役。依利益说,某甲雇佣店员而增加开支,其数额即构成二财产状况之差额,应肯定其损害的存在。然而,如某甲未受伤,则亦必应召服役,其结果,雇佣店员乃不可避免。从这个角度来看,由于战事征役,所发生的差额事实上并不再存在,自然也就无损害。因此,应驳回某甲的上述赔偿请求。例证三:某甲现金购买一批货物,请求将标的物送交清偿地以外的某地。出卖人乃依买受人的指示将出卖的货物交由运送人转送。可在运送途中,货物全部被窃。依利益说,则买受人将无救济方法。原因是:其一,就出卖人而言,货物交付运送人转运时,货物的风险即由买受人负担;损害事故虽已发生,出卖人仍可保有收受之价金毋庸退还;故其财产总额并不因损害事故而有增减,二财产状况之差额并不存在,自无损害可言,亦无权请求运送人赔偿。其二:就买受人而言,动产所有权的取得是以动产的交付为必要,买受人因货物尚未送达交付,尚非货物的所有权人,自不得对运送人主张侵权行为要求赔偿。而且,买受人也不是运送契约当事人,因此对于运送人亦无契约上之请求权。参见曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 123 页。
① [日]若林三奈:《法的概念としての“损害”の意义(一)》,载《立命馆法学》,1996 年第 4 号,第 684页。转引自龚赛红著:《医疗损害赔偿立法研究》,法律出版社 2001 年 9 月第 1 版,第 118~119 页。
① 陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,载《台大法学论丛》2001 年 7 月第 30 卷第 4 期,第 119~123页。
① 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 126~129 页。
① 李薇著:《日本机动车事故损害赔偿法律制度研究》,法律出版社 1997 年 9 月第 1 版,第 133 页。
② 龚赛红著:《医疗损害赔偿立法研究》,法律出版社 2001 年 9 月第 1 版,第 121 页。
③ 魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社和高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 687 页;张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》(第二版),中国社会科学出版社 1998 年 8 月修订第 2 版,第 93~95 页。
④ 值得注意的是,非法利益虽然不受法律保护,但侵害非法利益的行为同样构成违法。参见魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社和高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 687 页。
⑤ 应当指出的是,侵害合法约定的权利和利益,应当由合同法加以调整和补救;侵害民法以外的其他法律所保护的合法权利和利益,则应由其他相关法律加以调整和补救。因为这些损害后果不构成侵权行为法上的“损害”。参见张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》(第二版),中国社会科学出版社 1998 年 8 月修订第 2版,第 93 页。
① 我国法律只有在极个别情况下,才承认已经发生的、真实存在的危险性为损害。例如,最高人民法院《关于贯彻执行<中华人民共和国民法通则>若干问题的意见(试行)》(1988 年 4 月 2 日法(办)发[1988]6号)第 154 条规定:“从事高度危险作业,没有按有关规定采取必要的安全防护措施,严重威胁他人人身、财产安全的,人民法院应当根据他人的要求,责令作业人消除危险。”
② 台湾学者曾世雄教授认为,根据不同的观察点,对损害的分类主要如下:财产上损害与非财产损害、客观损害、主观利益及感情上之利益、积极利益与消极利益、所受之损害与所失之利益、直接损害与间接损害、反射损害与第三人之损害、象征性损害与微额损害;其中,损害分类中的特别问题包括物之毁损或违反契约所造成之非财产上损害、物之使用可能性被剥夺所发生之损害等。参见曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 132~145 页。
③ 在法国关于侵权责任法的著作中,经常可以看到另一种所谓“人身损害”(dommage corporel ou préjudice corporel)的用语,用来概括指称所有自然人之生命、身体或健康被侵害所生之不利益。鉴于人身损害赔偿在现代社会的特殊重要性,法国有些学者乃主张将损害分成三种,除传统上的“财产上损害”、“非财产上损害”之外,另加上所谓的“人身损害”。然而,“人身损害”之概念本身有两个不同的观察角度:其一是指人身被侵害后所造成的经济上不利益,包括所受损害(如医药费支出)以及所失利益(如工作能力丧失),这时的人身损害即是一种“财产上损害”;其二是指人身被侵害后所造成的非经济上之不利益,如肉体痛苦、精神痛苦等,这时的人身损害即是一种“非财产上损害”。因此,人身损害概念之下又可细分为财产上损害和非财产上损害两部分。由此可知,人身损害是指“人身被侵害”后所生之各种不利益,其重点在“人身”被侵害之事实,而不在人身被侵害后所生之“不利益”,该不利益性质上是否具有一定经济价值。人身损害既然是从“被侵害客体”的观察角度所得出的概念,即应将其与“对物或财产之侵害”或“对身份法益之侵害”等所造成的损害等概念并列,而与财产上损害和非财产上损害之分类无关。为明确区别起见,法学法文上所谓的“人身损害”(dommage corporel ou préjudice corporel),不是一种“损害”(dommage ou préjudice),而是一种“侵害”(atteinte),应准确地称之为“人身侵害”(atteinte à la personne ou à l’intégrité personnelle)。参见陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,载《台大法学论丛》2001 年 7 月第30 卷第 4 期,第 135 页注释 61。
① 蓝承烈著:《民法专题研究与应用》,群众出版社 2002 年 8 月第 1 版,第 283 页;王泽鉴著:“慰抚金”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 241~242、244 页。
② 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 294~295 页。
① 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 156~158 页。
② 纯经济损失是被害人所直接遭受的经济上的不利益或金钱上的损失,它并非是因被害人的人身或有形财产遭受损害而间接引起的,或者说,它并非是被害人所享有的人身权或物权遭到侵犯而间接引起的。参 见李昊著:《纯经济上损失赔偿制度研究》,北京大学出版社 2004 年 7 月第 1 版,第 7 页。
① 陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,载《台大法学论丛》2001年7月第30卷第4期,第136~137页。
② 陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,载《台大法学论丛》2001年7月第30卷第4期,第137~138页。
③ 陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,载《台大法学论丛》2001 年 7 月第 30 卷第 4 期,第 145~147页。针对“非财产上损害是否得请求赔偿”的问题,法国学者中存在否定说、限制说和肯定说。部分学者认为,基于非财产上损害的特殊性,应将非财产上损害排除在被害人得请求赔偿的范围之外;还有部分学者肯定非财产上损害得请求赔偿的原则,但应限制其适用领域、适用条件或赔偿范围;大多数学者肯定非财产上损害得请求赔偿的原则,而且不认为特别限制其请求赔偿的领域、条件或范围。这三种学说的具体观点内容可参见前文,第 147~158 页。
① 魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社和高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 687~688 页。张新宝教授认为,侵权行为法上的损害分为财产损害(包括直接损失和间接损失)、非财产损害(包括人身损害即死亡和伤害、其他非财产损害即社会评价之降低和精神损害)。参见张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》(第二版),中国社会科学出版社 1998 年 8 月修订第 2 版,第 96~109 页。
② 意大利在司法实践中将人身伤害作为“生物学上的损害”。从法律政策的角度来看,这一始终以宪法对身体和健康的保护为依据的“生物学上的损害”(danno biologico) 赔偿请求权的目的是提供受害人不受制于财产损失(danno patrimniale)(根据对民法典第 2043 条传统意义上的解释)和精神损害(danno morale)(民法典第 2059 条将加害行为已触犯刑法作为要求精神损害赔偿的前提条件)责任要件赔偿法上的“基本保障”;从学理上看,则是通过改变损害的含义而使对“生物学上的损害”的赔偿成为可能。这一制度不再要求像以前那样一味地去细究损害发生前后财产状况的不同,而是将身体或健康上的伤害本身就看作是一种伤害——事件伤害(danno evento)——即使当事人既不能根据民法典第 2053 条要求“精神损害赔偿”, 也不能根据第 2043 条要求请求财产损失赔偿,该生物学上的损害也必须得到赔偿。“生物学上的损害”构成了并列于财产损失和精神损害的第三类损害型态。它不仅不以财产损失或精神损害的存在为前提,而且能在两者之外获得额外的赔偿。参见[德]克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,焦美华译,张新宝审校:《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(下卷),法律出版社 2001 年 12 月第 1 版,第 25~26 页;《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(上卷)第 20 段并脚注 66 及第 573~574 页。
① 张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》(第二版),中国社会科学出版社 1998 年 8 月修订第 2 版,第 101~102页。
② 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(下册),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版,第 674~676 页。
③ 但在一般情况下,人们还是遵循“精神损害,物质赔偿”原则。受害人通常感兴趣的是能否从责任人或其保险人那里获得金钱赔偿以及金钱赔偿的数额。因为金钱是万能的溶剂,一切事物都可以转变为金钱的得失;金钱为人所须,金钱赔偿可以修复一切可能的痛苦和伤害。参见[德]克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,焦美华译,张新宝审校:《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(下卷),法律出版社 2001 年 12 月第 1 版,第 163 页。
④ 谭大刚:“环境核辐射污染及防治对策”,载《沈阳师范学院学报》(自然科学版)1999 年第 1 期,第 68~73页;刘天齐主编:《环境保护》,化学工业出版社 2000 年 4 月第 2 版,第 166~169 页;周珂著:《生态环境法论》,法律出版社 2001 年 3 月第 1 版,第 202~203 页。
⑤ 放射性污染物主要是通过射线的照射危害生物和其他生物体,造成危害的射线主要有 α 射线、β 射线和γ 射线。α 粒子流形成的射线称为 α 射线。α 粒子穿透力较小,在空气中易被吸收,外照射对人的伤害不大,但其电离能力强,进入人体后会因内照射造成较大的伤害。β 射线是带负电的电子流,穿透能力较强。γ射线是穿透能力极强的电磁波,对人的危害最大。参见刘天齐主编:《环境保护》,化学工业出版社 2000年第 2 版,第 166 页。
① 《中华人民共和国放射性污染防治法》第 62 条第 4 款规定:“放射性同位素,是指某种发生放射性衰变的元素中具有相同原子序数但质量不同的核素。” 该法于 2003 年 6 月 28 日第十届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第三次会议通过,自 2003 年 10 月 1 日起施行。
② 人类所受到的辐照主要来源于两个方面,一是天然辐照源;二是人工辐射源。其中,天然辐照源是自然界中天然存在的辐射源,人类从诞生时起就一直生活在这种天然的辐射之中,并已适应了这种辐射。天然辐射源所产生的总辐射水平称为天然放射性本底,它是判断环境是否受到放射性污染的基本基准。天然辐射源主要来自于地球上的天然放射源,其中最主要的是铀(235U)、钍(232Th)核素和钾(40K)、碳(14C)、钏(3H)等;以及宇宙间高能粒子构成的宇宙线和在这些粒子进入大气层后与大气层中的氧、氮原子核碰撞产生的次级宇宙线。参见刘天齐主编:《环境保护》,化学工业出版社 2000 年 4 月第 2 版,第167 页。
① Article I (1)(j) of 1963 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage. 原文如下:“Nuclear installation” means – i. any nuclear reactor other than one with which a means of sea or air transport is equipped for use as a source of power, whether for propulsion thereof or for any other purpose; ii. any factory using nuclear fuel for the production of nuclear material, or any factory for the processing of nuclear material, including any factory for the re-processing of irradiated nuclear fuel; and iii. any facility where nuclear material is stored, other than storage incidental to the carriage of such material; provided that the Installation State may determine that several nuclear installations of one operator which are located at the same site shall be considered as a single nuclear installation. 也有人将“nuclear installation”译为“核装置”。另外,“核设施”的英文表达还有“nuclear facility”。本书中交替使用“核装置” 和“核设施”两种表述,两者的意义视为相同。
② Article 1(a)(ii) of Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (“Paris Convention”). 原文如下:“Nuclear installation” means reactors other than those comprised in any means of transport; factories for the manufacture or processing of nuclear substances; factories for the separation of isotopes of nuclear fuel; factories for the reprocessing of irradiated nuclear fuel; facilities for the storage of nuclear substances other than storage incidental to the carriage of such substances; and such other installations in which there are nuclear fuel or radioactive products or waste as the Steering Committee for Nuclear Energy of the Organisation (hereinafter referred to as the “Steering Committee”) shall from time to time determine; any Contracting Party may determine that two or more nuclear installations of one operator which are located on the same site shall, together with any other premises on that site where radioactive material is held, be treated as a single nuclear installation.
① 原文是:“…installations for the disposal of nuclear substances; any such reactor, factory, facility or installation that is in the course of being decommissioned;…”。See I.A. of Protocol to Amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 and by the Protocol of 12 February 2004, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris_convention.pdf, viewed on 26 March 2004.
② Article 1(2) of Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident, Vienna,1986, available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/Others/inf335.shtml, viewed on 28 August 2003. 原文如下:The facilities … referred to in paragraph 1 are the following: any nuclear reactor wherever located; any nuclear fuel cycle facility; any radioactive waste management facility; ….《核事故及早通报公约》通常简称“通报公约”,1986 年 9 月 26 日订于维也纳,1986 年 10 月 27 日正式生效。该公约于 1988 年 12 月 29 日对我国生效。
③ Article 2(i) of Convention on Nuclear Safety, available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/ Documents/Infcircs/Others/infcirc449.shtml, viewed on 28 August 2003. 原文如下:“nuclear installation” means for each Contracting Party any land-based civil nuclear power plant under its jurisdiction including such storage, handling and treatment facilities for radioactive materials as are on the same site and are directly related to the operation of the nuclear power plant. Such a plant ceases to be a nuclear installation when all nuclear fuel elements have been removed permanently from the reactor core and have been stored safely in accordance with approved procedures, and a decommissioning programme has been agreed to by the regulatory body. 该公约于 1994 年 6 月 17 日订于维也纳,1996 年 10 月 24 日生效。
④ Article 1(1)(j) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage. 原文如下:“Nuclear installation” means – i. any nuclear reactor other than one with which a means of sea or air transport is equipped for use as a source of power, whether for propulsion thereof or for any other purpose; ii. any factory using nuclear fuel for the production of nuclear material, or any factory for the processing of nuclear material, including any factory for the re-processing of irradiated nuclear fuel; and iii. any facility where nuclear material is stored, other than storage incidental to the carriage of such material; and iv. such other installations in which there are nuclear fuel or radioactive products or waste as the Board of Governors of the International Atomic Energy Agency shall from time to time determine; provided that the Installation State may determine that several nuclear installations of one operator which are located at the same site shall be considered as a single nuclear installation.
① Article 2 of Canada Nuclear Liability Act, available at http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/N-28/86947.html, viewed on 24 August 2003. 原文如下:“nuclear installation” means a structure, establishment or place, or two or more structures, establishments or places at a single location, coming within any of the following descriptions and designated as a nuclear installation for the purpose of this Act by the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission, namely, (a) a structure containing nuclear material in such an arrangement that a self-sustaining chain process of nuclear fission can be maintained therein without an additional source of neutrons, including any such structure that forms part of the equipment of a ship, aircraft or other means of transportation, (b) a factory or other establishment that processes or reprocesses nuclear material, and (c) a place in which nuclear material is stored other than incidentally to the carriage of the material.
② 该条例 1986 年 10 月 29 日由国务院发布,共有 6 章 26 条。
① 陈海群、王凯全等编著:《危险化学品事故处理与应急预案》,中国石化出版社 2005 年 5 月第 1 版,第1~2 页。
② 国际原子能机构(IAEA)和经济合作与发展组织核能机构(OECD/NEA)于 1989 年共同召集的一个国际专家组设计了国际核事件分级表(International Nuclear Event Scale, INES)。国际核事件分级表是用统一的术语向公众快速通报核设施所发生事件的安全重要性的一种工具,能够为核工业界、媒体和公众之间形成共同的理解提供便利。分级表将事件分类为七级:较高的级别(4~7 级)被定为“事故”, 依次包括:Accident without Significant Off-site Risk, Accident with Off-site Risk, Serious Accident and Major Accident;较低的级别(1~3 级)被定为“事件(incidents)”,依次包括:Anomaly, Incident and Serious Incident。不具有安全意义的事件被归类为分级表以下的零级(Below Scale/No Safety Significance),定为“偏离(deviations)”。与安全无关的事件被定为“分级表以外”。参见《注册核安全工程师岗位培训丛书》编委会编注:《核安全相关法律法规》,中国环境科学出版社 2004 年 10 月第 1 版,第 206~210 页。The International Nuclear Event Scale (INES) was developed by the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Energy Agency of the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development in order to communicate the magnitude and safety significance of nuclear emergencies between countries around the world, including Canada. According to the INES system, a nuclear emergency is classified on the scale at one of seven levels. In general, the higher the classification level, the greater and more widespread the safety significance. The categories are grouped as follows: Level 0/Below scale: emergencies with no safety significance; Levels 1 to 3: emergencies of significance for workers at the emergency site but not for the public; and Levels 4 to 7: emergencies with significance for workers and the public. In other words, in the INES the events are roughly divided into deviations, incidents and accidents. The events are classified on the Scale at seven levels. The lower levels (1-3) are termed incidents. The upper levels (4-7) are termed accidents. The events which have no safety significance are classified as level 0/below scale. They are termed deviations. The lower levels consists of anomalies, incidents and serious incidents. The upper levels are comprised of accidents without significant off-site risk, accidents with off-site risk, serious accidents and major accidents.The 1986 accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant is classified as level 7 on the INES scale. The 1979 accident at Three Mile Island is classified as level 5. See The International Nuclear Event Scale (INES), available at http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hecs-sesc/neprd/international-coordination/event-scale.htm and http://www.stuk.fi/english/npp/ines_e.html, viewed on 30 July 2005.
③ Article I (1)(l) of 1963 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage; Article I (8) in Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships, 1962. 原文如下:“Nuclear incident” means any occurrence or series of occurrences having the same origin which causes nuclear damage.
④ Article I (1)(l) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and Article I(i) in Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage. 原文如下:“Nuclear incident” means any occurrence or series of occurrences having the same origin which causes nuclear damage or, but only with respect to preventive measures, creates a grave and imminent threat of causing such damage.
① Article 1(a)(i) of Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (“Paris Convention”). 原文如下:“A nuclear incident” means any occurrence or succession of occurrences having the same origin which causes damage, provided that such occurrence or succession of occurrences, or any of the damage caused, arises out of or results either from the radioactive properties, or a combination of radioactive properties with toxic, explosive, or other hazardous properties of nuclear fuel or radioactive products or waste or with any of them, or from ionizing radiations emitted by any source of radiation inside a nuclear installation.
② 原文如下:“A nuclear incident” means any occurrence or series of occurrences having the same origin which causes nuclear damage. See I.A.i) of Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 and by the Protocol of 12 February 2004, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris_convention.pdf, viewed on 26 March 2004.
③ “The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988” was enacted on 20th August 1988 (the consolidated text of the Price-Anderson Act, as amended in 1988 is reproduced in the Supplement to Nuclear Law Bulletin No 42(December 1988)). See “Amendments to reflect enactment of Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988”, in: Nuclear Law Bulletin No 42 (December 1988), p.83.
④ q. of Section 11 of (U.S.) The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, in: Supplement to NLB 42, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-42-SUP.pdf, viewed on 10 November 2004. 原文如下:The term “nuclear incident” means any occurrence, including an extraordinary nuclear occurrence, within the United States causing, within or outside the United States, bodily injury, sickness, disease, or death, or loss of or damage to property, or loss of use of property, arising out of or resulting from the radioactive, toxic, explosive, or other hazardous properties of source, special nuclear, or byproduct material: Provided, however, That as the term is used in section 170 l., it shall include any such occurrence outside the United States: And provided further, That as the term is used in section 170 d., it shall include any such occurrence outside the United States if such occurrence involves source, special nuclear, or byproduct material owned by, and used by or under contract with, the United States: And provided further, That as the term is used in section 170 c., it shall include any such occurrence outside both the United States and any other nation if such occurrence arises out of or results from the radioactive, toxic, explosive, or other hazardous properties of source, special nuclear, or byproduct material licensed pursuant to chapters 6, 7, 8 and 10 of this Act, which is used in connection with the operation of a licensed stationary production or utilisation facility or which moves outside the territorial limits of the United States in transit from one person licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to another person licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
① Section 11(j) of The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, in: NLB 42, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-42-SUP.pdf, viewed on 10 November 2003. 原 文 如 下 : The term “extraordinary nuclear occurrence” means any event causing a discharge or dispersal of source , special nuclear, or byproduct material from its intended place of confinement in amounts offsite, or causing radiation levels offsite, which the Nuclear Regulatory Commission or the Secretary of Energy, as appropriate, determines to be substantial, and which the Nuclear Regulatory Commission or the Secretary of Energy, as appropriate, determines has resulted or will probably result in substantial damages to persons offsite or property offsite. Any determination by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission or the Secretary of Energy, as appropriate, that such an event has, or has not, occurred shall be final and conclusive, and no other official or any court shall have power or jurisdiction to review any such determination. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission or the Secretary of Energy, as appropriate, shall establish criteria in writing setting forth the basis upon which such determination shall be made. As used in this subsection, “offsite” means away from “the location” or “the contract location” as defined in the applicable Nuclear Regulatory Commission or the Secretary of Energy, as appropriate, indemnity agreement, entered into pursuant to section 170. ENO - An extraordinary nuclear occurrence (ENO) is defined in the Price-Anderson Act as an offsite dispersal of nuclear materials in amounts causing radiation levels that the NRC determines to be substantial and that the NRC determines has resulted, or will probably result, in substantial damages to persons or property offsite. When NRC determines that a nuclear incident is an ENO, then the waiver-of-defenses provisions of Price-Anderson are activated resulting in an essentially “no-fault” liability scheme. NRC has established criteria in its regulations for use in its determination as to whether a nuclear incident is an ENO. See waivers of defenses. See Appendix A (Glossary) of Report to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accidents, available at http://www.state.nv.us/nucwaste/news/rpccna/pcrcna11.htm, viewed on 3 February 2005.
② 根据国际原子能机构的国际核电事故等级表(又译国际核事件分级表,INES)规定,1979 年美国三里岛核电站的事故为 5 级核事故。美国“三里岛事件”又称“堆芯熔化”事件,主要原因是因为人机管理不同步,操作人员在操作室按下打开阀门的键,电脑显示阀门已经打开,而现场的阀门实际上并未打开,造成“堆芯熔化”事故。The Three Mile Island Accident (The TMI accident) described as the United States' worst nuclear accident, occurred on March 28, 1979. It provides the main example of actual application of the Price-Anderson Act. The accident started when a pressure relief valve did not close, and as much as 5 million gallons of reactor coolant water was lost, discharged directly into the reactor building and auxiliary building, over several days. The reactor core became uncovered and began to heat up. Core temperatures reached 3500 to 4000 degrees F or more. Some of the fuel rods cracked, releasing radioactive material into the coolant water. About 10 hours into the incident, there was an explosion of hydrogen gas in the reactor building, and operators feared another explosion. They struggled for weeks to regain control and contain the radioactive releases caused by the accident, and the reactor was not stabilized until a month later, on April 27, 1989. The major pathway for the release of radiation to the environment was through the escape of coolant into the auxiliary building and through its ventilation system. See (US) Court of Appeals, 1999, pp. 66 – 70, cited from Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for:The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler Technical Carson City, Nevada, p.14, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004.
③ See “NRC determination that the Three Mile Island accident does not constitute an ‘extraordinary nuclear occurrence’ ”, in: NLB 25 (1980), p.26, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-25-EN.pdf, viewed on 1 March 2004.
① 台湾《游离辐射防护法》(中华民国九十一年一月三十日华总一义字第○九一○○○一九○○○号总统令制定、公布,全文五十七条)第二条第八至十一款分别规定:“曝露:指人体受游离辐射照射或接触、摄入放射性物质之过程。”“职业曝露:指从事辐射作业所受之曝露。”“医疗曝露:指在医疗过程中病人及其协助者所接受之曝露。”“紧急曝露:指发生事故之时或之后,为抢救遇险人员,阻止事态扩大或其它紧急情况,而有组织且自愿接受之曝露。”参见 http://www.aec.gov.tw/start.php, 2004 年 5 月 4 日浏览。
② See NLB 45 (June 1990), p.70, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-45-EN.pdf, viewed on 3 March 2004. 原文如下:The NRC’s regulations concerning an extraordinary nuclear occurrence (10 CPR Part 140. Subpart B) presently define the latter by reference to two criteria as follows: Criterion I: There has been a substantial discharge of radioactive material off-site, or there have been substantial levels of radiation off-site when radioactive material is released from its intended place of confinement and a) persons off-site were or, could have been, exposed to radiation resulting in a dose in excess of a specified level, or b) surface contamination of off-site property has occurred in excess of specified values, or c) surface contamination of any off-site property has occurred as the result of a release of radioactive material in the course of transportation at levels in excess of specified values. Criterion II: If an event satisfies Criterion I, it is determined that the event has resulted or will probably result in substantial damages to persons or property off-site if a) the event has caused the deaths or physical injury, within thirty days of the event, of five or more people located off-site, or b) damage off-site amounting to $2.5 million or more has been or will probably be sustained by any one person, or of more than $5 million in the aggregate has been or will probably be sustained, or c) damage off-site amounting to $5 000 or more has been or will probably be sustained by each of fifty or more persons, provided that damage of $1 million or more has been sustained.
① To make the determination, the DOE applies a two-part test. The first part is to determine whether a discharge or dispersal constitutes a substantial amount of nuclear material, or has caused substantial radiation levels offsite. The intent of the first part of the test is to determine whether something exceptional and unexpected has occurred, raising the possibility of damage to persons or property. To make a determination that an ENO may have occurred, the DOE must make one of two findings: (1) that one or more persons offsite were or might have been exposed to radiation resulting in a dose in excess of levels published in a table in the regulations, or (2) surface contamination of offsite property has occurred that exceeds levels in a second table, also contained in the regulations [DOE, 1984, pp. 506-508]. If the DOE makes one of these two findings, the second part of the DOE's ENO determination is to decide whether there have been or will probably be substantial damages to persons or property offsite. In this part, the DOE must make one of four findings: (1) there has been a death or hospitalization of five or more people within 30 days of the incident, showing objective evidence of physical injury from exposure to nuclear material, (2) property damage greater than or equal to $2.5 million to one person or $5 million in the aggregate has occurred, (3) property damage greater than or equal to $5000 to 50 or more persons and $1 million or more in aggregate has occurred, or (4) there has been a financial loss resulting from appropriate protective actions [DOE, 1984, pp. 506-508]. See Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for:The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler Technical Carson City, Nevada, p.6, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004.
② (Germany) Act on the Peaceful Utilisation of Atomic Energy and the Protection Against its Hazards (Atomic Energy Act) of 23 December 1959 (BGB1.I,p.814), as amended and promulgated on 15 July 1985 (BGB1.I,p.1565), last amendment by the Act of 22 April 2002 (BGB1.I, p.1351), in: Supplement to NLB 70, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-70/supplement.pdf, viewed on 25 December 2004. Here BGB1.means Bundesgesetzblatt = Federal Law Gazette of the Federal Republic of Germany.
③ Article 2 of Canada Nuclear Liability Act, available at http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/N-28/86947.html, viewed on 10 June 2003. 原文如下:“nuclear incident” means any occurrence resulting in injury or damage that is attributable to a breach of the duty imposed on an operator by this Act.
④ Article 3(a) of Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (Romania)(adopted on 3 December 2001). Unofficial translation kindly provided by the Romanian authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 August 2003. 原文如下: nuclear accident means any occurrence or series of occurrences having the same origin which causes nuclear damage or, from the perspective of preventive measures, creates a grave and imminent threat of causing such damage.
⑤ Article 2(4) of Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage (Republic of Korea). Unofficial translation kindly provided by the Korean authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 August 2003. 原文如下:nuclear accident means any occurrence or series of occurrences having the same origin which causes nuclear damage or creates a grave and imminent threat of causing such damage.
⑥ Chapter I.Section 1 of Law on the Use of Nuclear Energy and Radiation Safety (Ukraine)(8 February 1995) , Unofficial translation established by the NEA Secretariat, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-56-SUP.pdf, viewed on 18 August 2003. 原文如下:nuclear incident shall denote any event or any number of related events of the same origin resulting in nuclear damage.
① 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 360 页。
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 503 页。
③ Article I(1)(k) of Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage,1963. 原文如下:“Nuclear Damage” means i. loss of life, any personal injury or any loss of , or damage to, property which arises out of or results from the radioactive properties or a combination of radioactive properties with toxic, explosive or other hazardous properties of nuclear fuel or radioactive products or waste in, or of nuclear material coming from, originating in, or send to, a nuclear installation; ii. any other loss of , or damage so arising or resulting if and to the extent that the law of the competent court so provides; and iii. if the law of the Installation State so provides, loss of life, any personal injury or any loss of , or damage to, property which arises out of or results from other ionizing radiation emitted by any other source of radiation inside a nuclear installation.
① Article I(7) of Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships, 1962. 原文如下:“Nuclear Damage” means loss of life, any personal injury or any loss of , or damage to, property which arises out of or results from the radioactive properties or a combination of radioactive properties with toxic, explosive or other hazardous properties of nuclear fuel or radioactive products or waste; any other loss, or damage or expense so arising or resulting shall be included only if and to the extent that the applicable national law so provides.
② Chapter I Article I (1)(f) of Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage; Article I (1)(k) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage; and Article 2(k) of Protocol to Amend the 1963 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage. 原文如下:“Nuclear Damage” means i. loss of life, any personal injury; ii. loss of or damage to property; and each of the following to the extent determined by the law of the competent court – iii. economic loss arising from loss or damage referred to in sub-paragraph (i) or (ii), insofar as not included in those sub-paragraphs, if incurred by a person entitled to claim in respect of such loss or damage; iv. the costs of measures of reinstatement of impaired environment, unless such impairment is insignificant, if such measures are actually taken or to be taken, and insofar as not included in sub-paragraph (ii); v. loss of income deriving from an economic interest in any use or enjoyment of the environment, incurred as a result of a significant impairment of that environment, and insofar as not included in sub-paragraph (ii); vi. the costs of preventive measures, and further loss or damage caused by such measures; vii. any other economic loss, other than any caused by the impairment of the environment, if permitted by the general law on civil liability of the competent court, in the case of sub-paragraphs (i) to (v) and (vii) above, to the extent that the loss or damage arises out of or results from ionizing radiation emitted by any source of radiation inside a nuclear installation, or emitted from nuclear fuel or radioactive products or waste in, or of nuclear material coming from, originating in, or sent to, a nuclear installation, whether so arising from the radioactive properties of such matter, or from a combination of radioactive properties with toxic, explosive or other hazardous properties of such matter.
① 原文如下:“ The operator of a nuclear installation shall be liable, in accordance with this Convention, for: i. damage to or loss of life of any person; and ii. damage to or loss of any property other than 1. the nuclear installation itself and any other nuclear installation, including a nuclear installation under construction, on the site where that installation is located; and 2. any property on that same site which is used or to be used in connection with any such installation, upon proof that such damage or loss (hereinafter referred to as‘damage’) was caused by a nuclear incident in such installation or involving nuclear substances coming from such installation, except as otherwise provided for in Article 4. ” See Article 3 of Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982.
② See I.B. vii)-x) of Protocol to Amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris_convention.pdf, viewed on 26 March 2004.
③ The English provision is “For the purposes of this Protocol, whenever both Nuclear Damage and damage other than Nuclear Damage have been caused by a Nuclear Incident, or jointly by a Nuclear Incident and one or more other occurrences, such other damage shall, to the extent that it is not reasonably separable from the Nuclear Damage, be deemed, for the purposes of this Protocol, to be Nuclear Damage caused by that Nuclear Incident.” See Article 1(3) of Protocol on Claims, Legal Proceedings and Indemnification to the Framework Agreement on a Multilateral Nuclear Environmental Programme in the Russian Federation (Done at Stockholm on 21 May 2003), available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/MNEPR-protocol.pdf, viewed on 20 February 2005. The Framework Agreement on a Multilateral Nuclear Environmental Programme in the Russian Federation is available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/MNEPR-en.pdf, viewed on 20 February 2005. On 21 May 2003, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Russian Federation, Sweden, United Kingdom, United States, European Atomic Energy Community, European Atomic Energy Community and European Community signed the MNEPR Framework Agreement and Protocol, among which the United States only signed the Framework Agreement on a Multilateral Nuclear Environmental Programme in the Russian Federation and not the Protocol. See http://www.nea.fr/html/law/mnepr-ratification.html, viewed on 20 February 2005.
① 可总结为:Nuclear damage covered by the Price-Anderson Act includes bodily injury, sickness, disease, death, loss of or damage to property, or loss of use of property arising out of or resulting from the radioactive, toxic, explosive or other hazardous properties of source, special nuclear or byproduct material. Nuclear damage also includes legal liability arising out of or resulting from a precautionary evacuation. See NLB 45, p.69, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-45-EN.pdf, viewed on 3 March 2004.
② Section 11(w. and gg.) of (U.S.) The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, in: Supplement to NLB 42, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-42-SUP.pdf, viewed on 10 November 2004. 原文如下:The term “precautionary evacuation” means an evacuation of the public within a specified area near a nuclear facility, or the transportation route in the case of an accident involving transportation of source material, special nuclear material, byproduct material, high-level radioactive waste, spent nuclear fuel, or transuranic waste to or from a production or utilization facility, if the evacuation is: 1. The result of any event that is not classified as a nuclear incident but that poses imminent danger of bodily injury or property damage from the radiological properties of source material, special nuclear material, byproduct material, high-level radioactive waste, spent nuclear fuel, or transuranic waste, and causes an evacuation; and 2. Initiated by an official of a State or a political subdivision of a State, who is authorized by State law to initiate such an evacuation and who reasonably determined that such an evacuation was necessary to protect the public health and safety.
③ (Japan) The Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage (Law No.147 of 17th June 1961, as last amended on 31st March 1989), in: Supplement to NLB 45. Its English version is unofficial translation by the NEA Secretariat. 英文表述如下:As used in this Law, “nuclear damage” means any damage caused by the effects of the fission process of nuclear fuel material, or of the radiation from nuclear fuel material, etc., or of the toxic nature of such materials (which means effects that give rise to toxicity or its secondary effects on the human body by ingesting or inhaling such materials); however, the damage suffered by the nuclear operator who is liable for such damage pursuant to the following Section, is excluded.
④ Article 2 of Canada Nuclear Liability Act, available at http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/N-28/86947.html, viewed on June 10, 2003. 原文如下:“Damage” means … any loss of or damage to property, whether real or personal, and … includes any damage arising out of or attributable to any loss of or damage to that property. “injury” means personal injury and includes loss of life.
① Article 2(2) of Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage (Republic of Korea). Unofficial translation kindly provided by the Korean authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 August 2003. 原文如下:“Nuclear damage” means any costs provided for in the following Subparagraphs, and damage (including loss of economic interest suffered from significant impairment of the environment) caused by the effects of the fission process of nuclear fuel material, or by the effects of radiation of nuclear fuel material or other materials contaminated by nuclear fuel material, or by the effects of the toxic nature of such materials, provided however, that damage suffered by the relevant nuclear operator or damage suffered by his employees as a result of performance of their duties is excluded: a. the costs of measures taken or to be taken in accordance with the plan pursuant to the Disaster Management Act or other laws relevant thereto in order to reinstate significantly impaired environment; b. the costs of preventive measures (including additional loss or damage resulting from the implementation of preventive measures) taken in accordance with the measures plan pursuant to the Disaster Management Act or other laws relevant thereto in order to mitigate or minimise damage or costs in the case of a nuclear incident, and in order to prevent or minimise damage or costs in the case of a grave and imminent threat of causing such damage.
② Article 1(1) of Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security (Ukraine). Unofficial translation established by the NEA Secretariat, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 August 2003.
③ Chapter I Section 1 of Law on the Use of Nuclear Energy and Radiation Safety (Ukraine). Unofficial translation established by the NEA Secretariat, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-56-SUP.pdf, viewed on 18 August 2003. 原文如下: “nuclear damage shall denote death, injury or any material loss or damage, or any other loss or damage, resulting from the hazardous properties of nuclear material at a nuclear installation or of nuclear material supplied to, or received from, a nuclear installation, excluding damage to the nuclear installation itself or to the means of transportation. ”
④ 台湾《核子损害赔偿法》(1997 年 5 月 14 日修正)第 8 条。
① 刘国华等:“森林在净化放射性核污染中的作用”,载《世界林业研究》2002 年 8 月第 4 期,第 34 页。
② 放射性污染对人体健康、财产及环境等所造成的严重损害,在核能军事利用方面,具有典型意义的莫过于 1945 年 8 月日本广岛、长崎原子弹爆炸事件;在核能和平利用方面,1986 年 4 月苏联切尔诺贝利核电站事故最具代表性,还有 1979 年 3 月美国三里岛核电站事故等;还有数起鲜为人知的核污染事件,例 如,1952 年,美国在北极圈内属于丹麦王国的格陵兰岛图勒地段修建了一个战略空军基地,专门供携带原子武器的 B-52 重型轰炸机起降,意在震慑与其社会制度不同的国家。1968 年 1 月 21 日,一架载有 4 枚氢弹的 B-52 飞机升空,执行 24 小时昼夜不断的监测任务。岂料,飞机突然在空中失火,并在距图勒基地仅11 公里的海面坠毁。实属万幸,那天 B-52 轰炸机坠落时,氢弹没有爆炸,才免去了人类的一场大灾难。但 4 颗氢弹中一枚穿透冰层沉入海底,成为一个长久使人揪心的潜在污染源;另外 3 枚崩裂,弹体里面的钚外泄。事故发生后,美军方立即驱使 1200 名在基地打工的丹麦人去现场严密搜索弹体残骸,同时,竭力缩小事态,一直过了 20 个小时才发布飞机出事的消息,并宣称坠落氢弹壳内仅有 3.2kg 钚,其泄露物的放射性不足以构成对人体的威胁。光阴荏苒,27 年后统计,在这期间,图勒地区许多居民因患怪异癌症而丧生。该地的死亡率要比其他地区的平均死亡率高 40%。1995 年,法国《时事综述》周刊报道,美国能源部的一份关于图勒美军基地的秘密文件曝光。据该文件披露,当年美机所携氢弹的钚装载量并非美军方所说的 3.2kg,而是 6kg,且具有危及人体健康的极强的放射性。丹麦公众闻此消息,极为愤怒。当年因此蒙难的图勒基地丹麦职工及其家属——470 名鳏夫寡妇为维护自己的权益组成协会,要求给予赔偿。参见 http://www.kepu.com.cn/gb/technology/nuclear/scrap/200207310032.html,2004 年 4 月 10 日浏览。
① 例如,台湾《核子事故紧急应变法》(2003 年 12 月 9 日制定和修正、2003 年 12 月 24 日公布施行)第二条分别对整备措施、应变措施、复原措施、民众防护、掩蔽和碘片等术语作了明确界定。整备措施:指于平时预为规划、编组、训练及演习之各项作为,俾核子事故发生或有发生之虞时,能迅速采行应变措施;应变措施:指核子事故发生或有发生之虞时,为防止事故持续恶化及保护民众生命、身体及财产安全所进行之各项作为;复原措施:指核子事故经控制不再持续恶化,至受事故影响区域可恢复正常生活状况前,所需完成之暂时移居、地区进出管制、食物及饮水管制等相关防护措施;民众防护:指核子事故发生或有发生之虞时,为减少辐射曝露,保障民众生命、身体安全,所采行之掩蔽、服用碘片、疏散收容、食物及饮水管制、暂时移居、地区进出管制、污染清除、医疗救护等措施;掩蔽:指核子事故发生或有发生之虞时,民众停留于室内,并立即关闭门窗及通风系统,以降低吸入放射性核种及辐射曝露可能性之措施;碘片:指核子事故发生或有发生之虞时,适时服用一定剂量,可防止外释放射性碘积存于人体甲状腺部位,以避免或减少甲状腺癌发生之碘化钾药剂。同时,该法第十五条规定了定期办理演习制度,即中央主管机关应定期择定一紧急应变计画区,依核定之紧急应变基本计画办理演习。前项演习,指定之机关、地方主管机关、核子反应器设施经营者及公、私立学校、机关(构)、团体、公司、厂场、民众应配合执行演习。参与前项演习之人员,其所属学校、机关(构)、团体、公司、厂场应给予公假。核子反应器设施经营者应定期就每一核子反应器设施,执行核子反应器设施紧急应变计画演习。
② 例如,联合国国际法委员会于2001年第53次会议上通过的《预防危险活动越境损害条款》(草案)第1条和第2条规定,“损害”指对人、财产或环境造成的损害;“越境损害”指在起源国以外的一国领土内或其管辖或控制下的其他地方造成的损害,不论各当事国是否有共同边界;“起源国”指在其领土内或在其管辖或控制下的其他地方计划进行或进行国际法不加禁止的、其有形后果有造成重大越境损害的危险的活动的国家;“可能受影响国”指在其领土内或在其管辖或控制下的任何其他地方有可能发生重大越境损害的国家;See International liability for injurious consequences arising out of acts not prohibited by international law (Draft articles on prevention of transboundary damage from hazardous activities), available at http://www.un.org/law/ilc/texts/prevention/preventionfra.htm, viewed on 27 February 2004. 原文是:The present articles apply to activities not prohibited by international law which involve a risk of causing significant transboundary harm through their physical consequences. For the purposes of the present articles: (a) “Risk of causing significant transboundary harm” includes risks taking the form of a high probability of causing significant transboundary harm and a low probability of causing disastrous transboundary harm; (b) “Harm” means harm caused to persons, property or the environment; (c) “Transboundary harm” means harm caused in the territory of or in other places under the jurisdiction or control of a State other than the State of origin, whether or not the States concerned share a common border; (d) “State of origin” means the State in the territory or otherwise under the jurisdiction or control of which the activities referred to in article 1 are planned or are carried out; (e) “State likely to be affected” means the State or States in the territory of which there is the risk of significant transboundary harm or which have jurisdiction or control over any other place where there is such a risk;…
① 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室编:《现代汉语词典》,商务印书馆 1983 年月第 2 版,第 1026页。
② 辞海编辑委员会:《辞海》(下),上海辞书出版社 1999 年 9 月第 1 版,第 4900 页。
③ 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室编:《现代汉语词典》,商务印书馆 1983 年月第 2 版,第 558 页。
① 辞海编辑委员会:《辞海》(上),上海辞书出版社 1999 年 9 月第 1 版,第 722 页。
② 魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社和高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 642、645 页;杨立新著:《侵权法论》(下册),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版,第 722、728~729 页;杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 618~620 页。人的生命权、健康权和身体权,在学术上称之为物质性人格权。
③ 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 472~473页。
④ 例如,《日本民法典》第七百二十一条(胎儿的特例)规定:“胎儿就损害赔偿请求权,视为已出生。”参见王书江译:《日本民法典》,中国法制出版社 2000 年 4 月北京第 1 版,第 128 页。
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 474 页。原文是“Preventive measures means any reasonable measures taken by any person after an incident has occurred to prevent or minimize damage.”
② Article I(1)(n-o) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage. 原文如下:“‘ Preventive measures’ means any reasonable measures taken by any person after an incident has occurred to prevent or minimize damage referred to in sub-paragraphs (k)(i) to (v) or (vii), subject to any approval of the competent authorities required by the law of the State where the measures were taken. ” “‘Reasonable measures’ means measures which are found under the law of the competent court to be appropriate and proportionate having regard to all the circumstances, for example- i. the nature and extent of the damage incurred or, in the case of preventive measures, the nature and extent of the risk of such damage; ii. the extent to which, at the time they are taken, such measures are likely to be effective; and iii. relevant scientific and technical expertise. ”
③ Article I (h) of Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage. 原文如下:“Preventive measures” means any reasonable measures taken by any person after a nuclear incident has occurred to prevent or minimize damage referred to in sub-paragraphs (f)(i) to (v) or (vii), subject to any approval of the competent authorities required by the law of the State where the measures were taken.
④ Article 3(j)-(k) of Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (Romania)(adopted on 3 December 2001). Unofficial translation kindly provided by the Romanian authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 August 2003. 原文如下:j) reasonable measures means any measures which are adequate and proportional to the extent of the damage meant to reduce the consequences of nuclear accidents; k) preventive measures means any reasonable measures taken by any person after the occurrence of a nuclear accident, in order to prevent or minimise damage referred to under paragraph d), sub-paragraphs 1-5 and 7, in compliance with the decisions of the competent national authority.
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 473~474页。
② 蔡守秋主编:《环境资源法学》,人民法院出版社和中国人民公安大学出版社 2003 年 7 月第 1 版,第 2~4页。
③ 例如,《中华人民共和国环境保护法》(1989 年)规定:“本法所称环境,是指影响人类生存和发展的各种天然的和经过人工改造的自然因素的总体,包括大气、水、海洋、土地、矿藏、森林、草原、野生生物、自然遗迹、人文遗迹、自然保护区、风景名胜区、城市和乡村等。”
④ “…Both aspects of man’s environment, the natural and the man-made, are essential to his well-being and to the enjoyment of basic human rights—even the right to life itself.” See I(1) of Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, adopted by the U.N. Conference on the Human Environment at Stockholm, 16 June 1972. Report on the UN Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 15-16 June 1972, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1 at 3 (1973), U.N. Doc. A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1 at 2-65, and Corr.1 (1973), 11 I.L.M.1416 (1972).
⑤ “The President shall transmit to the Congress annually beginning July 1, 1970, an Environmental Quality Report (hereinafter refered to as the “report”) which shall set forth (1) the status and condition of the major natural, manmade, or altered environmental classes of the Nation, including, but not limited to, the air, the aquatic, including marine, estuarine, and fresh water, and the terrestrial environment, including, but not limited to, the forest, dryland, wetland, range, urban, suburban, and rural environment; …” See § 4341. of Natinal Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 U.S.C.A. §§ 4321 to 4370a ), in: Federal Environmental Laws (1988 Edition), St. Paul, Minn., West Publishing Co., 1988, p.511.
⑥ 蔡守秋主编:《环境资源法学》,人民法院出版社和中国人民公安大学出版社 2003 年 7 月第 1 版,第 2~4页。
① 郑冲、贾红梅译:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 1999 年 5 月第 1 版,第 17 页;陈卫佐译注:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 2004 年 5 月第 1 版,第 24~25 页;另可参见高利红著:《动物的法律地位研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2005 年 5 月第 1 版。
② 罗结珍译:《法国民法典》,中国法制出版社 1999 年 10 月北京第 1 版,第 167~171 页。
③ 参见蔡守秋:《人与自然关系中的环境资源法》,载《现代法学》2002 年第 2 期,第 45~60 页;蔡守秋著:《调整论——对主流法理学的反思与补充》,高等教育出版社 2003 年 9 月第 1 版。
① 陈慈阳著:《环境法总论》,台湾元照出版公司 2003 年 1 月第二版,第 423、427 页。
② See Francesco Francioni and Tullio Scovazzi (Editors), International Responsibility for Environmental Harm, Graham & Trotman, 1991. 所谓生态损害,是指在开发资源的人所遭受的损害之外,环境本身所遭受的损害。参见[法]亚历山大·基斯著,张若思编译:《国际环境法》,法律出版社 2000 年 7 月第 1 版,第 367 页。
③ “Pollution damage” means loss or damage caused outside the ship carrying oil by contamination resulting from the escape or discharge of oil from the ship, wherever such escape or discharge may occur, and includes the costs of preventive measures and further loss or damage caused by preventive measures. See Article 1 (6) of International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, concluded at Brussels, 29 November 1969 and entered into force, 19 June 1975. 973 U.N.T.S.3, 9 I.L.M. 45 (1970).
④ “Pollution damage” means (a) loss or damage caused outside the ship carrying oil by contamination resulting from the escape or discharge of oil from the ship, wherever such escape or discharge may occur, provided that compensation for impairment of the environment other than loss of profit from such impairment shall be limited to costs of reasonable measures of reinstatement actually undertaken or to be undertaken. (b) the costs of preventive measures and further loss or damage caused by preventive measures. See Article 2 (6) of Protocol of 1984 to Amend the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969, concluded at London, 25 May 1984 and not in force as of 31 December 1992. IMO Doc. LEG/CONF6/66.
① 《中华人民共和国海洋环境保护法》对“海洋环境污染损害”界定实际上就是 1982 年《联合国海洋法公约》对 “海洋环境污染”的界定。应该正确理解和区别一般意义上的“海洋环境污染”和“海洋环境污染损害”与法律责任意义上的“海洋环境污染损害”或“海洋环境损害”。前者一般是指对海洋环境的不利影响或有害影响;后者是特指应当依法承担相应法律责任的损害。参见蔡守秋、何卫东著:《当代海洋环境资源法》,煤炭工业出版社 2001 年 4 月第 1 版,第 9 页。
② 台湾《游离辐射防护法》,中华民国九十一年一月三十日华总一义字第○九一○○○一九○○○号总统令制定公布,全文五十七条。该法第二条第十二项规定:“辐射作业:指任何引入新辐射源或曝露途径、或扩大受照人员范围、或改变现有辐射源之曝露途径,从而使人们受到之曝露,或受到曝露之人数增加而获得净利益之人类活动。包括对辐射源进行持有、制造、生产、安装、改装、使用、运转、维修、拆除、检查、处理、输入、输出、销售、运送、贮存、转让、租借、过境、转口、废弃或处置之作业及其它经主管机关指定或公告者。”参见 http://www.aec.gov.tw/start.php,2004 年 4 月 12 日浏览。
③ 高家伟著:《欧洲环境法》,工商出版社 2000 年 11 月第 1 版,第 149、154~156 页。
① Article 1(15) of Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (CRAMRA), concluded at Wellington, 2 June 1988 and not in force as of 31 December 1992. Doc AMR/SCM/88/78, 27 I.L.M. 859 (1988). 原文如下:“Damage to the Antarctic environment or dependent or associated ecosystems” means any impact on the living or non-living components of that environment or those ecosystems, including harm to atmospheric, marine or terrestrial life, beyond that which is negligible or which has been assessed and judged to be acceptable pursuant to this Convention.
② Article 1(a) of Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP), concluded at Geneva, 13 November 1979 and entered into force, 16 March 1983. 1302 U.N.T.S. 217, 18 I.L.M. 1442 (1979), T.I.A.S. No. 10541. 原文如下:“air pollution” means the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the air resulting in deleterious effects of such a nature as to endanger human health, harm living resources and ecosystems and material property and impair or interfere with amenities and other legitimate uses of the environment, …
③ Article 1(4) of United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, concluded at Montego Bay, 10 December 1982 and entered into force, 16 November 1994. U.N. Doc. A/CONF.62/122, 21 I.L.M. 1261 (1982). 原文如下:“pollution of the marine environment” means the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine environment, including estuaries, which results or is likely to result in such deleterious effects as harm to living resources and marine life, hazards to human health, hindrance to marine activities, including fishing and other legitimate uses of the sea, impairment of quality for use of sea water and reduction of amenities.
④ Article 1(2) of Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer , concluded at Vienna, 22 March 1985 and entered into force, 22 September 1988. UNEP Doc. TG.53/5, 26 I.L.M. 1529 (1987). 原文如下:“Adverse effect” means changes in the physical environment or biota, including changes in climate, which have significant deleterious effects on human health or on the composition, resilience and productivity of natural and managed ecosystems, on materials useful to mankind. Also see Article 1(1) of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, concluded at Rio de Janeiro, 29 May 1992 and entered into force, 21 March 1994. 31 I.L.M. 849 (1992). 原文如下:“Adverse effect of climate change” means changes in the physical environment or biota resulting from climate change which have significant deleterious effects on human health or on the composition, resilience and productivity of natural and managed ecosystems or on the operation of socio-economic systems or on human health and welfare.
⑤ See Article 1(vii) of Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context, done at Espoo (Finland) on 25 February 1991. 原文如下:“Impact” means any effect caused by a proposed activity on the environment including human health and safety, flora, fauna, soil, air, water, climate, landscape, and historical monuments or other physical structures or the interaction among these factors; it also includes effects on cultural heritage or socio-economic conditions resulting from interaction to these factors.
① 关于这几个案例的中文资料,可参见王曦主编:《国际环境法资料选编》,民主与建设出版社 1999 年 11月第 1 版,第 603~665 页。关于这几个案例的原始翔实材料,可浏览联合国网站:http://www.un.org, 具体位 置 在 国 际 法 院 ( International Court of Justice ) 的 决 议 ( Decisions ) 部 分 , 即http://212.153.43.18/icjwww/idecisions.htm 。
② 王曦编著:《国际环境法》,法律出版社 1998 年 4 月第 1 版,第 147~149 页。
① Article I(m) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and Article I(g) in Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage. 原文如下:“Measures of reinstatement” means any reasonable measures which have been approved by the competent authorities of the State where the measures were taken, and which aim to reinstate or restore damaged or destroyed components of the environment, or to introduce, where reasonable, the equivalent of these components into the environment. The law of the State where the damage is suffered shall determine who is entitled to take such measures. Also see Article 3(l) of (Romania) Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (adopted on 3 December 2001). Unofficial translation kindly provided by the Romanian authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 August 2003. 原文如下:measures of reinstatement means any reasonable measures approved by the competent national authority, and which aim to reinstate or restore damaged or destroyed components of the environment and to introduce, wherever possible, the equivalent of these components into the environment.
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 474~475页。关于国际环境机制,参见王杰主编:《国际机制论》,新华出版社 2002 年 1 月北京第 1 版,第 337~381页。关于国际法上的跨界损害,可参见林灿铃著:《国际法上的跨界损害之国家责任》,华文出版社 2000年 8 月第 1 版。在此衷心感谢中国政法大学的林灿铃博士惠赠该书。另可参见林灿铃著:《国际环境法》,人民出版社 2004 年 4 月第 1 版,第 230~250 页。
③ 韩德培主编:《环境保护法教程》(第四版),法律出版社 2003 年 4 月第四版,第 5 页。
④ 陈慈阳著:《环境法总论》,台湾元照出版公司 2003 年 1 月第 2 版,第 433~435 页。
① 韩健、陈立虎著:《国际环境法》,武汉大学出版社 1992 年 7 月第 1 版,第 290 页;林灿铃著:《国际环境法》,人民出版社 2004 年 4 月第 1 版,第 231~232 页;唐双娥:“‘全球公域’的法律保护”,载《世界环境》2002 年第 3 期,第 21~24 页;Susan J. Buck, The Global Commons: an Introduction, London: Earthscan Publications, 1998; John Vogler, The Global Commons: Environmental and Technological Governance, Chichester, West Sussex, England; New York: J. Wiley & Sons, c2000; Environmental global commons, edited by V.K. Prabhakar, New Delhi: Anmol Pub. Pvt. Ltd., 2001; Privatizing Nature: Political Struggles for the Global Commons, edited by Michael Goldman, London: Pluto Press in association with Transnational Institute (TNI), 1998; Marvin S. Soroos, The Endangered Atmosphere: Preserving a Global Commons, Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, c1997; John Vogler, The Global Commons: a Regime Analysis, Chichester : J. Wiley & Sons, c1995.
② The word “common” means “belonging or shared equally by more than one”. See Henry Campbell Black, M.A.: Black’s Law Dictionary (fifth edition): Definitions of the Terms and Phrases of American and English Jurisprudence, Ancient and Modern, St. Paul Minn. West Publishing Co. 1979, p.249.“Common”表示:“1.共用权,即地上权(profit à prendre)的一种形式,指一个或一个以上的人,共同享有另一人土地上利益的权利,如共同享有他人土地上自然产品或河流的权利。这种权利大部分通过时效(prescription)或授权(grant)产生。2.公用地或公地,为了城市居民的便利、娱乐而划拨的供公众使用的土地。3.共用地,受共用权支配的土地。”参见薛波主编:《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 259 页。
① See Principle 21 of Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, adopted by the U.N. Conference on the Human Environment at Stockholm, 16 June 1972. Report of the UN Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 5-16 June 1972, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.48/14/Rev. 1 at 3 (1973), U.N. Doc. A/CONF. 48/14 at 2-65, and Corr. 1 (1972), 11 I.L.M. 1416 (1972). 原文如下:States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
② See Principle 2 of Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, adopted by the U.N. Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) at Rio de Janeiro, 13 June 1992. U.N. Doc. A/CONF.151/26 (vol.I) (1992), 31 I.L.M. 874 (1992). 原文如下:States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental and developmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
③ Charter of the United Nations (as Amended), concluded at San Francisco, 26 June 1945 and entered into force, 24 October 1945. 1 U.N.T.S. xvi, 1976 Y.B.U.N. 1043, 59 Stat. 1031, T.S. 993.
④ See Antarctic Treaty , concluded at Washington, 1 December 1959 and entered into force, 23 June 1961. 402 U.N.T.S. 71, 12 U.S.T. 794, T.I.A.S. No. 4780, 19 I.L.M. 860 1980; Certain Recommendations of Third Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Annex: Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora concluded at Brussels, 13 June 1964. 17 U.S.T. 992, T.I.A.S. No. 6058; Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (With Annex), concluded at London, 11 February 1972 and entered into force, 11 March 1978. 11 ILM 251 (1972). 29 U.S.T. 441, T.I.A.S. No. 8826, 11 I.L.M. 251 (1972); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), concluded at Canberra, 20 May 1980 and entered into force, 7 April 1982. L252 O.J.E.C. 27 (1981), T.I.A.S. No. 10240, 19 I.L.M. 841 (1980); Resolution on the Question of Antarctic, adopted by the UN General Assembly, 15 December 1983. G.A.Res. 38/77, U.N. GAOR, 38th Sess. Supp. No. 47, at 69, U.N. Doc. A/38/69 (1983); Resolution on the Question of Antarctic, adopted by the UN General Assembly, 17 December 1984. G.A.Res. 39/152, U.N. GAOR, 39th Sess. Supp. No. 51, at 94, U.N. Doc. A/39/51 (1984); Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (CRAMRA) (Without Annex for Arbitral Tribunal), concluded at Wellington, 2 June 1988 and not in force as of 31 December 1992.Doc AMR/SCM/88/78, 27 I.L.M. 859 (1988); Resolution on the Question of Antarctic, adopted by the UN General Assembly, 15 December 1989. G.A.Res. 44/124, U.N. GAOR, 44th Sess. Supp. No. 49, at 91, U.N. Doc. A/44/49 (1989); Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, With Annexes I & II Only. Not in force as of 31 December 1992. XI ATSCM/2, 30 I.L.M. 1461 (1991) , etc. 另外,还有 1991 年《保护北极环境宣言》等。
① See Article 1(15) and Article 8(1) of Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (CRAMRA). 原文是:“Damage to the Antarctic environment or dependent or associated ecosystems” means any impact on the living or non-living components of that environment or those ecosystems, including harm to atmospheric, marine or terrestrial life, beyond that which is negligible or which has been assessed and judged to be accepted pursuant to this Convention. An Operator undertaking any Antarctic mineral resource activity shall take necessary and timely response action, including prevention, containment, clean-up and removal measures, if the activity results in or threatens to result in Damage to the Antarctic environment or dependent or associated ecosystems.…
② 参见《国际法委员会第 42 届会议工作报告》(中文版)第二条“用语”,第 226 页。转引自林灿铃著:《国际法上的跨界损害之国家责任》,华文出版社 2000 年 8 月第 1 版,第 52 页注释①。
① “Measures of reinstatement” means any reasonable measures which have been approved by the competent authorities of the State where the measures were taken, and which aim to reinstate or restore damaged or destroyed components of the environment, or to introduce, where reasonable, the equivalent of these components into the environment. The legislation of the State where the nuclear damage is suffered shall determine who is entitled to take such measures. “Preventive measures” means any reasonable measures taken by any person after a nuclear incident or an event creating a grave and imminent threat of nuclear damage has occurred, to prevent or minimise nuclear damage …, subject to any approval of the competent authorities required by the law of the State where the measures were taken. “Reasonable measures” means measures which are found under the law of the competent court to be appropriate and proportionate, having regard to all the circumstances, for example: the nature and extent of the nuclear damage incurred or, in the case of preventive measures, the nature and extent of the risk of such damage; the extent to which, at the time they are taken, such measures are likely to be effective; and relevant scientific and technical expertise. See Article I(1)(m-o) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage; Article I(g-h), (1)(i-iii) of Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage; I.B. viii)-x) of Protocol to Amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (12 February 2004).
① 傅济熙编著:《核损害的民事责任与赔偿》,原子能出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 53~54 页。
② Atomic Energy Act of 1954, in: Federal Environmental Laws (1988 Edition), St. Paul, Minn., West Publishing Co., 1988, pp.490-506.
③ The Price-Anderson Act was enacted into law in September 1957 and has been extended several times. It constitutes Section 170 of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954. The revision of 1988 extended the Act through August 1, 2002 for NRC-licensed facilities. The Defense Authorization Bill for FY 2005 extended the provisions of the Act applicable to Department of Energy contractors through December 31, 2006. While all operating nuclear power plants and other facilities already licensed by the NRC will continue to be covered under the Act, new plants licensed after August 1, 2002 and DOE contracts signed or renewed after January 1, 2007 will not be covered unless the Act is renewed. See The Price-Anderson Act:Background Report (March 2001, Revised November 2002, November 2004), available at http://www.ans.org/pi/ps/docs/ps54-bi.pdf, viewed on 20 September 2003 and 30 January 2005.
④ The US Congress enacted Price-Anderson to meet two basic objectives: (1) to ensure adequate funds would be available to satisfy liability claims of members of the public in the event of a nuclear accident; and (2) to remove the threat of potentially large liability claims in the event of such an accident, a risk that would have limited private sector participation in the development of nuclear power. See Chapter one of Report to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accidents, available at http://www.state.nv.us/nucwaste/news/rpccna/pcrcna07.htm, viewed on 2 February 2005.
① See 1965 Act on the Third Party Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships. 1968 Amendment, in: NLB 2, p.13; NLB 3, p.5, p.45; 1969 Implementing Decree, in: NLB 5, p.10.
② See 1968 Act on Nuclear Third Party Liability, in: NLB 1, p.12, NLB 2, pp.14, 52.
③ See Act on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy and Protection against its Hazards of 23rd December 1959 (Atomic Energy Act), in: Supplement to NLB 4 (December 1969).
④ See 1970 Act on Nuclear Third Party Liability, in: Supplement to NLB 6.
⑤ See 1968 Nuclear Liability Act, in: NLB 1, p.21; NLB 2, p.22; NLB 15, p.18; 1974, 1982, 1988, 1991, 1995 and 2001 Amendments, in: NLB 19, p.11; NLB 27, p.13; NLB 31, p.12; NLB 33, p.15; NLB 37, p.20; NLB 42, p.24; NLB 491, p.61; NLB 56, p.90; NLB 67, p.52;
⑥ See 1961 Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage, in: NLB 6, p.14 . 1961 Act on the Indemnity Agreement for Compensation of Nuclear Damage and its 1968 Amendment, in: NLB 11, p. 21; Supplement to NLB 11.
⑦ The Law of 17th June 1961 on Compensation for Nuclear Damage; The Law of 17th June 1961on Indemnity Agreement for Compensation of Nuclear Damage; Ordinance of 6th March 1962 for the Enforcement of the Law of 17th June 1961on Compensation for Nuclear Damage.
⑧ 英文表述为:Nuclear facility operators shall be strictly (no-fault) and exclusively liable and their liability is unlimited.
⑨ The Nuclear Installations (Licensing and Insurance) Act 1959.
⑩ (United Kingdom) Act of 1965 on Nuclear Installations (An Act to consolidate the Nuclear Installations Acts 1959 and 1965, done 5th August 1965), in: Supplement to NLB No.1(February 1968), pp.3-40; 1965 Nuclear Installations Act, 1969 Amendment, in: NLB 2, p.15; NLB 4, p.12. 11 “Relevant international agreement” means an international agreement with respect to third-party liability in the field of nuclear energy to which the United Kingdom or Her Majesty's Government therein are party, other than an agreement relating to liability in respect of nuclear reactors comprised in means of transport. See Act of 1965 on Nuclear Installations, in: Supplement to NLB No.1(February 1968), p.34.
① [法]亚历山大·基斯著,张若思编译:《国际环境法》,法律出版社 2000 年 7 月第 1 版,第 379 页。亚历山大·基斯教授 1925 年出生于匈牙利的布达佩斯,1947 年开始在法国学习国际法,1951 年获法学博士学位。自 20 世纪 70 年代开始,主要研究国际环境法和国际人权法两个领域,建树颇丰。1998 年,为表彰基斯教授的突出成就,来自 14 个国家的 44 名学者共同撰写和出版了题为《人与环境——献给亚历山大?基斯》的学术论文集,向他表示敬意。基斯教授被几乎所有国际环境保护组织聘为法律顾问。参见前书第428 页。
② 20 世纪 60 年代早期,国际社会建立了两个有关核损害民事责任国际公约体系,它们分别是:1.OECD 体系:经济合作与发展组织(OECD)于 1960 年通过了《核能领域第三方责任公约》(简称《巴黎公约》),又于 1963 年通过了《核能领域第三方责任布鲁塞尔补充公约》(简称《布鲁塞尔补充公约》)2. IAEA 体系:国际原子能机构(IAEA)于 1963 年通过了《核损害民事责任维也纳公约》(简称《维也纳公约》);1997年,维也纳公约成员国通过了《关于修订<核损害民事责任维也纳公约>的议定书》(简称《1997 年维也纳公约》)和《核损害补充赔偿公约》。美国三里岛(1979 年)和苏联切尔诺贝利核事故(1986 年)发生后,OECD 和 IAEA 等国际组织适时调整了相关公约的内容,合并了巴黎公约、维也纳公约两个体系,以减少两个公约体系的法律冲突。
① 已批准或加入《巴黎公约》的国家包括比利时、丹麦、芬兰、法国、德国、希腊、意大利、荷兰、挪威、葡萄牙、斯洛文尼亚、西班牙、瑞典、土耳其、英国等,奥地利、卢森堡和瑞士三国在《巴黎公约》一通过时就签署了,但一直未批准。See status of ratifications or accessions of 1960 Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris-convention-ratification.html, viewed on 24 September 2003.
② 原文是:Its purpose, both then and now, is to ensure that where a nuclear accident occurs in one country, adequate compensation will be available to victims in the accident State as well as in neighbouring countries and it does so by harmonising the national laws of its Contracting Parties, establishing rules for instituting cross-border legal actions and determining which State's courts will have jurisdiction to hear claims and which State's laws will apply. See “Background information note for the Press Communiqué on the revision of the Paris Convention on Nuclear Third Party Liability and of the Brussels Supplementary Convention”, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/general/press/2004/2004-01-note.html, viewed on 24 February 2004.
③ Article 2 of the 1960 Paris Convention and modified by the Protocol to the Convention. 《1963 年布鲁塞尔补充公约》和《1963 年维也纳公约》皆未明确规定可以单方面扩展适用范围。
④ Article 13 of the 1960 Paris Convention.
① Article 2 of the 1960 Paris Convention and modified by the Protocol to the Convention. “营运人” (operator)也译为“经营人”或“管理者”。1963 年《核损害民事责任维也纳公约》和《1997 年核损害民事责任维也纳公约》规定:“‘营运人’是指核设施国指定或认可为核设施营运人的人。” See Article I (1)(c) of 1963/1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage. 原文如下:“Operator” , in relation to a nuclear installation, means the person designated or recognized by the Installation State as the operator of that installation.《1962 年核动力船经营人责任公约》规定:“‘经营人’是指由签发许可证的国家授权经营核动力船舶的人员,或者在由一缔约国经营核动力船舶的情况下,即指该国。” See Article I (4) of Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships, 1962. 原文如下:“Operator” means the person authorized by the licensing State to operate a nuclear ship, or where a Contacting State operates a nuclear ship, that State.《巴黎公约》规定:“‘营运人’是指公共主管部门指定或认可为核设施营运人的人。” See Article 1(a)(vi) of Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (“Paris Convention”). 原文如下:“Operator” in relation to a nuclear installation means the person designated or recognized by the competent public authority as the operator of that installation. 台湾《核子损害赔偿法》第七条规定:“本法所称经营者,指经政府指定或核准经营核子设施者。”《中华人民共和国民用核设施安全监督管理条例》第二十四条第(三)款规定:“‘营运单位’是指申请或持有核设施安全许可证,可以经营和运行核设施的组织。” 1986 年 3 月 29 日,国务院关于处理第三方核责任问题给核工业部、国家核安全局、国务院核电领导小组的批复(简称国务院《批复》)第一条规定:“在中华人民共和国境内,经政府指定,经营核电站的单位,或者从事核电站核材料的供应、处理、运输,而拥有其他核设施的单位,为该核电站或者核设施的营运人。”
② Article 4 of the 1960 Paris Convention.
③ Article 3(ii)(1-2) of the 1960 Paris Convention.
④ Article 3 of the 1960 Paris Convention and modified by the Protocol to the Convention. 其中增加一项,即关于由核事件和核事件以外的事件造成损害的连带责任。如果两者不能合理区分,则该损害或损失将视为由核事件造成。
⑤ Article 3 of the 1960 Paris Convention.
① Article 7 of the 1960 Paris Convention and modified by the Protocol to the Convention.
② Recommendation of the Steering Committee of 20.4.90[NE/M(90)1]. Cited by Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, p.46, footnote 18.
③ Article 8 of the 1960 Paris Convention and modified by the Protocol to the Convention.
④ Article 9 of the 1960 Paris Convention and modified by the Protocol to the Convention. 该条款规定,对于这些免责条件,除非核设施所在的缔约国的法律有相反的规定(“unless legislation of the Contracting party in whose territory his nuclear installation is situated may provide to the contrary.”)。
⑤ In case the victim has caused the loss intentionally or by gross negligence, national law may allow exemptions for the liable person, who would otherwise be absolutely liable under the Convention. See Motif No.48 and 45 to the Paris Convention.
⑥ “Competent court”应该译为“具有管辖权的法院”,其英文解释为“a court, either civil or criminal, having lawful jurisdiction”,see Henry Campbell Black, M.A.: Black’s Law Dictionary (fifth edition): Definitions of the Terms and Phrases of American and English Jurisprudence, Ancient and Modern, St. Paul Minn. West Publishing Co. 1979, p.257. “Competent court”译为“管辖法院,即依法具有刑事或民事管辖权的法院”。参见薛波主编:《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 269 页。但是几乎所有的核责任国际公约中文文本及有关论文都采用“主管法院”这一表述,具体出处恕不一一列出。
⑦ Recommendation of the OECD Steering Committee for Nuclear Energy, the governing body of the NEA, of 3.10.1990[NE/M(90)2] in respect of Article 13(a) of the 1960 Paris Convention.
⑧ Recommendation of the Steering Committee of 25.4.1968[NE/M(68)1] and Recommendation of the Steering Committee of 22.4.1971[NE/M(71)1] in respect of Article 2 of the 1960 Paris Convention.
① See the Additional Protocol to the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 28 January 1964, Paris, entered into force 4 December 1974. See also the Protocol of 1982 to the 1960 Paris Convention and the 1963 Brussels Supplementary Convention, changing the unit of compensation to Special Drawing Right (‘SDR’) of the IMF and increasing the compensation payable by a State and by the Parties to the Brussels Supplementary Convention jointly to 175 million SDRs and 300 million SDRs respectively.
② OECD/NEA, Paris Convention: Decisions, Recommendations, Interpretations, OECD 1990, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris-convention-dec-rec-int.pdf, viewed on 24 September 2003.
③ 已批准或加入《布鲁塞尔补充公约》的国家包括比利时、丹麦、芬兰、法国、德国、希腊、意大利、荷兰、挪威、葡萄牙、斯洛文尼亚、西班牙、瑞典、土耳其、英国等,奥地利、卢森堡和瑞士三国在《布鲁塞尔补充公约》一通过时就签署了,但一直未批准。See status of ratifications or accessions of 1963 Brussels Supplementary Convention available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/brussels-convention-ratification.html, viewed on 24 September 2003.
④ See preamble of Brussels Supplementary Convention and Article 7 of the 1960 Paris Convention.
① Article 3(b) and Article 12 of the Brussels Supplementary Convention.
② 1964 年 1 月 28 日缔结于巴黎,1968 年 4 月 1 日生效。
③ 《布鲁塞尔补充公约》(“Brussels Convention”)的英文全称是“Convention of 31th January 1963 Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29th July 1960 on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 ”, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlbrussels.html, viewed on 18 August 2003. 《布鲁塞尔补充公约》于2004 年 2 月 12 日作了最新修订。
④ “Special Drawing Right”, hereinafter referred to as SDR, means the unit of account defined by the International Monetary Fund and used by it for its own operations and transactions. See Article 2(p) of Protocol to Amend the 1963 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/1998/infcirc566.shtml, viewed on 28 August 2003. “特别提款权”是国际货币基金组织(IMF)创立的一种货币,由美元、英镑、德国马克、日元和法国法郎共同定值,其中既有硬币也有软币,币值相对稳定。IMF 是根据参加筹建联合国的 44 国代表于 1944 年 7 月在美国 New Hampshire 举行的会议及其所通过的《国际货币基金组织协定》(International Monetary Fund Agreement),在 1946 年 3 月正式成立,并于 1947 年 3 月开始营业,总部设在华盛顿。IMF 于 1969 年 9月在其第 24 届年会上,正式通过了“十国集团”提出的关于“特别提款权”(SDR)方案,创设了 SDRs。同时,该组织决定从 1970~1971 年的 3 年内,由国际货币基金组织发行 95 亿 SDRs 单位,按成员国所摊付的原有基金份额的比例进行分配,以补充黄金之不足,以此作为成员国原有的普通提款权(Ordinary Drawing Rights)以外的、用来补充现有储备资产的一种手段。这就是国际货币基金组织自其成立以来对《国际货币基金组织协定》的第一次改革,也即该组织创造了一种实验性质的新储备货币。其正式名称为“特别提款权”,或称“纸黄金”(Paper Gold),以与成员国原有的普通提款权相区别。“特别提款权”在发行时是一种有黄金保值的记帐单位,它虽有黄金保值,但不能兑换成黄金。所以,“特别提款权”被称为“纸黄金”。当一会员国发生国际收支逆差时,可动用 SDRs,将其划给另一会员国,偿付收支逆差,或者用于偿还 IMF 的贷款。但是,特别提款权不能直接作为国际支付手段,即不能直接用于贸易和非贸易结算,只是成员国在基金组织特别提款权帐户上的一种储备资产。参见于研编著:《国际金融》,上海财经大学出版社1999 年版,第 215~220 页;周金山编著:《国际金融》,经济科学出版社 1999 年版,第 385~386 页。
① 公约第 23 条规定:“本公约于交存第五份批准书(instrument of ratification)三个月后生效,……”;另可参见 Optional Protocol Concerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes to the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, 1963 年 5 月 21 日在维也纳通过,1999 年 5 月 13 日生效。截止到 2002 年 2 月,《维也纳公约》共有缔约国 32 个,签署国 14 个。它们包括阿根廷、亚美尼亚、白俄罗斯、玻利维亚、波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那、巴西、保加利亚、喀麦隆、智利、哥伦比亚、克罗地亚、古巴、捷克共和国、埃及、爱沙尼亚、匈牙利、以色列、拉托维亚、黎巴嫩、立陶宛、墨西哥、摩洛哥、尼日尔、秘鲁、菲律宾、波兰、摩尔达维亚共和国、罗马尼亚、俄罗斯联邦、圣文森特和格林纳丁斯、塞尔维亚-黑山、斯洛伐克、西班牙、前马其顿南斯拉夫共和国、特立尼达和多巴哥、乌克兰、英国、乌拉圭等其中,智利和以色列两国提出了保留。2002 年 11 月 9 日,IAEA 总干事收到斯洛文尼亚共和国(the Republic of Slovenia)终止适用《维也纳公约》的通知,根据该公约 Article XXV.2 规定,该公约自 2002 年 11 月 12 日起停止适用于斯洛文尼亚共和国。See Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (Last change of status: 5 February 2002), available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Legal/liability_status.pdf, viewed on 2 October 2003.
② See preamble of 1963 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage. 原文如下:“THE CONTRACTING PARTIES, HAVING RECOGNIZED the desirability of establishing some minimum standards to provide financial protection against damage resulting from certain peaceful uses of nuclear energy, BELIEVING that a convention on civil liability for nuclear damage would also contribute to the development of friendly relations among nations, irrespective of their differing constitutional and social systems, HAVE DECIDED to conclude a convention for such purposes,….” Its background is available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Legal/Liability.shtml, viewed on 28 August 2003, and its English text is available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/1996/inf500.shtml, viewed on 28 August 2003.
① Article II(1)(a-c) of the Vienna Convention.
② Article IV(1) of the Vienna Convention.
③ Article IV(3) of the Vienna Convention.
④ Article IV(5) of the Vienna Convention.
⑤ Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, p.52.
⑥ Article IV(2) of the Vienna Convention.
⑦ Article V(1) of the Vienna Convention. 原文如下:“The liability of the operator may be limited by the Installation State to not less than US $5 million for any one nuclear incident.”
⑧ Article VII of the Vienna Convention.
⑨ Articles VII and V of the Vienna Convention.
① See 1954 Atomic Energy Act, 1970 and 1974 Amendments, in: NLB 7, p.27; NLB 14, p.27.
② 1957 Price-Anderson Act, 1975 and 1988 Amendments, in: NLB 15, p.50; NLB 17, p.17; NLB 42, p.27.
③ See 1965 Act on the Third Party Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships. 1988 Amendment, in: NLB 43, p.67; 1982 Implementing Decree, in: NLB 29, p.19.
④ See 1961 Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage and its 1971, 1979, 1989, Amendments, in: NLB 6, p.14; NLB 7, p.15; NLB 9, p.21; NLB 23, p.22; NLB 43, p.73; NLB 56, p.88; 1961 Act on the Indemnity Agreement for Compensation of Nuclear Damage and its 1968, 1971 and 1988 Amendments, in: NLB 11, p. 21; Supplement to NLB 11; Supplement to NLB 45.
⑤ 德国《原子能法》第 25 条第 1 项第 2 款、第 25 条第 3 项第 2 款、第 31 条第 2 项、第 38 条第 3 项。
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 470~471 页。
② 1965 Nuclear Installations Act, 1975 and 1983 Amendments, in: NLB 4, p.12; NLB 15, p.21; NLB 31, p.15; NLB 32, p.16; NLB 33, p.20.
③ See 1989 Atomic Energy Act, in: NLB 44, p.48.
④ Canada Nuclear Liability Act, available at http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/N-28/86947.html, viewed on August 24, 2003. See 1970 Act on Nuclear Third Party Liability, 1985 Amendment, in: NLB 44, p.34.
⑤ See 1968 Nuclear Liability Act, in: NLB 1, p.21; NLB 2, p.22; NLB 15, p.18; 1974, 1982, 1988, 1991, 1995 and 2001 Amendments, in: NLB 19, p.11; NLB 27, p.13; NLB 31, p.12; NLB 33, p.15; NLB 37, p.20; NLB 42, p.24.
⑥ See 1981 Decree on Nuclear Third Party Liability, in: NLB 28, p.23.
⑦ See 1983 Ratification of the 1982 Protocols to Amend the Paris Convention and the Brussels Supplementary Convention, in: NLB 31, p.30.
⑧ See 1986 Bill for Economic Compensation Following the Chernobyl Accident, in: NLB 39, p.21.
⑨ See 1987 Ordinance on Compensation for Interventions Due to the Chernobyl Accident, in: NLB 38, p.33.
⑩ (Republic of Korea) Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage. Act No. 2094 of 24 January 1969, as amended by: Act No. 2765 of 7 April 1975, Act No. 3549 of 1 April 1982 (the Atomic Energy Act), Act No. 3849 of 12 May 1986. 11 (Belgium) Act of 22nd July 1985 on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, in: Supplement to NLB 37, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-37-SUP.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003 12 (Finland) Nuclear Liability Act of 8th June 1972 as Amended by the Act of 15th September 1989, in: Supplement to NLB 44, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-44-SUP.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003. 13 台湾《原子能法》(民国 60 年 12 月 14 日修正)第 1 条。
① 参见 http://www.law.hotoa.com.cn/lawv2/7/67-1/3720DF89-7633-418B-Bf95-58D1F2D899Fb.html,2003 年9 月 2 日浏览。该批复由国务院颁布,即国函(1986)44 号批复,自发布之日起生效。
② 英文表述为:Convention Relating to Civil Liability in the Field of Maritime Carriage of Nuclear Material, 1971(1971 Brussels Convention).
① Article 1 of the Maritime Carriage Convention.
② Article 2 of the Maritime Carriage Convention.
③ 胡遵素:“切尔诺贝利事故及其影响与教训”,载《辐射防护》1994年第5期,第321~333页;“切尔诺贝利防护罩要塌?”,载《宁波晚报》2003年4月28日第24版;董映璧:“切尔诺贝利仍在哭泣——纪念切尔诺贝利核事故18周年”,载《科技日报》2004年4月26日第2版;Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, p.54; NEA/OECD, Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impacts (2002 Update of Chernobyl: Ten Years On), prepared by Dr. Henri Métivier on request of the NEA Committee on Radiation Protection and Public Health (CRPPH), available at http://www.nea.fr/html/rp/reports/2003/nea3508-chernobyl.pdf, viewed on 20 February 2004.
④ 根据国际原子能机构的国际核电事故等级表规定,1986 年切尔诺贝利核电站的事故为 7 级核事故,即最严重的核事故。
① 何永晋:“悬在头上的剑——切尔诺贝利‘石棺’处理麻烦多”, 载《科技日报》2004 年 3 月 13 日第2 版。
② 科菲·安南 (Kofi A. Annan) 1938 年 4 月 8 日出生于加纳的库马西市,早年就读于加纳库马西理工大学,曾到美国和瑞士留学,先后获美国明尼苏达州麦卡莱斯特学院经济学学士学位和麻省理工学院管理学硕士学位。安南 1962 年进入联合国工作,1996 年 12 月 17 日,第 51 届联大任命安南为联合国第七任秘书长。1997 年 1 月 1 日,他正式就职,任期 5 年。2001 年 6 月,联大通过安理会提名安南连任秘书长,任期至2006 年 12 月 31 日。2001 年 10 月 12 日挪威诺贝尔委员会宣布,联合国与联合国秘书长安南共同分享 2001年诺贝尔和平奖。安南是位经验丰富的外交家,懂英语、法语和几种非洲语言。参见 http://news.xinhuanet.com/ziliao/2002-04/22/content_367974.htm ,或 http://www.un.org/chinese/aboutun/sg/sg7bio.htm,2004 年 9 月 24 日浏览。
① 郭立军:“安南呼吁继续关注切尔诺贝利核污染问题”,2001 年 4 月 26 日 06:23 新华网。Also see “FifteenYears after Chernobyl Nuclear Accident, UN Calls for More Assistance to Victims”, in: Press release, IHA/730, April 25, 2001, available at http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2001/iha730.doc.htm, viewed on 24 September 2004.
② 墨菲定律(Murphy’s Law)是指诙谐的经验之谈,如:任何事情都不象看上去那么简单;任何事情所花的时间总比原先估计的要长;任何可能出错的事物都要出错等。参见《新英汉词典》编写组编:《新英汉词典》(增订本),上海译文出版社 1985 年 6 月第 2 版,第 1730 页。
③ 例如,法国就有不断完善的核安全文化,法国人对分布在国内各地的 58 个核反应堆没有任何恐慌。其核安全文化主要体现在两个方面:一是营运单位是第一责任人,即大型国有企业首先要自己承担起责任,在核安全知识和意识方面,定期培训工作人员;二是增加透明度,无论发生什么情况,务必及时通报,使公众和政府相信核能发展的安全。法国核安全局十几年来一直出版发行面向公众的《核安全监督》月刊精确地记载着全国所发生的每一起核故障(包括极其微小的失误),公众也可从互联网上查询到相关内容。另外,法国进行年均 10~15 次的核事故演习,参加者包括核电厂工作人员、地方政府工作人员、医护人员、警察、军队和居民等。由此可见,法国在核安全方面建立了一套完整的预警体系。参见华凌:“为安全核能而努力——访法国电力公司执行副总裁马识路”,载《科技日报》2004 年 2 月 27 日第 8 版。
① 米哈伊尔·谢尔盖耶维奇·戈尔巴乔夫(Михаил Сергеевич Горбачёв),1931 年 3 月 2 日出生于俄罗斯南部斯塔夫罗波尔附近,是一位苏联政治家,1985 年至 1991 年担任苏联共产党中央委员会总书记。他在职时期的政策导致了冷战的结束,因此于 1990 年获得诺贝尔和平奖,但他的改革政策也使得苏联解体。早在 1990 年戈尔巴乔夫就已经引入并当任了苏联总统一职,1991 年 12 月 25 日独立国家联合体成立后,他宣布离职,苏联正式灭亡。具体参见 http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%88%E5%B0%94%E5%B7%B4%E4%B9%94%E5%A4%AB,2004 年 9月 25 日浏览。
② [苏] В·Я·沃兹尼亚克等著,伍仁毅、杜凡等译:《切尔诺贝利核事故与教训》,中国劳动出版社 1991年 5 月北京第 1 版,扉页。
③ Group of Seven, ‘Statement on the Implication of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident’, 1986, 25 ILM (1986), p.1005; IAEA General Conference, Special Session, 1986, IAEA Dc. GC(SPL.1), Res.1; IAEA, ‘Response to Chernoby’, IAEA Bulletin 61(Summer 1986), pp.62-65.
④ A.I. Iorish and O.A. Supataeva, ‘The Problem of Russion Legislation on Liability for Nuclear Damage’, in: Nuclear Accidents: Liability and Guarantees, OECD/NEA-IAEA Helsinki Symposium, 31 August-3 September 1992(Paris: OECD, 1993), pp.70-91.
⑤ See International Safety Advisory Group, ‘Summary Report on Post-Accident Review Meeting on the Chernobyl Accident’, IAEA Safety Series No.75, INSAG-1(Vienna:1986), pp.9, 13-30.
① Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, p.55.
② See N. Pelzer, ‘Concepts of Nuclear Liability Revisited: A Post- Chernobyl Assessment of the Paris and the Vienna Conventions’, in: P. Cameron et al. (eds.), Nuclear Energy Law After Chernobyl, pp.97-114 (London/Dordrecht/Boston: Graham & Trotman, 1988), p. 114.
③ Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, pp. 55-56.
④ “预防措施”的英文表达除了使用“precautionary measures”以外,还经常使用“preventive measures”。
① P. Sands, Chernobyl: Law and Communication, Transboundary Nuclear Air Pollution: The Legal Materials (1988), p.5. Cited by Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, p.56, footnote 73.
② 《核事故及早通报公约》(Convention on Early Notification of Nuclear Accident,Vienna,1986)的目的是建立一个核事故及早通报制度,以便最大限度地减少核事故造成的跨界影响。1986 年 9 月 26 日签订于维也纳,1986 年 10 月 27 日正式生效。
③ 《核事故或辐射紧急情况援助公约》(Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency,Vienna,1986)的宗旨是建立一个便利在发生核事故时迅速提供援助以减轻事故后果的国际框架。1986 年 9 月 26 日签订于维也纳,1986 年 10 月 27 日正式生效。
④ Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention of 21 September 1988, available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/Others/inf402.shtml, viewed on 28 August 2003.
⑤ See preamble of Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention of 21 September 1988.
① Articles II-III of Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention of 21 September 1988. Also see Background to the Vienna Convention, available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Legal/Liability.shtml, viewed on 28 August 2003. 原文为“The Joint Protocol established a link between the Conventions combining them into one expanded liability regime. Parties to the Joint Protocol are treated as though they were Parties to both Conventions and a choice of law rule is provided to determine which of the two Conventions should apply to the exclusion of the other in respect of the same incident.”
② 它们分别是属于《维也纳公约》的缔约国:保加利亚、喀麦隆、智利、克罗地亚、捷克共和国、埃及、爱沙尼亚、匈牙利、拉托维亚、立陶宛、波兰、罗马尼亚、斯洛伐克、斯洛文尼亚、乌克兰;属于《巴黎公约》的缔约国: 丹麦(不含 Faroe 岛)、芬兰、意大利、荷兰(指 the Kingdom in Europe)、挪威、瑞典;而阿根廷、比利时、德国、希腊、法国、摩洛哥、菲律宾、葡萄牙、西班牙、瑞士、土耳其和英国等国家只是已经签署了该议定书,但尚未批准。See Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention (Status list as of 12 September 2000: Signature, Acceptance, Approval or Accession), available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Legal/jointprot_status.pdf, OR http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/2000/infcirc402a3.pdf, viewed on 2 October 2003.
③ “呼声表决(voice vote)”是根据 ayes(赞成)和 noes(反对)的声音大小来估计人数的表决,但不统计呼唤 ayes 和 noes 的实际人数。参见《英汉法律词典》编写组编:《英汉法律词典》(修订本),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 871 页。
① See Nuclear Law Bulletin No. 64, p.57, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/Nlb-64/nationaleg.pdf, viewed on 7 November 2003; Yoshio Baba, “The Problems Facing Nuclear Power in Japan: Emphasising Law and Regulations”, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 July 2003.
② See (Germany) Act on the Peaceful Utilisation of Atomic Energy and the Protection Against its Hazards (Atomic Energy Act) of 23 December 1959 (BGBl. I, p.814), as amended and promulgated on 15 July 1985 (BGBl. I, p.1565), last amendment by the Act of 22 April 2002 (BGBl.I, p.1351), in: Supplement to NLB 70. For comments on the 2002 Amendment, see Dr. Axel Vorwerk, “The 2002 Amendment to the German Atomic Energy Act Concerning the Phase-out of Nuclear Power”, in: NLB 69, p.7, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, OR http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-69/nlb69-vorwerk.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003.
③ 德国《原子能法》第 25 条第 1 项第 2 款、第 25 条第 3 项第 2 款、第 31 条第 2 项、第 38 条第 3 项。
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年11 月增订版, 第470~471 页。
② See “Amendment to the nuclear third party liability provisions of the Atomic Energy Act (2001)”, in: Nuclear Law Bulletin 67, pp.34-35, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-67/029_058.pdf, viewed on 30 October 2003.
③ Bundesgesetzblatt 2001 I p. 326.
④ 原文是:It provides for a regime of strict liability without limitation in amount. However, the person liable may be relieved from liability if he proves that he took all precautionary measures to prevent the damage (modified strict liability).
⑤ 原文是:While the amendment does not affect this general rule, it does make it clear that the German operator’s liability is limited to the amount which the other state would have granted to victims in Germany, including funds provided for under international agreements on supplementary compensation, at the time of the incident. If damage occurs in a state where there is no nuclear installation, reciprocity is not required for compensation to be payable, but the liability of the German operator is limited to the maximum amount of compensation under the Brussels Supplementary Convention.
① 原文是:Section 37(1) establishes, in certain cases, the state’s right of recourse vis-à-vis the liable operator with regard to indemnification granted pursuant to Section 34 of the Atomic Energy Act. A new paragraph 2 now entitles the state to such recourse irrespective of whether the prerequisites pursuant to paragraph 1 are met, if the operator is not of German nationality and does not have his domicile, principal place of business or permanent residence either within the territory of a European Union State, a Paris Convention State, a Vienna Convention/Joint Protocol State or any other state with which Germany has concluded an agreement on compensation for nuclear damage.
② See 1991 Act on Social Protection of Victims of the Chernobyl Disaster, in: NLB 48, p.50.
③ See 1995 Federal Law on the Use of Atomic Energy, in: NLB 58, p.97; Supplement to NLB 57; 2001 Amendment, in: NLB 68, p.69.
④ See “Regulations in the Field of Nuclear Energy”, in: NLB 58, p.97.
⑤ For more information, see Omer F Brown II, ‘Nuclear Liability: A Continuing Impediment To Nuclear Commerce’, The Uranium Institute 24th Annual Symposium 8-10 September 1999: London, available at http://www.world-nuclear.org/sym/1999/pdfs/brown.pdf, viewed on 14 July 2003; Dr. Olga A. Supataeva, ‘Legal Control of Liability for Nuclear Damage in the Russian Federation’ and ‘New Russian Legislation on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and Nuclear Insurance’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, pp.245-260.
① See Law of Ukraine on the Use of Nuclear Energy and Radiation Safety (Unofficial translation by the NEA Secretariat), in: Supplement to Nuclear Law Bulletin No.56; also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-56-SUP.pdf, viewed on 18 August 2003.
② See (Ukraine) 2001 Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security (Unofficial translation established by the NEA Secretariat.), in: NLB 69, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-69/Ukraine.pdf, viewed on 24 August 2003.
③ See 1968 Act on Nuclear Third Party Liability, 1990 Amendment, in: NLB 46, p.55, NLB 47, p.45.
④ See 1965 Nuclear Installations Act, 1990 Amendment, in: NLB 46, p.72.
⑤ See 1994 Order Increasing the Nuclear Operator’s Limits of Liability, in: NLB 53, p.95.
⑥ See 1968 Nuclear Liability Act, 1991, 1995 and 2001 Amendments, in: NLB 49, p.61; NLB 56, p.90; NLB 67, p.52;
⑦ See (Republic of Korea) Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage. Act No. 2094 of 24 January 1969, as amended by: Act No. 2765 of 7 April 1975, Act No. 3549 of 1 April 1982 (the Atomic Energy Act), Act No. 3849 of 12 May 1986, Act No. 4940 of 1 January 1995 (the Atomic Energy Act), and Act No. 6350 of 16 January 2001. Unofficial translation kindly provided by the Korean authorities. See Nuclear Law Bulletin No. 68, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 August 2003.
⑧ 专属经济区是战后特别是 20 世纪 70 年代以来海洋法斗争中的一个中心议题,是发展中的沿海国家最主要的奋斗目标之一,也是《联合国海洋法公约》(United Nation Convention on the Law of the Sea)所确立的新的重要的海洋法制度。该公约于 1982 年 12 月 10 日订于蒙特哥湾,其第 55 条和第 57 条规定和说明了专属经济区主要包括基本内容:1.专属经济区是在沿海国领海以外,但与领海紧密相连的一个国家管辖区;2.在这个区域内实行一种特定的法律制度,即以沿海国的权利和管辖权为主要内容,也包含有其他国家的权利和自由,并均受公约有关规定的限制与支配;3.这个区域的范围从测算领海宽度的基线量起为二百海里。有关专属经济区的具体规定与全面阐述,请参见《联合国海洋法公约》的相关条款以及魏敏主编:《海洋法》,法律出版社 1987 年 6 月第一版,第 114~137 页。《联合国海洋法公约》第 55 条和第57 条的英文表述分别是:“Article 55 (Specific legal regime of the exclusive economic zone)The exclusive economic zone is an area beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea, subject to the specific legal regime established in this Part, under which the rights and jurisdiction of the coastal State and the rights and freedoms of other States are governed by the relevant provisions of this Convention.”“Article 57 (Breadth of the exclusive economic zone) The exclusive economic zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.”
① See (Romania) Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (adopted on 3 December 2001), available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 11 July 2003. Unofficial translation kindly provided by the Romanian authorities.
② See (Netherlands) Nuclear Third Party Liability Act of 1979, As Last Amended by the Act of Parliament of 26 June 1991, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-49-SUP.pdf, viewed on 11 July 2003.
③ Bundesgesetz über die zivilrechtliche Haftung für Sch?den durch Radioaktivit?t (Atomhaftpflichtgesetz 1999).
④ Bundesgesetz vom 29 April 1964 über die Haftung für nukleare Sch?den (Atomhaftpflichtgesetz ), BGB1 1964/117. This law was substantially amended by the Federal Law, BGB1 I 1997/140, that entered into force on 1 July 1998.
⑤ Monika Hinteregger, “The New Austrian Act on Third Party Liability for Nuclear Damage”, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/Nlb-62/hintereg.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003.
① See NLB 45 (June, 1990), p.75 and NLB 46 (December, 1990), p.77 respectively.
② 这些国际组织或机构如 WHO、UNESCO、ILO、UNEP、FAO、Inter-Agency Committee for the Response to Nuclear Accidents (IAC/RNA)等。
③ See IAEA, “International Liability of States”, NLB 41(June 1988), pp.39-40.
④ “国际责任”(international liability)似乎是用来专指国家间的责任(inter-State responsibility),以与《维也纳公约》和《巴黎公约》中的类似术语“民事责任”(civil liability)专指“营运人责任”(operators liability)形成对比,而客观或严格的国家责任(State responsibility of an objective or strict type)则具有更为恰当的涵义(connotation)。瑞典代表团曾于 1987 年 3 月 14 日致信联合国秘书长,建议制定一个独立的“核损害国际责任公约”,而联合国大会也曾讨论过这一问题。See UN Doc. A/42/179, p.4, Part V. Cited by Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, p.57, footnote 76.
① OECD 环境委员会(The Environment Committee of the OECD)是于 1986 年 12 月 9~11 日在巴黎召开的一次会议上成立的,其 1987 年的工作重点是实施有关危险装置及工业事故预防和反应的计划。该委员会的相关四个主题之一就是“必须为那些因意外泄露而清理或环境恢复费用而遭受损害的人提供赔偿”。See International Environmental Report, Current Report 6 (1987).
② ECE Parliamentary Assembly Recommendation No. 1068 (1988), adopted on 25 January 1988 at its 19th sitting, Preamble, para. 19, reprinted in: NLB 41(June 1988), pp. 69-70.
③ 1975 年,当时的法国总统德斯坦邀请德国、美国、日本、英国和意大利领导人到巴黎郊区的朗布依埃城堡开会。按照法国总统的设想,这是一次小型委员会的非正式会晤,目的是讨论当时正受石油危机影响的世界经济。参加会议的领导人一致决定这一会议将每年举行,并邀请加拿大与会。这样 1976 年便形成了七国集团。
④ Group of Seven, ‘Tokyo Summit Declaration on the Implications of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident of 5 May 1986’, reprinted in: 25 ILM 1005 (1986).
⑤ IAEA Docs. GC(XXXII)/Res/491 and GOV/OR 77, p.13, see NLB 42 (December 1988), pp.42-43. 该决议由 阿根廷、奥地利、加拿大、埃及、德意志民主共和国、匈牙利、意大利和波兰等国提交。
① “核损害责任常务委员会”也取代了以前的“核损害民事责任常务委员会”。“核损害民事责任常务委员会”曾研究《维也纳公约》民事责任制度的修订,使 1988 年的《联合议定书》得以通过,将《维也纳公约》和《巴黎公约》融为一体,扩大了两个公约的覆盖范围。
② Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, pp.56-60.
① 原文是:“i. consider international liability for nuclear damage, including international civil liability, international State liability, and the relationship between international civil and State liability; ii. keep under review problems relating to the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability and advise State Party to that Convention on any such problems; and iii. make the necessary substantive preparations and administrative arrangements for a revision conference to be convened in accordance with Article XXVI of the Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage.” See Report of the Second Session of the Working Group on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, NL/2/4 of 15 November 1989. Cited by Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, p.60.
① The levy system proposed a system of collective contribution of nuclear industry to compensation following a nuclear accident, in addition to relying on public funds made up by contributions of States themselves. The pool system concerned the increase of the amount available for the compensation of nuclear damage by introducing into the basic convention a tier of compensation to be collectively provided by the signatory Installation States and a collective State tier, which would be added to the much higher first tier of compensation provided by the liable operator. See Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, p.62.
② IAEA 理事会授权 IAEA 总干事召集 1997 年 9 月 8~12 日的外交会议。See Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, pp.60-63.
③ Protocol to Amend the 1963 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage is available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/1998/infcirc566.shtml, viewed on 28 August 2003. 该议定书于 1997 年 9 月 12 日通过,同年 9 月 29 日开放签署。议定书常用作一个主条约的附属文件以补充、说明、解释或改变主条约的规定。这种附属文件是广义条约的一种,而且也是主条约的一个组成部分。参见李浩培著:《条约法概论》,法律出版社 2003 年 1 月第 2 版,第 23 页;万鄂湘等著:《国际条约法》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 10 月第 1 版,第 10 页。
① 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, i.e. the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage of 21 May 1963 as amended by the Protocol of 12 September 1997 is available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/1998/infcirc566.shtml, OR available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Legal/protamend_annex.shtml, viewed on 2 October 2003.
② Article 3 of the Vienna Protocol.
③ Article 15 of the Vienna Protocol. 虽然用缔约国的公共基金首先赔偿那些坚持类似责任拨款制度的缔约国的受害者遭受的损害似乎合情合理,但令人遗憾的是,《维也纳议定书》实际上依法允许拒绝赔偿那些本身无过错却要承受其国家未提供足够互利后果的受害人。
④ Article 3 of the Vienna Protocol adding Article IB to the Vienna Convention.
① Article 2(1) and 2(5) of the Vienna Protocol.
② Article 2(2) of the Vienna Protocol. 该条款中含有“and each of the following to the extent determined by the law of the competent court”这一引起很多争议的短语,但最终还是获得通过。主要有以下观点分歧:第一,不论这一短语放置在何处,所有的核损害类型都将根据管辖法院的法律加以认定;第二,缔约国不必包括《维也纳议定书》所扩展的其他类型的核损害;第三,这一短语仅仅涉及到损害原因的扩展。See 17th Session, Part 2 of the SCNL, IAEA Doc. SCNL/17.II/INF.7.
① Article 10 of the Vienna Protocol.
② Article 2(3) of the Vienna Protocol.
③ Dr. Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, ‘Lacunae of International Nuclear Liability Agreements’, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, p.66.
① Article 7(1) of the Vienna Protocol.
② Article 6(1) of the Vienna Protocol.
③ Article 9 of the Vienna Protocol.
④ Article 7(2)VD of the Vienna Protocol.
① Article 6(2) - (3) of the Vienna Protocol.
② Article 8(1) - (2) of the Vienna Protocol.
③ Article 6(3) of the 1963 Vienna Convention.
① Article 8(3) of the Vienna Protocol.
② Article 11 of the 1963 Vienna Convention.
③ Article 12(1) of the Vienna Protocol.
④ Article 21(1) of the Vienna Protocol.
⑤ See Protocol to Amend the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (Last change of status: 4 July 2003), available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Legal/protamend_status.pdf, viewed on 2 October 2003.
① The English text of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage (CSC) is available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/1998/infcirc567.shtml, viewed on 28 August 2003.
② See the Preamble and Article XVIII(1) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
③ Article I(f-I, k) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
④ “Grandfather clause”这一短语有两种含义:一是指(新颁法律中的)不追溯条款;二是(在美国)指老祖父条款,具体指美国 1890 年后南部某些州的宪法中为保护白人利益而在财产和教育等方面限制黑人选举权的一种条款,按此条款规定,南北战争前享有选举权的白人的后代,即使没有文化也享有选举权。此条款已于 1915 年废除。参见《英汉法律词典》编写组编:《英汉法律词典》(修订本),法律出版社 1999年 1 月第 1 版,第 347 页;《新英汉词典》编写组编:《新英汉词典》(增补本),上海译文出版社 1985 年 6月第 2 版,第 545 页;薛波主编:《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 610 页。该书的详细解释为,(美)祖父条款。1.法律、法规中的不回溯条款或例外条款。新的法律、法规中的规定的某些限制,不适用于已经开始的活动,并允许其继续进行。《机动车运输法》中的“祖父条款”规定,凡是在本法通过前已经建立的运输机构可以继续经营。2.南方一些州的宪法规定,凡 1867 年前享有选举权的人,或内战时期服役于联邦陆、海军或联邦军队的人,以及上述两类人的合法后裔,不受财产状况和读写能力的限制,一律享有选举权。1915 年,美国最高法院宣布此项条款违宪。也有人将“grandfather clause”这一短语译为“遗老条款、老祖父条款、不追溯条款”,并解释为:在订定新制度的立法内,加设保存或照顾原制度下既有地位者的规定的条文。参见李宗锷、潘慧仪主编:《英汉法律大词典》,法律出版社 1999年 1 月第 1 版,第 129 页;“Grandfather clause”具体的英文解释为:Provision in a new law or regulation exempting those already in or a part of the existing system which is being regulated. An exception to a restriction that allows all those already doing something to continue doing it even if they would be stopped by a new restriction. A clause introduced into several of the constitutions of the southern states, limiting the right to vote to those who can read and write any article of the constitution of the United States, and have worked or been regularly employed in some lawful employment for the greater part of the year next preceding the time they offer to register unless prevented from labor or ability to read or write by physical disability, or who own property assessed at three hundred dollars upon which the taxes have been paid; but excepting those who have served in the army or navy of the United States or in the Confederate States in time of war, their lawful descendants in every degree, and persons of good character who understand their duties and obligations of citizenship under the republican form of government. One of the original purposes of the “grandfather” clause of the Motor Carrier Act was to permit the continued operation of carrier businesses already established prior to passage of the Act. Transamerican Freight Lines v. United States, D.C. Del., 51 F. Supp. 405, 409. See Henry Campbell Black, M.A.: Black’s Law Dictionary (fifth edition): Definitions of the Terms and Phrases of American and English Jurisprudence, Ancient and Modern, St. Paul Minn. West Publishing Co. 1979, p.629.
① Article III(1) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
② Article III(2) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
③ Article IV of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation. 这意味着 90%的分摊是按照核装机容量提供,而 10%是由国家按其联合国会费的分摊比率分摊。
④ Article IV(1)(b) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
① Article IV(1)(c) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
② Article VII (1) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
③ Article II (3) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
④ Article 2 of the Annex to the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
⑤ Articles 2(1), 3-5 and 7 of the Annex to the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
⑥ Article 4 of the Annex to the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
⑦ 附件的 Article 3(7)只是重复了《巴黎公约》的 Article 3(ii)(1-2)和《维也纳公约》的 Article IV(5)。
① Article V of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
② 《补充赔偿公约》的 Article II(2)规定:“本公约的制度适用于缔约国领土内设有用于和平目的的核装置的营运人依据第 I 条所述任一公约或本条第 1(b)款所述国家法律负责任的核损害。”也即《1960 年巴黎公约》和《1963 年维也纳公约》及其修正以及附件参加国(Annex States)的国内法律。然而,公约 Article V 的目的是限制共同基金(collective funds)用于在领土内包括《补充赔偿公约》缔约国的海区所遭受的损害,但这种规定只是明确了“在领海内或领海上空而不是非缔约国的领土所遭受的损害”。可将《补充赔偿公约》的 Article V(1)(a)和 Article V(1)(b)作一比较。
① Article I(a) - (b) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
② Article XV of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
③ Article XI(1)(c) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
④ Article XI(2) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
⑤ Article XII (2) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
⑥ Article 5 of the Annex to the Convention on Supplementary Compensation, Article III (1) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation, Article 10 of the Paris Convention and Article V of the Vienna Convention. 比较一下,《1997 年议定书》第 7 条规定,营运人的最低责任限额为 1 亿 5000 万 SDRs(除了在 1 亿 SDRs的过渡数额的情况下)。
① Article XIII (1) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
② Article XIII (1-3) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
③ Article XIII (2) of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
④ Article XIII of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
⑤ Article XX of the Convention on Supplementary Compensation.
⑥ Convention on Supplementary Compensation (Status list as of 12 September 2000: Signature, Ratification, Acceptance or Approval), available at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Legal/supcomp_status.pdf, viewed on 2 October 2003.
⑦ See “Revised Nuclear Third Party Liability Conventions improve victims' rights to compensation”, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/general/press/2004/2004-01.html, and “Background information note for the Press Communiqué on the revision of the Paris Convention on Nuclear Third Party Liability and of the Brussels Supplementary Convention”, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/general/press/2004/2004-01-note.html, viewed on 24 February 2004. Also see “Conclusion of the negotiations to revise the Paris and Brussels Conventions (2002)”, in: NLB 70 (2002).
① 谈判开始时,《巴黎公约》的 14 个缔约国分别是比利时、丹麦、芬兰、法国、德国、希腊、意大利、荷兰、挪威、葡萄牙、西班牙、瑞典、土耳其和英国。2001 年 10 月 16 日,斯洛文尼亚共和国成为该公约的第 15 个缔约国。
② The Joint Protocol generally extends to States adhering to it the coverage provided under the Convention to which it is not a Contracting Party. Thus, where a nuclear incident occurs in a Paris Convention/Joint Protocol State and damage is suffered in a Vienna Convention/ Joint Protocol State, victims in the latter State may claim compensation for damage against the liable Paris Convention State operator. The Paris Convention States which have joined the Joint Protocol are: Denmark, Finland, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden.
③ 《布鲁塞尔补充公约》的 11 个缔约国分别是比利时、丹麦、芬兰、法国、德国、意大利、荷兰、挪威、西班牙、瑞典和英国。斯洛文尼亚共和国已经申请加入该公约。
④ While the Protocol to amend the Paris Convention will come into force when ratified by two thirds of the Signatory States, the Protocol to amend the Brussels Supplementary Convention will come into force when ratified by all the Brussels Supplementary Convention signatory states.
⑤ 原文是:The resulting amending Protocols ensure that in the unlikely event of a nuclear accident, much greater financial compensation will be available to compensate a much larger number of victims for a much broader range of damage suffered.
⑥ This is particularly important for those Paris Convention States which are party to the 1988 Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention, an international instrument which generally extends to Paris or Vienna Convention States adhering to it the coverage provided under the Convention to which it is not already a Contracting Party.
⑦ See Protocol to Amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (12 February 2004), available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris_convention.pdf, viewed on 26 March 2004.
① A Special Drawing Right is a unit of account defined by the International Monetary Fund, calculated on the basis of a basket of currencies of several of the most important trading nations. Based upon the IMF exchange rate on 28 January 2004 of 1 SDR = €1.188, this amount is equivalent to €17.82 million. But according to the International Monetary Fund’s published currency values in terms of the Special Drawing Right on 2 January 2002, 1 SDR=1.39732 EUR. In 1990 the NEA Steering Committee for Nuclear Energy recommended that Contracting Parties increase this amount to at least 150 million SDRs.
② 原文是:The unit of account will change to the euro to avoid fluctuations in the value of the SDR which could seriously affect the level of corresponding national currencies for most Contracting Parties.
③ 原文是:Under the proposed revision, a nuclear operator will continue to be liable for damage to persons and to property, but will also be liable for certain categories of economic losses, the cost of preventive measures, the cost of measures to reinstate an impaired environment and other losses resulting from such an impaired environment, at least to the extent determined by the law of the competent court. This is a reference to the national law of the court having jurisdiction over claims for compensation arising out of a nuclear incident.
④ Including on board a ship or aircraft registered by that Contracting Party.
⑤ 原文是:The revised Convention, however, will apply to nuclear damage suffered in any territory or maritime zone of a Contracting Party or of a non-Contracting State as long as the latter is a party to the Vienna Convention and the Joint Protocol, or it has no nuclear installations in its territory or maritime zones, or it has adoptedlegislation that affords equivalent reciprocal benefits and is based upon the principles of the Paris Convention.
① See Protocol to Amend the Convention of 31st January 1963 Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (12 February 2004), available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/brussels_supplementary_convention.pdf, viewed on 26 March 2004.
② The fact that the Paris Convention, as revised, now sets a minimum amount of liability instead of a maximum means that the Contracting Parties will be free to establish, in their domestic legislation, an amount higher than €700 million or, as the case may be, to remove any limitation of liability from the nuclear operator.
① 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 63~64 页。
② 来小鹏等主编:《民法学》,陕西人民出版社 1998 年 6 月第 1 版,第 276~278 页。
① 谢邦宇、李静堂著:《民事责任》,法律出版社 1991 年 12 月第 1 版,第 5 页。
② 《法学词典》编辑委员会编:《法学词典》,上海辞书出版社 1989 年 11 月第 3 版,第 270~271 页。
③ 我国《民法通则》第 24 条第 2 款、第 34 条、第 63 条第 2 款规定的民事责任即指这种含义。
④ 郭明瑞、房绍坤、於向平著:《民事责任论》,中国社会科学出版社 1991 年 10 月第 1 版,第 8~11 页。
① 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 3~4 页。
② 曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版,第 1 页。
③ [德] 克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,张新宝译:《欧洲比较侵权法》(上卷),法律出版社 2001 年版,第 1~2页。
④ 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 4 页。民事责任还有以下分类:根据民事当事人违反义务的不同性质和内容,分为违约责任和侵权责任;根据民事责任的归责原则,分为过错责任、无过错责任和公平责任;根据所承担民事责任的内容是否具有财产性质,分为财产责任和非财产责任;根据承担责任的民事主体的多寡及其内在关系,分为单独责任和共同责任(包括按份责任和连带责任);根据给他人造成损害后果的过错行为是当事人一方还是双方所为,分为单方责任和双方责任;根据义务人承担财产责任的范围,分为有限责任和无限责任。而在中国大陆,违反合同的民事责任和侵权的民事责任构成民事责任的基本分类。传统民法将侵权行为作为债的发生根据之一,因而在民法上又将侵权行为所发生的债称为“损害赔偿”或者“侵权损害的民事责任”。参见谢邦宇、李静堂著:《民事责任》,法律出版社 1991 年 12 月第 1 版,第 53~59 页。也有学者认为,民事责任在学理上主要有类型分类和内容分类。民事责任的类型分类是指以民事责任的性质不同所进行的分类,包括财产责任和非财产责任、合同责任和非合同责任、过错责任和无过错责任;民事责任的内容分类是指以民事责任的内容不同所进行的分类,包括单方责任和双方责任(混合责任)、按份责任和连带责任、有限责任和无限责任。参见来小鹏等主编:《民法学》,陕西人民出版社 1998 年 6 月第 1 版,第 284~287 页。
① 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 4~5 页。
② 蓝承烈著:《民法专题研究与应用》,群众出版社 2002 年 8 月第 1 版,第 249、252 页。
① 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 7~8 页。
② 陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,载《台大法学论丛》2001 年 7 月第 30 卷第 4 期,第 112~113页。
① 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 360 页;傅济熙、董保同:“浅谈第三方核责任法律制度”,载《中国核工业》1998 年第 3 期,第 44 页。陈俊:“我国核法律制度研究基本问题初探”,载《中国法学》1998 年第 6 期,第 63 页。根据《中华人民共和国保险法》(1995 年10 月 1 日生效)第 11、49 条规定:“保险标的是指作为保险对象的财产及其有关利益或者人的寿命和身体”。“保险人对责任保险的被保险人给第三者造成的损害,可以依照法律的规定或者合同的约定,直接向该第三者赔偿保险金。责任保险是指以被保险人对第三者依法应负的赔偿责任为保险标的的保险”。
② 国际不当行为是指国际法律责任主体所作的违背其国际义务的行为,包括一般国际不当行为和国际罪行。因国际法律责任主体所作的国际不当行为而引起的国际责任,称为国际不当行为责任。参见梁西主编:《国际法》,武汉大学出版社 2000 年 3 月修订版,第 130 页。
③ See Draft articles on Responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, adopted by the International Law Commission at its fifty-third session (2001), in: the Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its Fifty-third session, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixth session, Supplement No. 10 (A/56/10), chp.IV.E.1; also see Commentaries to the draft articles on Prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities, adopted by the International Law Commission at its fifty-third session (2001), in: the Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its Fifty-third session, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixth session, Supplement No. 10 (A/56/10), chp.V.E.2, pp.376-436.
④ 个人在国际法的少数领域,如国际人权法、国际法律责任法、国际争端法等具有主体资格,但是在许 多重要领域又没有主体资格。参见梁西主编:《国际法》,武汉大学出版社 2000 年 3 月修订版,第 128 页。
① 梁西主编:《国际法》,武汉大学出版社 2000 年 3 月修订版,第 127~130、134 页。
② 王铁崖主编:《国际法》,法律出版社 1995 年 8 月修订版,第 160 页。
① 1978 年 1 月 24 日,苏联的核动力卫星宇宙—594 号坠毁在加拿大境内。加拿大分别于 1979 年 1 月 23日和同年 3 月 14 日根据有关国际协定,特别是外空损害赔偿公约和国际法的一般规则,向苏联提出已能判明的损害总额 604 万加拿大元(包括核动力卫星残骸的搜索和回收等费用)的赔偿请求。经过两国交涉,最后于 1980 年 11 月 2 日达成临时协议,加拿大以接受苏联提供的 300 万美元的赔偿而了结此争议。加拿大提出赔偿的法律依据是:1.从核动力卫星有害的放射性碎片大范围地散落并堆积于加拿大境内的事实,以及由此造成该领域的一部分由于环境遭受严重破坏而无法继续适当利用等,这与外空损害赔偿公约所规定的所谓“财产损害”相当。因此,苏联对此应承担严格责任。2.根据国际法的一般原则,苏联的核动力卫星的侵入和放射性碎片的堆积,也构成对加拿大主权的侵害。外空活动,特别是包含核动力使用的外空活动,适用严格赔偿责任的基准不仅限于条约上的规定,也是今后国际法的一般原则。参见林灿铃著:《国际法上的跨界损害之国家责任》,华文出版社 2000 年 8 月第 1 版,第 111~112 页;王曦编著:《国际环境法》(第二版),法律出版社 2005 年 5 月第 2 版,第 143 页。
② 梁西主编:《国际法》,武汉大学出版社 2000 年 3 月修订版,第 135~142 页;赵建文主编:《国际法新论》,法律出版社 2000 年 11 月第 1 版,第 578~581 页。
① 王曦译、梁西校:“国际法未加禁止之行为引起有害后果之国际责任条款草案”(联合国国际法委员会国际法未加禁止之行为引起有害后果之国际责任工作组 1996 年提交国际法委员会),载《法学评论》(武汉)1999 年第 6 期,第 133~136 页。
② 因为地球的生态整体并不与政治边界相联系。各国在本国境内进行的各种合法活动会互相影响。这种相互的影响,只要没有达到“重大”程度,就被认为是可以容忍的。国际法不加禁止的活动所造成的损害不能被容忍的阈限不能低于“重大”的水平。
③ 这一规定是以“使用自己的财产时,不得损害别人的财产”(罗马法格言:Sie utere alienum non laedas)的基本原则为根据,这项原则反映在《斯德哥尔摩宣言》原则21,内容如下:“依照《联合国宪章》和国际法原则,各国具有按照其环境政策开发其资源的主权权利,同时亦负有责任,确保在它管辖或控制范围内的活动,不致对其他国家的环境或其本国管辖范围以外地区的环境引起损害。”
④ 这种评估应该包括对有关的活动可能造成的越境损害影响的估价。为便于可能受影响国评估可能遇到的危险,它们需要知道该活动可能对它们造成哪些有害的影响。另外,评估不仅应该包括对人身和财产、而且也应该包括对其他国家环境的影响。保护环境的重要性,不以是否对个人或财产造成任何损害为转移,应该明确认识到这一点。
⑤ See Principle 15 of Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, adopted by the U.N. Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) at Rio de Janeiro, 13 June 1992. U.N. Doc. A/CONF.151/26 (vol.I)(1992), 31 I.L.M. 874 (1992).《里约宣言》原则15规定,各国应在力所能及的范围内广泛采取预防措施,并指出:“遇有严重或不可逆转的损害的威胁时,不得以缺乏科学的充分可靠性为理由,延迟采取符合成本效益的措施以防止环境退化。” 原文如下:In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.
① See Draft articles on Prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities, adopted by the International Law Commission at its fifty-third session (2001), in: the Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its Fifty-third session, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixth session, Supplement No. 10 (A/56/10), chp.V.E.1, pp.369-377. The present articles apply to activities not prohibited by international law which involve a risk of causing significant transboundary harm through their physical consequences. Also see Commentaries to the draft articles on Prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities, adopted by the International Law Commission at its fifty-third session (2001), in: the Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its Fifty-third session, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixth session, Supplement No. 10 (A/56/10), chp.V.E.2, pp.376-436.
② 英文表述为“international liability for injurious consequences arising out of acts not prohibited by international law”。
③ 梁西主编:《国际法》,武汉大学出版社 2000 年 3 月修订版,第 137~138 页;王铁崖主编:《国际法》,法律出版社 1995 年版,第 162~166 页;周忠海等著:《国际法述评》,法律出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第482 页;周晓林:“合法活动造成损害后果的国际责任”,载《中国法学》1988 年第 5 期,第 110 页。
① 梁西主编:《国际法》,武汉大学出版社 2000 年 3 月修订版,第 139、147 页。
② O. W. Holmes, The Common Law, 1891, p.50: “Sound policy lets losses lie where they fall except where a special reason can be shown for interference.”
③ 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2000 年 7 月第 1 版,第 11~12 页。
④ 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(上册),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版,第 126 页。
⑤ 靳宝兰、徐武生主编:《民事法律制度比较研究》,中国人民公安大学出版社 2001 年 11 月第 1 版,第749 页;王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 18 页。
① 我国台湾学者邱聪智教授认为,在责任原理上,“归责”(imputatio; imputation; Zurechnung)是指归究法律责任之根源而言。亦即决定何人,对于某种法律现象,在法律价值判断上,应负担其责任而言。民事赔偿制度,乃以个人权益之保护为出发点,遇有利益冲突或纠纷时,其调整方法,只有藉损害“填补”,包括传统观念之“赔偿”(damage; Schadensersatz)及现代观念之“补偿”(compensation; Schadenloshaltung)之方式,使被害人之权益,因填补而获得相当之保护。在法律规范原理上,使遭受损害之权益,与促使损害发生之原因者(Urheber)结合,将损害因而转嫁由原因者承担(Schadenübernahmen)之法律价值判断因素,即为“归责”意义之核心。因此,“归责”似可进一步定义如下:即行为人因其行为或容态(Verhalten),侵害他人权益,在法律价值判断上,因而应负赔偿责任之成立要素。参见邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10 月第 1 版,第 84~85 页。
② 张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》(第二版),中国社会科学出版社 1998 年 8 月修订第 2 版,第 42 页。
③ 潘同龙等主编:《侵权行为法》,天津人民出版社 1995 年版,第 48 页。
④ [德]Larenz 著,王泽鉴译:“德国法上损害赔偿之规则原则”,载王泽鉴著:《民法学说与案例研究》(5),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 259 页。该文是 Larenz 教授予 1965 年 7 月 9 日在 G?ttingen 大学法学院的专题演讲,刊载于 1965 年 10 月的 Juristische Schulung,1965,373 杂志。Larenz教授曾任教于德国慕尼黑大学,早年即享盛名,著作等身。他是法律哲学家,是新黑格尔法学派(Neuhegelianismus)的代表人,也是权威的民法学者。
⑤ 参见 Deutsch, (Czurechnung und Haftung im Zivil Reeht), S. 33. 转引自王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 15 页。
⑥ 邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介”,载《台大法学论丛》第 11 卷,第 2 期,第 277 页;邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10 月第 1 版,第 84 页。
⑦ 王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 15~16 页。
① 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(上册),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版,第 127~128 页;王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 16 页;杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年第 2 版,第 110~111 页。
② 张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》(第二版),中国社会科学出版社 1998 年 8 月修订第 2 版,第 42~44 页;靳宝兰、徐武生主编:《民事法律制度比较研究》,中国人民公安大学出版社 2001 年 11 月第 1 版,第 767页。
③ 李双元、温世扬主编:《比较民法学》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 11 月第 1 版,第 801 页;杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 111 页。
① 王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 1992 年版,第 18 页。
② 潘同龙等主编:《侵权行为法》,天津人民出版社 1995 年版,第 48 页。
③ 蓝承烈著:《民法专题研究与应用》,群众出版社 2002 年 8 月第 1 版,第 256 页。
④ 王利明著:《侵权行为法研究》(上卷),中国人民大学出版社 2004 年 7 月第 1 版,第 194~195 页。
① 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(上册),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版,第 128~132 页;王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 16~17 页;李双元、温世扬主编:《比较民法学》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 11 月第 1 版,第 802~803 页。其中,李双元和温世扬教授认为赔偿原则有四个,即对财产损失全部赔偿的原则、对人身损害赔偿财产损失的原则、对精神损害赔偿适当限制的原则以及考虑当事人经济状况的原则。
② 中共中央马克思恩格斯列宁斯大林著作编译局编:《马克思恩格斯选集》(第 3 卷),人民出版社 1995年 6 月第 2 版,第 374 页。
① 王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 18 页。
② 《法国民法典》第 1382 条规定:“人的任何行为给他人造成损害时,因其过错致该行为发生之人应当赔偿损害。”第 1383 条规定:“任何人不仅因其行为造成的损害负赔偿责任,而且还因其懈怠或疏忽大意造成的损害负赔偿责任。” 参见罗结珍译:《法国民法典》(下册),法律出版社 2005 年 3 月第 1 版,第 1073页。
③ 《国际比较法百科全书·侵权行为·导论》,1983 年英文版,第 13 页。转引自李双元、温世扬主编:《比较民法学》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 11 月第 1 版,第 806 页。
④ 《法国民法典》第 1147 条规定:“凡债务人不能证明其不履行债务系由于有不能归咎于其本人的外来原因时,即使在其本人方面并无任何恶意,如有必要,均因其债务不履行,或者迟延履行而受判支付损害赔偿。” 参见 code civil, Librairie Dalloz, Paris, 1999. 罗结珍译:《法国民法典》,中国法制出版社 1999 年 10月北京第 1 版,第 290 页。
⑤ 《国际比较法百科全书·侵权行为·导论》,1983 年英文版,第 45 页。转引自李双元、温世扬主编:《比较民法学》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 11 月第 1 版,第 806 页。
⑥ 《德国民法典》第 823 条(损害赔偿义务)规定:“(1)因故意或者过失不法侵害他人生命、身体、健康、自由、所有权或者其它权利者,对他人因此而产生的损害负赔偿义务。(2)违反以保护他人为目的的法律者,负相同的义务。如果根据法律的内容并无过失也可能违反此种法律的,仅在有过失的情况下,始负赔偿义务。”第 826 条(违反善良风俗的故意损害)规定:“以违反善良风俗的方式故意对他人施加损害的人,对他人负有损害赔偿义务。”参见郑冲、贾红梅译:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 1999 年 5 月第 1 版,第 196 页;陈卫佐译注:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 2004 年 5 月第 1 版,第 265~266 页。
① Winfield, Law of Torts, ed.1, London, 1937, S.7.
② Salmond, Law of Torts, ed.1, London, 1907, S.2.
③ 《国际比较法百科全书·侵权行为·为自己行为之责任》,第 11 页。转引自王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 21 页。
① 王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 18~22 页;李双元、温世扬主编:《比较民法学》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 11 月第 1 版,第 806~808 页;靳宝兰、徐武生主编:《民事法律制度比较研究》,中国人民公安大学出版社 2001 年 11 月第 1 版,第 768 页。
② 蓝承烈著:《民法专题研究与应用》,群众出版社 2002 年 8 月第 1 版,第 259~262 页。
① R. Müller-Erzbach 因宗危险一元归责,故其学说主旨为:民事责任,系本于行为者制造危险而归责,故意、过失者,无非主观制造之“危险”,性质上亦属“危险责任”之一环,并无独立归责原理之地位。参见 R. Müller-Erzbach, Gef?hrdungshaftung und Gefahrtragung (一), Acp. 106, 1910, S. 351 f.f., (二), Acp. 109, 1912, S. 1 f.f。参见邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10 月第 1 版,第 88 页,注释 90。
② 王利明:《侵权行为法研究》(上卷),中国人民大学出版社 2004 年 7 月第 1 版,第 199~200 页。
③ Wieth?lter, Der Rechtfertigungsgrund des verkehrsrichtigen Verhaltens, 1960, S.52. 转引自王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 25 页;李双元、温世扬主编:《比较民法学》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 11 月第 1 版,第 805 页;邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002年 10 月第 1 版,第 81 页,注释 71。
④ R. Pound, An Introduction to the Philosophy of Law, 1992, pp.169-177. 转引自王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 25~26 页;李双元、温世扬主编:《比较民法学》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 11 月第 1 版,第 805 页。日本学者前田達明根据魏特希德的理论体系和德国民法精神以及德国学者通说,进一步将此种建立于人类社会生活关系上典型可能性之过失理论,因其可能性之标准,系基于生活关系上之相互期待和信赖,而直称之“信赖责任”,形成“故意=意思责任(违法有责)、过失=信赖责任(违法无责)及危险=无过失责任(适法无责)”之归责理论体系。参见邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10 月第 1 版,第 81 页。
① 台湾“民法”第一百九十一条之一 (商品制造人之责任)第一项规定:“商品制造人因其商品之通常使用或消费所致他人之损害,负赔偿责任。但其对于商品之生产、制造或加工、设计并无欠缺或其损害非因该项欠缺所致或于防止损害之发生,已尽相当之注意者,不在此限。”第一百九十一条之二 (动力车辆驾驶人之责任)规定:“汽车、机车或其它非依轨道行驶之动力车辆,在使用中加损害于他人者,驾驶人应赔偿因此所生之损害。但于防止损害之发生,已尽相当之注意者,不在此限。”第一百九十一条之三(一般危险之责任)规定:“经营一定事业或从事其它工作或活动之人,其工作或活动之性质或其使用之工具或方法有生损害于他人之危险者,对他人之损害应负赔偿责任。但损害非由于其工作或活动或其使用之工具或方法所致,或于防止损害之发生已尽相当之注意者,不在此限。”参见台湾“民法”(中华民国 91 年 6月 4 日制定和修正,中华民国 91 年 6 月 26 日公布施行)条文,http://www.6law.idv.tw/民法.doc;另可参见台湾“民法历年修正条文及理由”,http://www.6law.idv.tw/law2/民法歷年修正條文及理由.doc#a884021,均于 2004 年 2 月 2 日浏览。
② 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 21~23 页。
③ 邱聪智:“台湾侵权行为法基本问题研究——以民法债编修正为中心”,本文首次发表于 2000 年 12 月 5日深圳“海峡两岸法学学术研讨会”,http://www.civillaw.com.cn/twcivillaw/research/yj07-10.doc,2004 年 4月 7 日浏览。
④ 李双元、温世扬主编:《比较民法学》,武汉大学出版社 1998 年 11 月第 1 版,第 805~806 页;靳宝兰、徐武生主编:《民事法律制度比较研究》,中国人民公安大学出版社 2001 年 11 月第 1 版,第 770 页。
① 王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 28 页。
② 杨立新著:《简明类型侵权法讲座》,高等教育出版社 2003 年 11 月第 1 版,第 95 页。
③ 在确认我国侵权行为法究竟有几个归责原则所构成的问题上,侵权行为法学界的主要意见是:1.一元论观点。其认为,侵权行为法只有一个归责原则,即过错责任原则;单一的过错责任原则体系,构造主观式的民事责任制度的和谐体系。王卫国教授在其《过错责任原则——第三次勃兴》(浙江人民出版社 1988年版,中国法制出版社 2000 年版)一书中详细阐述了其观点。2.二元论观点。其认为,在相当的历史时期内,侵权行为法的归责原则将是二元制,即过失责任原则和无过失责任原则并存。最有代表性的观点是米健先生在其《现代侵权行为法归责原则探索》(载《法学研究》1985 年第 5 期)一文中提出的上述观点。3.三元论—A 观点。其认为,我国民事法律制度中同时存在三个归责原则。一般侵权损害适用过错责任原则,特殊侵权损害适用无过失责任原则,无行为能力的人致人损害而监护人不能赔偿的特别案件适用公平责任原则。刘淑珍在其《试论侵权损害的归责原则》(载《法学研究》1984 年第 4 期)一文提出了这种观点,并为多数学者所采纳。杨立新教授赞同这种意见,但他提出了三种归责原则四种表现形式,即(1)过错责任原则有两种表现形式:一般的过错责任原则和推定的过错责任原则;(2)无过错责任原则;(3)公平责任原则。4.三元论—B 观点,以王利明教授为代表。其认为,侵权法归责原则为过错责任原则、过错推定原则和公平责任原则,无过错责任不是一种独立的归责原则。王利明教授在其《侵权行为法归责原则研究》(中国政法大学出版社 1992 年版第 30 页)一书中首次将过错推定原则作为一个独立的归责原则进行论述。5.三元论—C 观点,以杨立新教授为代表。其认为,侵权责任归责原则体系是由过错责任原则、过错推定责任原则和无过错责任原则等三个归责原则构成,公平责任原则不是一个归责原则,而仅仅是一种责任形态。参见杨立新著:《侵权法论》,人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 115~116 页。
④ 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 23 页。
① 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(上册),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版,第 503 页。
② 《中华人民共和国民法通则》第 123 条规定:“从事高空、高压、易燃、易爆、剧毒、放射性、高速运输工具等对周围环境有高度危险的作业造成他人损害的,应当承担民事责任;如果能够证明损害是由受害人故意造成的,不承担民事责任。”另外,有关国际核责任公约和国内核责任法一般都规定了营运人的严格责任或绝对责任,具体可参见本书的有关章节。
① 吕忠梅著:《环境法学》,法律出版社 2004 年 9 月第 1 版,第 172~173 页。
② 一般认为,“危险责任”这一名词的出现,系始于 19 世纪末的德国学者吕穆林(M. Rümelin),历时一个世纪之久(M. Rümelin, Gründe der Schadenszurechnung, 1896, S. 37; M. Rümelin, Schadensersatz ohne Vershulden, 1910, S. 50)。随着现代科技的发展,运用机械及管理危险物品的活动,被统称为“危险活动”,而此类机械设备被泛称为“危险设备”。因此,“危险责任”似可称之为“危险活动事故所引起之法律责任”。惟以民法领域所称之危险责任,乃指“危险活动事故发生之民事上损害赔偿责任”而言,因而其意义自属较狭。原来,民事上之损害赔偿责任体系,依其发生原因而言,本可区分为二,即契约责任与侵权责任。侵权责任,又称“契约外责任”(ausservertr?gliche Haftung)。危险活动发生之责任,原则上亦可作相同区分,即“契约危险”(Gef?hrdung innerhalb eines Vertrags)和“契约外危险”(Gef?hrdung auβerhalb eines Vertrags)。契约责任体系,系采类型化规定,常可因事制宜而作特别规定。但在大陆法系,侵权行为责任,则带有浓厚的一般条款色彩,常归纳于单一条文,即学理上所谓的过失责任一般条款。事实上,近百年来有关“危险责任”的讨论,亦以侵权行为法领域为其中心。因此,一般所谓危险责任,通常乃指侵权行为方面之危险责任而言。另外,由于现代社会的危险活动在大多数情况下,均藉诸社会组织体即企业形态而推动,而社会组织体对其内部从业人员的责任,在现代法律体系上,已因其问题领域之社会化,而归诸社会安全立法之领域处理,与民事责任体系脱离。因此,危险责任的被害人,在理论上仅及于活动参与者以外之“第三人”,而不及于参与活动之从业人员,亦即仅限于“契约外”之对外责任而已。在此意义下,则所谓“危险责任”,似可定义如下,即:危险活动主体,因危险活动事故,致侵害一般社会大众之利益,就其所生“损害”,应负之赔偿责任。其适用范围主要如下,即:铁路(火车)事故、汽车事故、航空事故、矿害事故、电气煤气供给设备事故、高压设备事故、核子损害事故、商品事故等。参见邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10 月第 1 版,第 192-193、214 页。也有学者认为,法国学者 Salelles 和 Josserand 在 19 世纪末提出了危险责任理论。他们认为,谁在从事活动时引起他人损害,即应对他人的损害承担赔偿责任。危险责任的学说有两种:利润危险说(risque-profit)和危险产生说(risque crēé)。前者认为,获取利润的人承担危险,这是公平的;后者认为,从事危险活动的人如果引起他人损害即应对此损害承担赔偿责任。参见张民安著:《现代法国侵权责任制度研究》,法律出版社 2003年 4 月第 1 版,第 12 页。
③ 台湾著名学者王泽鉴教授认为,现行损害赔偿法,系建立在过失责任和无过失责任二项价值相等的基本原则之上。基于无过失主义而发生之损害赔偿之债,种类甚多,因性质不同,难以提出积极原则加以说明,故学说上仅就其消极特征立论,统称之为无过失责任原则。就其内容分析之,可归为三项责任原则:(1)由特定危险事物享受利益,就此危险所生损害之赔偿责任;(2)基于法律特许,利用他人物品所生损害赔偿责任;(3)基于法定担保义务,尤其因自己行为创造之信赖要件,而产生之损害赔偿责任。参见王泽鉴著:《民法学说与判例研究》(1),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 322 页。危险责任系补充过失责任之不足,而非取代后者,在德国民法上,由 Deutsch,K?tz 的归责阶段说及 Larenz 的“过失责任、危险责任”规范竟合理论,可见其端倪(Deutsch, Gef?hrdungshaftung und Verschuldenshaftung, S. 2; K?tz, Haftung für besondere Gefahr, Acp. 170, 1970, S. 14; Larenz, Schuldrecht, S. 536)。参见邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10 月第 1 版,第 88 页注释 89。
① 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 46 页。
② 王利明:《侵权行为法研究》(上卷),中国人民大学出版社 2004 年 7 月第 1 版,第 200~201 页。
③ 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 467 页。
④ 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 371~372 页。
① 邱聪智:“台湾侵权行为法基本问题研究——以民法债编修正为中心”,本文首次发表于 2000 年 12 月 5日深圳“海峡两岸法学学术研讨会”,http://www.civillaw.com.cn/twcivillaw/research/yj07-10.doc,2004 年 4月 7 日浏览。
② 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(上册),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版,第 154~157 页。
① 所谓公害,系指人为活动所生之水污染、空气污染、土地污染、噪音、振动、恶臭、放射性物质及其他因破坏环境致他人遭受损害之法律事实。参见朱柏松:《公害之民事责任论》,台湾大学法律学研究所硕士论文(1974 年度),第 8 页。转引自王泽鉴著:《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社 1998年 1 月第 1 版,第 152~153 页。
② 王泽鉴著:《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 150~153 页。
① 曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版,第 5~6 页。
② [德]Larenz 著,王泽鉴译:“德国法上损害赔偿之规则原则”,载王泽鉴著:《民法学说与案例研究》(5),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 262~263 页;王泽鉴著:“损害赔偿之归责原则”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(1),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 322~323 页;王泽鉴著:“侵权行为法之危机及其发展趋势”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第162 页;Esser, Grundlagen und Entwicklung der Gef?hrdungshaftung, 1941,第 5 页、第 69 页以下;王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 16 页。
① 曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版,第 6、166~167 页。
① 陈慈阳著:《环境法总论》,台湾元照出版公司 2003 年 1 月第 2 版,第 436 页。
② 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(上册),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版,第 506~509 页。
① 魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社、高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 683~684 页。另可参见王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 147~151、162 页。
② 张新宝:“关于高度危险作业致人损害的赔偿责任的几个问题”,载《政法论坛》(中国政法大学学报)1994 年第 4 期,第 25 页;张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》(第二版),中国社会科学出版社 1998 年 8 月修订第 2 版,第 516 页。
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 277 页。
② 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 16 页;曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 371~375 页。
③ 王泽鉴著:《民法学说与判例研究》(第 2 册),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 162 页。另可参见[美]约翰·罗尔斯著,何怀宏等译:《正义论》,中国社会科学出版社 1988 年 3 月第 1 版,第 275~285页;[美]约翰·罗尔斯著,姚大志译:《作为公平的正义——正义新论》,上海三联书店 2002 年 4 月第 1版,第 80~83 页。
④ 曾隆兴著:《现代损害赔偿法论》1985 年再版,第 9 页以下,认无过失责任依据法律规定及判例二者而存在,又德国法上虽认危险责任仅依法律规定而存在,判例明白否定依据判例而存在之可能,但德国学者从比较法之立场仍肯定依判例存在之可能。转引自曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001年 10 月第 1 版,第 375 页注释[1]。
① 一般危险活动产生一般危险责任(中间责任),在民法中包括古典型的法定代理人责任、雇用人责任、动物占有人责任、工作物所有人责任以及现代性的商品责任、汽车责任、(补充性)一般危险责任;特别危险活动产生特别危险责任(无过失责任),在特别法中包括违反消费安全责任、矿害责任、航空责任、核子损害责任。参见邱聪智:“台湾侵权行为法基本问题研究——以民法债编修正为中心”,本文首次发表于 2000 年 12 月 5 日深圳“海峡两岸法学学术研讨会”,参见 http://www.civillaw.com.cn/twcivillaw/research/yj07-10.doc,2004 年 4 月 7 日浏览。
② 《中华人民共和国民用航空法》于 1995 年 10 月 30 日第八届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第十六次会议通过,自 1996 年 3 月 1 日起施行。
③ 《中华人民共和国铁路法》于 1990 年 9 月 7 日第七届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第十五次会议通过。
④ 台湾“铁路法”于 2003 年 6 月 6 日制定和修正,同年 6 月 25 日公布和施行。
① 关于侵权行为之损害赔偿,台湾“民法”既然设有一般规则,可资适用,为何又于“公路法”、“铁路法”、“民用航空法”另设特别规定?立法理由何在?与“民法”规定有何不同?王泽鉴教授认为,应该提出的是责任的严格化,即 1.“民用航空法”规定航空器所有人(第 67 条),或航空器使用人或运送人(第69 条)应负无过失责任。2.“铁路法”第 62 条规定铁路之过失推定责任及衡平责任。3.“公路法”第 64条究竟采何种归责原则未臻明确。法律对公路、铁路或航空等事业损害赔偿那个责任的成立,所以不采过失责任主义(由被害人负举证责任),而设不同程序的严格责任,其目的当然在于保护被害人,使其多获赔偿之机会。因此,“公路法”、“铁路法”、“民用航空法”对运输公用事业损害赔偿责任之成立,一方面采取较“民法”为严格之归责原则,以加重其责任;另一方面为平衡此项较为严格之责任,法律特授权主管机关定订“损害赔偿发给办法”,对赔偿数额加以限制。采取此种立法原则的,尚有“核子损害赔偿法”。依“核子损害赔偿法”第十一条至第二十三条规定,核子设施经营人对于核子损害应负无过失赔偿责任。第二十四条更明确规定:“核子设施经营者对于每一核子事故,依本法所负之赔偿责任,其最高限额为新台币四十二亿元。前项赔偿限额,不包括利息及诉讼费用在内。”此项规定,亦旨在适当限制无过失责任之赔偿范围,使责任主体能够经由责任保险或其他方法分散损害。参见王泽鉴著:“《公路法》关于损害赔偿特别规定与《民法》侵权行为一般规定之适用关系”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(6),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 43~45 页。
② 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 374~376 页。
③ 郭明瑞、房绍坤、於向平著:《民事责任论》,中国社会科学出版社 1991 年 10 月第 1 版,第 55 页。
① 一般侵权行为的构成要件在学理上有四要件说和三要件说。参见王泽鉴:《侵权行为法》(第一册),台湾菩菱设计印刷公司 1998 年版,第 260~264 页;张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》,中国社会科学出版社 1998年 8 月修订第 2 版,第 72~74 页;马俊驹、余延满著:《民法原论》(下),法律出版社 1998 年 8 月第 1 版,第 1024~1025 页;魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社、高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 686~692页。魏振瀛教授在其主编的《民法》(第 686 页)中认为:“基于对侵权行为所作的一般侵权行为和特殊侵权行为的分类,可以说在构成要件上,一般侵权行为需要具备上述四个要件,而特殊侵权行为则需要具备三个要件,即行为的违法性、损害事实的存在、行为和损害之间有因果关系”。
② 陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,载《台大法学论丛》2001 年 7 月第 30 卷第 4 期,第 112页。
③ 例如,德国《放射线防护法》(1986 年 12 月 31 日生效)第一条所指的“环境”是指经由放射线可能引起国民健康损害的所有客体和媒介。参见陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 191 页。《中华人民共和国环境保护法》(1989 年 12 月 26 日通过和施行)第二条规定:“本法所称环境,是指影响人类生存和发展的各种天然的和经过人工改造的自然因素的总体,包括大气、水、海洋、土地、矿藏、森林、草原、野生生物、自然遗迹、人文遗迹、自然保护区、风景名胜区、城市和乡村等。”
① 台湾《原子能法施行细则》由“行政院原子能委员会”于 1991 年 11 月 22 日公布。
① 构成我国《民法通则》第 123 条规定中的“高度危险作业”,必须是合法的。如果加害人因从事某种非法的高度危险作业而造成了损害,则不适用于《民法通则》第 123 条的规定,而应适用《民法通则》第 119条和其他法律法规的规定,并不受最高赔偿数额的限制。行为人除了要承担民事责任外,还应承担相应的刑事或行政责任。《民法通则》第 119 条只是针对人身损害。
② 我国最高人民法院关于贯彻执行《中华人民共和国民法通则》若干问题的意见(试行)(1988 年 1 月26 日最高人民法院审判委员会讨论通过,1988 年 4 月 2 日法(办)发[1988]6 号)第 154 条规定:“从事高度危险作业,没有按有关规定采取必要的安全防护措施,严重威胁他人人身、财产安全的,人民法院应当根据他人的要求,责令作业人消除危险。”
① 《中华人民共和国放射性污染防治法》(2003 年 6 月 28 日)第 12、13、59 条。
② 陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,载《台大法学论丛》2001 年 7 月第 30 卷第 4 期,第 115 页。
③ 台湾“民法”第一百九十一条之三规定:“经营一定事业或从事其他工作或活动之人,其工作或活动之性质或其使用之工具或方法有生损害于他人之危险者,对他人之损害应负赔偿责任。但损害非由于其工作或活动或其使用之工具或方法所致,或于防止损害之发生已尽相当之注意者,不在此限。”其立法理由是:为使被害人获得周密之保护,请求赔偿时,被害人只须证明加害人之工作或活动之性质或其使用之工具或方法,有生损害于他人之危险性,而在其工作或活动中受损害即可,不须证明其间有因果关系。但加害人 能证明损害非由于其工作或活动或其使用之工具或方法所致,或于防止损害之发生已尽相当之注意者,则免负赔偿责任,以期平允,爰增订本条。参见“民法历年修正条文及理由”,台湾电子六法全书网站。因此,危险责任之要件为:其一,须经营事业或从事其他工作或活动之人;危险责任之加害人须为经营事业或从事其他工作或活动之人。所谓事业,主要指经营各种工厂而有发生危险损害他人之事业。其他如农业、渔业、林业等如有发生危险之可能者,亦包括在内。虽非经营事业,但如从事其他工作或活动而有发生危险之可能者,亦应负责。其二,须其工作或活动之性质或其使用之工具或方法有生损害于他人之危险;经营一定事业或从事其他工作或活动之人,其工作或活动之性质或其使用之工具或方法有生损害于他人之危险。若并无损害于他人之危险,而偶然发生意外事故者,仅为是否“民法”第一百八十四条至一般侵权行为问题,而不适用本条之规定。其三,须他人受损害。虽有危险,然若无损害之发生,自不负损害赔偿责任。反之,若在其工作或活动中生损害于他人者,自应负损害赔偿责任。危险责任之加害人如能证明损害非由于其工作或活动或其使用之工具或方法所致,或防止损害之发生已尽相当之注意者,即可免负赔偿责任。所谓相当之注意,指已尽善良管理人之注意而言。参见曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版,第 166~167 页。
① 相关论述可参见张新宝:“关于高度危险作业致人损害的赔偿责任的几个问题”,载《政法论坛》(中国政法大学学报)1994 年第 4 期,第 24~30 页。
② 最高人民法院《关于民事诉讼证据的若干规定》(法释[2001]33 号)于 2001 年 12 月 6 日由最高人民法院审判委员会第 1201 次会议通过,2001 年 12 月 21 日最高人民法院公告公布,自 2002 年 4 月 1 日起施行。
③ 例如,1968 年 1 月 21 日,一架美国轰炸机在格陵兰西北坠毁,机上携有 6.2 公斤的钚发生泄露,当时有 1,200 名丹麦人和格陵兰人参与事后污染清除工作。如今尚存活 400 人,其中有 166 人起诉,要求美国政府赔偿,但被驳回。丹麦医学人员认为,欲证明这些人的健康受到了放射线照射的影响,并非易事。参见陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 205 页注释80。
④ 例如,台湾《游离辐射防护安全标准》(1970 年制定、1991 年 7 月 10 日修正)第三条、第六条就有类似的规定;其第九条规定,职业暴露的年个人剂量限度,全身的有效等效剂量,一年内不得超过 50 毫西弗;眼球水晶体的等效剂量,一年内不得超过 150 毫西弗;其他个别器官或组织的等效剂量,一年内不得超过 500 毫西弗。而一般人的年有效等效剂量限度为 5 毫西弗,个别器官或组织的年有效等效剂量限度为 50 毫西弗。
① 王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 460~466 页。
① 王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 536 页。
② 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 171~176 页;王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号),法律出版社 1999年 1 月第 1 版,第 457~559 页;曹明德著:《环境侵权法》,法律出版社 2000 年 10 月第 1 版,第 175~186页。
③ 王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 504~509 页。
① 李光灿等:《刑法因果关系论》,北京大学出版社 1986 年版,第 39 页。在涉及被害人以外之第三人行为或其他事件介入因果关系时,如第三人之故意或犯罪行为、第三人之过失行为、被害人自杀行为、自然事件之介入等,损害结果是否仍属被害人可得预见,英美判例上经常以因果关系是否中断,以探讨被害人是否应负损害赔偿责任。因果关系中断之原因,需为独立于被告行为之外,且非被告行为之直接、可预见或具有相当性之结果。参见陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,国立台湾大学《法学论丛》2001 年7 月第 30 卷第 4 期,第 271~280、301 页。
② 原因力是指在构成损害结果的共同原因中,各个原因对于损害结果的发生或扩大所发挥的作用力。单一原因对于结果的发生,原因力为 100%。因而考察原因力不具有实际意义,只有在共同原因中,考察原因力才具有现实的意义。原因力的大小决定于各个共同原因的性质、原因事实与损害结果的距离以及原因事实的强度。另外,原因力大小在共同侵权行为和混合过错的责任分担上具有相对的决定作用。参见杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 182 页。
③ 陈泉生著:《环境法原理》,法律出版社 1997 年版,第 232 页。
① 李薇:“日本侵权行为法的因果关系理论”,载《外国法译评》1995 年第 4 期。
② [宋]窦仪等撰,吴翊如点校:《宋刑统》,中华书局 1984 年 6 月第 1 版,第 330 页;[宋]窦仪等撰,薛梅卿点校:《宋刑统》,法律出版社 1999 年 9 月第 1 版,第 376 页。另可参见杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 174 页注释①。
① [德]骆克信著,许玉秀译:“客观归责理论”,载台湾《政大法学评论》1994 年 5 月第 50 期,第 11~26页。骆克信(Roxin)为德国慕尼黑大学刑法学教授,南韩汉阳大学、意大利乌尔比诺大学、葡萄牙空卜拉大学、希腊科摩提尼大学、西班牙马德里空普鲁坦瑟大学、西班牙巴塞隆纳大学等荣誉法学博士;许玉秀为台湾国立政治大学法研所教授,德国弗莱堡大学法学博士。
② 关于黑格尔的法哲学,可参见张乃根著:《西方法哲学史纲》,中国政法大学出版社 1997 年 7 月第 1 次修订,第 163~169 页。
① [日]国藤一郎:《公害法的生成与发展》,岩波书店 1968 年版,第 29 页。
② [日]新美育文:“日本的产品责任中的赔偿范围与责任限制”,载[日]加藤一郎、王家福主编:《民法和环境法的诸问题》,中国人民大学出版社 1995 年 12 月第 1 版,第 193 页。
③ 所谓流行病学观点,是指流行病学认为致病因素最终导致疾病产生应该满足以下四个条件:一是疾病因子于发病前的一定时期已经存在;二是疾病因子的作用越显著,罹病率越高;三是疾病因子分布消长的状况与有记载的流行病之流行特征未有明显反动;由疾病因子的作用机理观之,不存在生物学方面的矛盾。参见王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 532 页注释①。
④ [日]加藤一郎:“日本侵权行为法的现代发展”,载[日]加藤一郎、王家福主编:《民法和环境法的诸问题》,中国人民大学出版社 1995 年 12 月第 1 版,第 3~4 页;王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 526~533 页。
① 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 192 页。此处涉及到直接结果(direct consequence)理论和可预见性(foreseeability)理论。直接结果理论主张侵权人应当为其侵害行为所造成的直接损害结果承担法律责任。该理论具有两层含义: 其一,侵权人只为其对损害结果具有直接引发作用的侵害行为承担法律责任;其二,只要侵权人的侵害行为直接导致的损害结果,不论该结果对侵权人而言有否可预见性,该侵害行为均成为损害结果发生的法律上的原因。所谓直接原因或直接结果,是指于时间或空间上距离最近的一对引起与被引起的现象。目前,直接结果理论大体适用于侵权人行为时有主观故意的侵权案件。可预见性理论是适用于过失侵权案件的法律上原因之认定理论。其原则是,过失侵权人需要承担侵权责任的损害必须具有可预见性,即过失侵权人只对可以预见的损害承担责任,并且要对全部可预见的损害承担责任。参见王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 488~490 页。
② 陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,国立台湾大学《法学论丛》2001 年 7 月第 30 卷第 4 期,第196~197 页。
③ 王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号), 法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 499~501 页。
① Rylands v. Fletcher (1866) LR 1 Ex. 265. 关于此案,后文将具体阐述。
② 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 176~180 页。
① 杨立新教授认为,相当因果关系说和必然因果关系学说两种学说的根本区别在于:前者强调判断因果关系的客观标准是“可能性”,而后者强调的标准是“必然性”;前者的可能性取决于社会的一般的见解,而后者强调的必然性则是与人的认识无关的客观存在。相当因果关系的正确性在于,它不要求法官对每一个案件均脱离一般人的知识经验和认识水平,去追求客观和本质的必然联系,只要求判明原因事实与损害结果之间通常存在的联系的可能性。这种判断不是依法官个人的主观臆断,而是要求法官根据一般社会见解,按照当时社会所达到的知识和经验,只要一般人认为在同样条件下有发生同样结果的可能性即可;其客观依据则在于事实上这种原因事实已经发生了这样的结果。参见杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 177 页。
① 侵权民事责任构成中的因果关系要件,就是侵权法中的因果关系。它指的是违法行为作为原因,损害事实作为结果,在它们之间存在的前者引起后者,后者被前者所引起的客观联系。参见杨立新著:《侵权法论》,人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 168 页。
② 郑玉波著:《民法债编总论》,第 156 页。
③ 孙森淼著:《民法债编总论》,第 175 页。
④ 王伯崎:《民法债编总论》,第 77 页。转引自王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 191 页注释[2]。
① 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 189~191 页。
② 王利明等:《民法·侵权行为法》,中国人民大学出版社 1993 年版,第 144 页;杨立新著:《侵权法论》,人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 168 页。
③ [美]迈克尔·D·贝勒斯著,张文显等译:《法律的原则——一个规范的分析》,中国大百科全书出版社1996 年 1 月第 1 版,第 297、433 页。
④ 王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 475~476 页。
① 自由心证之原则,谓证据之调查取舍、证据方法及证明力,悉依法院自由判断之原则。自由心证之原则为证据法上之大原则与法定证据之原则对立。参见曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 287 页。
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 461、484~485页。
③ Hager NJW 1991, 134; Fikentscher, Schuldrecht, S. 797. 转引自王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社2001年7月第1版,第202~203页。Also see Environmental Liability Act of 10 December 1990, BGBl I 1990, 2634 (as amended) (English Translation by The Cologne Re), available at http://www.ucl.ac.uk/laws/global_law/german-statutes/index.shtml?environment_1990, viewed on 13 October 2004. 其第6条第1项的英文表述是“:§ 6. Presumption of causation (1) If a facility is inherently suited, on the facts of the particular case, to cause the damage that occurred, then it shall be presumed that this facility caused the damage. Inherent suitedness in a particular case is determined on the basis of the course of business, the structures used, the nature and concentration of the materials used and released, the weather conditions, the time and place at which the damage occurred, the nature of the damage, as well as all other conditions which speak for or against causation of the damage in the particular case.”
④ [日]野村好弘:《日本公害法概念》(中文版),第 337~338 页。
① 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 201~202 页。
② 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(上册),吉林人民出版社 2000 版,第 526~528 页。
③ Some residents could suffer immediate, predictable, deterministic effects, or random, latent, “stochastic” effects from radiation. Regarding latent effects, an expert witness in a personal injury case, arguing that radiation released in an incident caused someone’s cancer, faces a daunting task. It may be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to prove causation. See Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for:The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler TechnicalCarson City, Nevada, p.3, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004.
① 来小鹏等主编:《民法学》,陕西人民出版社 1998 年 6 月第 1 版,第 292 页。民事责任免除,以免除原因的不同,分为法定民事责任免除和意定民事责任免除,简称法定免除和意定免除。法定免除,是指依照法律规定的免除民事责任的条件而直接形成的民事责任免除;意定免除,是指依受害人、债权人一方不追究民事责任的意思表示,使民事责任无须承担而形成的民事责任免除。
② 郭明瑞、房绍坤、於向平著:《民事责任论》,中国社会科学出版社 1991 年 10 月第 1 版,第 92~93 页;来小鹏等主编:《民法学》,陕西人民出版社 1998 年 6 月第 1 版,第 292~293 页。郭明瑞等认为,免除民事责任的条件,按其确定根据可以分为约定免责条件和法定免责条件两类。约定免责条件,是指当事人事先约定的免除民事责任的情况。在各国立法上,对于侵权的民事责任,当事人一般不得事先约定免除。所以,约定免责条件主要是指合同当事人在合同中约定的不承担违约责任的情况,这是合同自由原则的体现。当然,当事人约定免责事由的自由也应受限制。法定免责条件,是指法律直接规定的行为人不承担民事责任或得减轻民事责任的情况(事由)。法定免责条件,按其性质可以分为两种:一种是行为人的行为阻却违法性;一种是损害的发生有行为人以外的因素。来小鹏等认为,免除民事责任的条件,可以分为意定免除民事责任条件和法定免除民事责任条件两类。意定免除民事责任条件,是指受害人、债权人使其损害赔偿等请求权消灭的单独行为。这种免除行为,依消灭该项损害赔偿等请求权的意思表示成立而发生效力,不以债务责任人的承诺为必要。意定免除民事责任的意思表示是法律行为,应依法律行为制度的单独法律行为的规定行使。这种行为属处分行为,行为人须有处分能力。
① 2004 年 2 月 12 日《巴黎公约》修正议定书不再将“特大自然灾害”作为法定免责事由,即《巴黎公约》的第 9 条由“The operator shall not be liable for damage caused by a nuclear incident directly due to an act of armed conflict, hostilities, civil war, insurrection or, except in so far as the legislation of the Contracting Party in whose territory his installation is situated may provide to the contrary, a grave natural disaster of an exceptional character.”改为“The operator shall not be liable for damage caused by a nuclear incident directly due to an act of armed conflict, hostilities, civil war, insurrection.”See I.J. of Protocol to Amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris_convention.pdf, viewed on 26 March 2004.《巴黎公约》的这种修订与《1997年核损害民事责任维也纳公约》第 IV(3)条的规定完全一致,但 1997 年《核损害补充赔偿公约》附件第 3(5)(b)条则规定,如果核装置国的法律无相反规定,营运人仍应对直接由特大自然灾害所引起的核事件所造成的核损害承担责任。
② 参见国务院 1986 年 3 月 29 日《批复》第五条;台湾 1997 年《核子损害赔偿法》第十八条、第十九条、第二十一条;Article IV(2-3) and (5) of 1963 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage; Article II (3-5) of Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships, 1962; Article 3 (5-7) of Annex to Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage; Article IV(2-3) and (5) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage; Article 9 of Paris Convention.
① w. of Section 11 of (U.S.) The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, in: Supplement to NLB 42, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-42-SUP.pdf, viewed on 10 November 2004. 原文如下:The term “public liability” means any legal liability arising out of or resulting from a nuclear incident or precautionary evacuation (including all reasonable additional costs incurred by a State, or a political subdivision of a State in the course of responding to a nuclear incident or precautionary evacuation), except: (i) claims under State or Federal workmen’s compensation acts of employees of persons indemnified who are employed at the site of and in connection with the activity where the nuclear incident occurs; (ii) claims arising out of an act of war; and (iii) whenever used in subsections a., c., and k. of section 170, claims for loss of, or damage to, or loss of use of property which is located at the site of and used in connection with the licensed activity where the nuclear incident occurs. “Public liability” also includes damage to property of persons indemnified: Provided, That such property is covered under the terms of the financial protection required, except property which is located at the site of and used in connection with the activity where the nuclear incident occurs.
② 英文表述分别是:“Section 25 Liability for nuclear installations (Adopted: 5 March 2001) (3) The provisions of Article 9 of the Paris Convention relating to the exclusion of liability for damage caused by nuclear incidents which are a direct consequence of acts in an armed conflict, hostilities, civil war, insurrection or a grave natural disaster of an exceptional character, shall not be applicable.…” “(4) The operator of a nuclear installation shall be liable, irrespective of the location of damage occurrence. Article 2 of the Paris Convention shall not apply.”See Section 25(3)-(4) of (Germany) Act on the Peaceful Utilisation of Atomic Energy and the Protection Against its Hazards (Atomic Energy Act) of 23 December 1959 (BGB1.I,p.814), as amended and promulgated on 15 July 1985 (BGB1.I, p.1565), last amendment by the Act of 22 April 2002 (BGB1.I, p.1351), in: Supplement to NLB 70, p.45, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-70/supplement.pdf, viewed on 25 December 2004.
③ 原文是“This Convention does not apply to nuclear incidents occurring in the territory of non-Contracting States or to damage suffered in such territory, unless otherwise provided by the legislation of the Contracting Party in whose territory the nuclear installation of the operator liable is situated, and except in regard to rights referred to in Article 6(e).”
④ 英文表述是“Section 31 Maximum amounts of liability (Adopted: 13 December 2001) (2) If the damage occurs in another State, paragraph (1) shall only apply insofar as, at the time of the nuclear incident, said other State has made provisions with the Federal Republic of Germany pursuant to paragraph (1) which are equivalent in terms of nature, terms and amount. Otherwise, if the damage occurs in another State, the liability of an operator of a nuclear installation for the compensation of damages caused by nuclear incidents, including any additional compensation on the basis of international conventions, shall be limited to the amount envisaged by the other State in relation to the Federal Republic of Germany at the time of the nuclear incident. In relation to States whose sovereign territory does not contain any nuclear installations, the liability of an operator of a nuclear installation is limited to the maximum amount as specified in the Brussels Supplementary Convention.” See Section 31 of (Germany) Atomic Energy Act, in: Supplement to NLB 70, p.50.
① See Article II(6)(b) of Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships, 1962. 原文是:“If the nuclear incident occurred as a consequence of any wreck-raising operations, against the person or persons who carried out such operation without the authority of the operator or persons who carried out such operation without the authority of the operator or of the State having licensed the sunken ship or of the State in whose waters the wreck is situated; …”
② See Article 6(f)(i-ii) of the Paris Convention. 原文是“The operator shall have a right of recourse only: i. if the damage caused by a nuclear incident results from an act or omission done with intent to cause damage, against the individual acting or omitting to act with such intent; ii. if and to the extent that it is so provided expressly by contract.” See also Article II(6)(a-c) of Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships, 1962; Article 10 of Annex to Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage; 参见国务院 1986 年 3 月 29日《批复》第四条;台湾 1997 年《核子损害赔偿法》第二十二条:“核子设施经营者,依本法之规定赔偿时,对于核子设施经营者以外之人,仅于下列情形之一有求偿权:1.依书面契约有明文规定者。 2.核子损害系因个人故意之行为所致者,对于具有故意之该个人。”
③ 原文是“Nothing in this Convention shall affect the liability of any individual for nuclear damage for which the operator , by virtue of paragraph 3 or 5 of this Article, is not liable under this Convention and which that individual caused by an act or omission done with intent to cause damage.”
④ 原文是“Nothing in this Convention shall affect the liability of a person duly authorized to operate a reactor comprised in a means of transport for damage caused by a nuclear incident when an operator is not liable for such damage….”
① 原文是“1.Each Contracting Party shall enact legislation in order to enable both the Contracting Party in whose territory the nuclear installation of the operator liable is situated and the other Contracting Parties who have paid contributions referred to in Article III.1(b), to benefit from the operator's right of recourse to the extent that he has such a right under either one of the Conventions referred to in Article I or national legislation mentioned in Article II.1(b) and to the extent that contributions have been made by any of the Contracting Parties. 2. The legislation of the Contracting Party in whose territory the nuclear installation of the operator liable is situated may provide for the recovery of public funds made available under this Convention from such operator if the damage results from fault on his part. 3. The Contracting Party whose courts have jurisdiction may exercise the rights of recourse provided for in paragraphs 1 and 2 on behalf of the other Contracting Parties which have contributed.”
② 原文是“g. If the operator has a right of recourse to any extent pursuant to paragraph (f) of this Article against any person, that person shall not, to that extent, have a right against the operator under paragraphs (d) or (e) of this Article. h. Where provisions of national or public health insurance, social security, workmen’s compensation or occupational disease compensation systems include compensation for damage caused by a nuclear incident, rights of beneficiaries of such systems and rights of recourse by virtue of such systems shall be determined by the law of the Contracting Party or by the regulations of the inter-Governmental organization which has established such systems.”
③ See Section 5 (1)-(2) of (Japan) The Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage (Law No.147 of 17th June 1961, as last amended on 31st March 1989), in: Supplement to NLB 45 (June 1990), p.6.
① 有关风险防范原则的研究,可参见唐双娥著:《环境法风险防范原则研究——法律与科学的对话》,高等教育出版社 2004 年 8 月第 1 版。该书颇具学术价值。
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 433 页。
③ [美]迈克尔·D·贝勒斯著,张文显等译:《法律的原则——一个规范的分析》,中国大百科全书出版社1996 年 1 月第 1 版,译后记,第 468 页。
④ 《辞海》(上)“原则”词条,上海辞书出版社 1999 年 9 月第 1 版,第 409 页。
⑤ 蔡守秋主编:《环境资源法学》,人民法院出版社/中国人民公安大学出版社 2003 年 7 月第 1 版,第 104 页。
① [美]迈克尔·D·贝勒斯著,张文显等译:《法律的原则——一个规范的分析》,中国大百科全书出版社1996 年 1 月第 1 版,译后记,第 468 页。
② 法律规则是规定法律上的权利、义务、责任的准则、标准,或是赋予某种事实状态以法律意义的指示、规定。法律规则是构成法律的首要成分,它具有微观的指导性、可操作性强和确定性程度高等特点。参见张文显主编:《法理学》,高等教育出版社和北京大学出版社 1999 年 10 月第 1 版,第 70 页。
③ 当某一案件的特殊事实导致使用原有规则不公正时,法律原则可以作为断案依据。例如,在美国著名的黑格斯诉帕尔默案中,一个 16 岁的男孩毒死了他的祖父,他能否继承被害人的遗产?根据一般的法律规则,他是合法继承人,应当继承遗产,但这与法律的目的和一般社会伦理不符。法院最终依据“一个人不能从他的不当行为中得利”这一法律原则剥夺了男孩的继承权。参见张文显主编:《法理学》,高等教育出版社和北京大学出版社 1999 年 10 月第 1 版,第 74 页。
④ 许多法律原则可直接作为断案依据,这些原则的作用与规则无异。例如,美国法中的正当程序原则常常作为直接的审判依据。参见张文显主编:《法理学》,高等教育出版社和北京大学出版社 1999 年 10 月第1 版,第 74 页。
⑤ 张文显主编:《法理学》,高等教育出版社和北京大学出版社 1999 年 10 月第 1 版,第 74~75 页。
① 台湾学者陈春生教授将核损害赔偿责任法领域一般所采取的原则归纳为:无过失责任、核设施所有人之责任集中、赔偿责任数额之限制、责任时效之限制、核电厂所有人风险责任之保险、对重大损害之国家补偿等。参见陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第433 页;《巴黎公约》的基础是五大原则,即 The Paris Convention is based upon five main principles with respect to liability for damage suffered by third parties: exclusive liability of the nuclear installation operator; absolute liability (no proof of fault or negligence required) of the nuclear installation operator; the nuclear installation operator's obligation to secure an insurance or other financial guarantee up to its liability amount; limitation on the amount of liability and the time for instituting damage claims; jurisdiction over claims generally to reside with the courts where the accident occurs. See “Background information note for the Press Communiqué on the revision of the Paris Convention on Nuclear Third Party Liability and of the Brussels Supplementary Convention”, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/general/press/2004/2004-01-note.html, viewed on 24 February 2004.
② 李雅云教授将核损害责任制度的基本原则归纳为:严格责任或绝对责任的原则、唯一责任的原则、责任限制的原则、实行强制性责任保险或财政保证的原则、国家干预原则等。参见李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 362~369 页;傅济熙、董保同两位先生将其总结为:绝对责任的原则、唯一责任的原则、有限责任的原则、实行强制性责任保险或财政保证的原则、单一管辖法院管辖的原则等。参见傅济熙、董保同:“浅谈第三方核责任法律制度”,载《中国核工业》1998 年第 3期,第 45~46 页;傅济熙先生将其总结为:严格责任(无过错责任)的原则、责任归结或唯一责任的原则、有限责任的原则、强制性的财务保证的原则、由单一管辖法院管辖的原则、国家干预等。参见傅济熙主编:《核损害的民事责任与赔偿》,原子能出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 9~15 页。
① 林灿铃著:《国际法上的跨界损害之国家责任》,华文出版社 2000 年 8 月第 1 版,第 56 页。
② 危险之物通常仅指与使用方式无关而本身具有明显危险性的物。参见[德]克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,焦美华译,张新宝审校:《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(下卷),法律出版社 2001 年 12 月第 1 版,第 413~414、463页。
③ 在英美法上,“无过失责任”(liability without fault)乃是较晚近出现之名词,原来系通称为 strict liability。但更早时期,则称为“绝对责任”(absolute liability)。故至今仍是三者并用之情形,惟比较上以 strict liability 为较常用。主要文献可参考 Winfield, The Myth of Absolute Liability, the Law Quarterly Review, vol. 42, 1926, p.38 f.f。又其首次使用 liability without fault 者,则为 E. Thayer (Harvard Law Review, vol. 29, 1916, p.801 f.f.),附此说明。参见邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10 月第 1 版,第 75 页注释 39。
④ 王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 154、131 页。
① 李亚虹著:《美国侵权法》,法律出版社 1999 年版,第 128 页。
② 吴兆祥:“侵权行为法上的严格责任”,载王利明主编:《民法典·侵权责任法研究》,人民法院出版社2003 年 2 月第 1 版,第 176~186 页。
③ 上古是指较早的古代,在我国历史分期上多指商周秦汉(约前 17 世纪初~公元 220 年)这个时期。中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室编:《现代汉语词典》,商务印书馆 1983 年版,第 1004、1556~1559页。
④ 在法学中,社会弱势群体是指由于社会条件和个人能力等方面存在障碍而无法实现其基本权利的群体。参见钱大军、王哲:“法学意义上的社会弱势群体概念”,载《当代法学》2004 年第 3 期。
① 魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社和高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 684 页。
② 《法国民法典》第 1384 条规定:“任何人不仅因自己的行为造成的损害负赔偿责任,而且对应由其负责之人的行为或由其照管之物造成的损害负赔偿责任。”参见罗结珍译:《法国民法典》,法律出版社 2005年 3 月第 1 版,第 1096 页。
③ Rylands v. Fletcher 一案的案情:原告 Fletcher 拥有和开采一家矿场,地下有一些竖坑与被告的土地相邻。谁都不知道存在这些旧的而且不再使用的采矿竖坑,这些竖坑将原告的工作与被告土地下其他先前的工作联接起来。被告是一家水磨坊的业主,他在他的土地上建造一个水库,他们雇佣有名望的承包商施工。当建造水库时,这些承包商发现了废弃的矿竖井,但是没有适当地填充。当水库蓄水时,水冲进竖井淹没了原告的矿。(1866) L.R.1EX265; Court of Exchequer Chamber (1868) L.R.3H.L.330; House of Lords. Rylands v. Fletcher(严格责任)规则的原始表述:该规则首先由 Blackburn, J.提出,他于 1866 年在 Court of Exchequer Chamber 听证会上,就 Rylands v. Fletcher 一案发表了看法:“一个人为了自己的目的,将任何物带进他的土地,并且聚集和保持在那里。如果该物发生泄漏,就可能产生损害,那么带进该物的这个人就必须控制住该物的危险;如果他不这样做,那么该物泄漏的自然结果所造成的所有损害,他都无可争议地要承担责任。”该案在 1868 年最后处理完毕时,这个观点被贵族院采纳和通过。参见徐爱国编著:《英美侵权行为法》,法律出版社 1999 年 10 月第 1 版,第 161、119 页;徐爱国著:《英美侵权行为法学》,北京大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版,第 138~143 页。Rylands v Fletcher, L.R.1 Ex.265 (1866), Blackburn, J. stated: “… the person who for his own purposes brings on his lands and collects and keeps there anything likely to do mischief if it escapes, must keep it in at his peril, and, if he does not do so, is prima facie answerable for all the damage which is the natural consequence of its escape. …” See (USA) Richard A. Epstein, Cases and Materials on Torts (Seventh Edition), CITIC Publishing House, 2003, p.114-115.
④ 魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社和高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 683 页。
⑤ 根据 Prosser 教授统计,否认赖兰斯法则适用可行性的州为:Maine, New Hampshire, New York, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, Texas, Wyoming (Prosser, Handbook for the Law of Torts, 4th ed.. p.509), Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Washington (Prosser/Wade/Schwartz, Handbook for the Law of Torts, 4th ed.. p.77, Footnote 9)等十州。惟根据小堀教授统计,认为尚应加上 New Jersey, Tennesee 两州,合计为十二州(小堀憲助《アメリカにおける Rylands v. Fletcher 事件の法理の发展》(二),法学新报第六八卷第九期,一九六一,第五三八页注七)。参见邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10 月第 1 版,第 76 页注释 46。
① 关于美国特别危险活动责任,其名词尚不一致,或有称之“极度危险活动”(ultra-hazardous activity),或有称之“高度危险活动”(highly dangerous activity)者,惟比较上以 abnormally dangerous activity 之使用较为普遍。参见邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10 月第 1 版,第 78 页注释 56。
② 林灿铃著:《国际法上的跨界损害之国家责任》,华文出版社 2000 年 8 月第 1 版,第 62 页。
③ 原来,Rylands v. Fletcher 判决时,认为被告 Fletcher 所以负担无过失责任,裁判者所持立场,尚不一致。Blackburn 法官,固以“持有危险物质”作为根据,但 Cairns 则认系土地“异常使用”(Nonnatural use)所致。后者,系依附于 Nuisance 法理而来,并不具创新意义,故或称之 Nuisance approach;前者始为危险归责原理之所在,或称之 Ultrahazardous approach。故严格说来,危险归责原理,系源于 Rylands v. Fletcher Principle 之 Blackburn’s rule,不宜泛称赖兰斯法则。参见邱聪智:“庞德民事归责理论之评介——以法理学与民法学接合之观点为中心”,载邱聪智著:《民法研究(一)》(增订版),中国人民大学出版社 2002 年 10月第 1 版,第 76 页注释 43。 现代英格兰和爱尔兰普通法(不包括苏格兰)中最重要的严格责任就是 Rylands v. Fletcher 规则中的严格责任。规则设定了五个构成要件:1.必须有一旦失控产生危险的可能性很高的物;2.该物必须已经基于不动产所有权人的利益被带到了其不动产上或被贮放在其不动产上;3.该物的出现必须构成对特定类型不动产的“非自然使用”;4.该物必须脱离了其所被贮放的被告不动产而到了他人不动产上;5.物所导致的损害是可赔偿性损害。对这五个要件中的任何一个都有大量的案例。 参见[德]克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,焦美华译,张新宝审校:《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(下卷),法律出版社 2001 年 12 月第 1 版,第 462~463页。
④ See J.Gordon Arbuckle, etc: Environmental Law Handbook, Government Institutes, Inc. Rockville, MD, 1985 eighth edition, p.24. 转引自王明远著:《环境侵权救济法律制度》,中国法制出版社 2001 年 2 月第 1 版,第259 页注释①。
① See Frederick R.Anderson, Daniel R. Mandelker, A.dan Tarlock: Environmental Protection: Law and Policy, Little, Brown and Company 1984, p.56. 转引自王明远著:《环境侵权救济法律制度》,中国法制出版社 2001年 2 月第 1 版,第 259 页注释②。另可参见张新宝著:《中国侵权行为法》(第二版),中国社会科学出版社 1998 年 8 月修订第 2 版,第 512~513 页。
② [美]迈克尔·D·贝勒斯著,张文显等译:《法律的原则——一个规范的分析》,中国大百科全书出版社1996 年 1 月第 1 版,第 283~284 页。
③ Ballantine, A Compensation Plan for Railway Accident Claims, 29 Harvard Law Review 705 (1916). 转引自王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 131 页。
① 王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 133~136 页;魏振瀛主编:《民法》,北京大学出版社和高等教育出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 682~683 页;林灿铃著:《国际法上的跨界损害之国家责任》,华文出版社 2000 年 8 月第 1 版,第 64 页。
② 英文表述概括为“The operator of a nuclear installation is strictly liable for the nuclear damage caused by it regardless of fault (risk or objective liability). ”或者“Liability of the operator is absolute, i.e. the operator is held liable irrespective of fault.”
① 林灿铃著:《国际法上的跨界损害之国家责任》,华文出版社 2000 年 8 月第 1 版,第 80~83 页。
② The liability of the operator for nuclear damage under this Convention shall be absolute. See Article IV(1) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage; Article 3(1) of Annex to Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage.
③ See Section 11(j) of The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, in: NLB 42, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-42-SUP.pdf, viewed on 10 November 2003.
④ The PAA contains other provisions intended to minimize protracted litigation and eliminate the need to prove fault or allocate liability among potential defendants. In the case of an "extraordinary nuclear occurrence" or "ENO," the Act requires the waiver of any defense related to the conduct of the claimant or the fault of any indemnified person. See Section 170(n) of AEA, in DOE, 1999, p.12, quoted from Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for: The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler Technical Carson City, Nevada, p.5, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004. Waivers of defenses - Pursuant to the 1966 amendments to the Price-Anderson Act, when the NRC determines that a nuclear incident was an ENO, claimants then need only show (1) personal injury or property damage, (2) monetary amount of loss, and (3) a causal link between the loss and the radioactive material released. Claimants would not need to establish the fault of any party to prevail on their claims. See ENO. See Appendix A (Glossary) of Report to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accidents, available at http://www.state.nv.us/nucwaste/news/rpccna/pcrcna11.htm, viewed on 3 February 2005.
① See Section 3 (1)-(2) of The Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage (Law No.147 of 17th June 1961, as last amended on 31st March 1989), in: Supplement to NLB 45, p.5. The English version is unofficial translation by the NEA Secretariat.
② The operator of a nuclear installation shall be liable to pay compensation due under this Act even if there has been no fault or negligence on his part. See Section 11 a) of (Sweden) Nuclear Liability Act of 8th March 1968, as Amended by an Act of 10th May 1974 and by an Act of 22nd December 1982, in: Supplement to NLB 33, p.27.
③ 例如,德国《原子能法》(2002年4月22日最新修正)第一条第2、3款规定的英译文如下:“The purpose of this Act is: … 2. to protect life, health and property against the hazards of nuclear energy and the detrimental effects of ionising radiation and to provide compensation for damage and injuries caused by nuclear energy or ionising radiation; 3. to prevent danger to the internal or external security of the Federal Republic of Germany from the application or release of nuclear energy; … ” See NLB 70 (2002), Unofficial translation kindly provided by the German Authorities.
① [德]鲁道夫·冯·耶林著:《罗马私法中的过错观念》,1867 年版,第 40 页。转引自蓝承烈著:《民法专题研究与应用》,群众出版社 2002 年 8 月第 1 版,第 262 页;Rudolf von Jhering, Das Schuldmoment im r?mischen Privatrecht, 1867, S.40: “Nicht der Schaden verpflichtet zum Schadensersatz, sondern die Schuld, ein einfacher Satz, ebenso einfach wie derjenige des Chemikers, dass nicht das Licht brennt, sondern der Sauerstoff der Luft.” 参见王泽鉴著:“侵权行为法之危机及其发展趋势”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 144~145 页;王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 13 页。
② Andre Tunc, Introduction, Torts, International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, Vol.XI, 1974, Chap, 1, p.64f. 转引自王泽鉴:“侵权行为法之危机及其发展趋势”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 145 页注释[2]。另可参见王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 13~14 页。逻辑力量:一个人就自己过失行为所肇致之损害,应负赔偿责任。在重视理性之时代,系当然自明之道理,无须证明。相反,若行为非出于过失者,不必负赔偿责任。在逻辑上亦具有同样之说服力。道德观念:一个人就自己过失行为所肇致之损害,应负赔偿责任。系正义之要求,亦被认为无须证明。反之,若行为非出于过失,行为人已尽注意之能事者,在道德上即无须加以非难。社会价值:任何法律必须调和“个人自由”与“社会安定”两个基本价值。而过失责任主义被认为最能达成此项任务。个人若已尽其注意,即得免负侵权责任,则自由不受束缚,聪明才智可予发挥。人人尽其注意,一般损害可以避免,社会安定也可足以维护。人类尊严:过失责任主义肯定人类之自由,承认个人抉择、区别善恶的能力。个人基于其自由意思决定,从事某种行为,造成损害,因其具有过失,法律予以制裁,使负赔偿责任,最可表现对人类尊严之尊重。
① 王泽鉴:“侵权行为法之危机及其发展趋势”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社 1998年 1 月第 1 版,第 162 页。
② 梁慧星著:《民法学说判例与立法研究》,中国政法大学出版社 1993 年版,第 138~141 页。
③ 王明远著:《环境侵权救济法律制度》,中国法制出版社 2001 年 2 月第 1 版,第 157 页。
④ 英文表述概括为“All nuclear damage is channeled onto the operator. Liability is channelled exclusively to the operators of the nuclear installations. This means that only the operator will be liable for the damage resulting from a nuclear incident with the exclusion of any other possible injurer.”
⑤ Article II(5) of the 1963/1997 Vienna Convention; Article 6(b) and Article 6(c)(ii) of the Paris Convention. 原文分别是“Except as otherwise provided in this Convention, no person other than the operator shall be liable for nuclear damage.…” “The operator shall incur no liability outside this Convention for damage caused by a nuclear incident.”
① Article 10 of Annex to Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage. 原文是“The operator shall incur no liability for damage caused by a nuclear incident outside the provisions of national law in accordance with this Convention.”
① 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 364 页;also see Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for:The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler Technical Carson City, Nevada, pp.3-4, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004.
② See NLB 45, pp.68-70, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-45-EN.pdf, viewed on 3 March 2004.
③ See Section 4 (1) of The Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage (Law No.147 of 17th June 1961, as last amended on 31st March 1989), in: Supplement to NLB 45, p.5.
① [日]野村好弘著,康树华译:《日本公害法概论》,中国环境管理、经济与法学学会 1982 年版,第 387页;柯泽东:《环境法论(二)》,台湾三民书局 1995 年版,第 134~135 页。转引自王明远著:《环境侵权救济法律制度》,中国法制出版社 2001 年 2 月第 1 版,第 158 页。
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 456~457页。
③ Article II(7) of the 1963/1997 Vienna Convention; 原文是“Direct action shall lie against the person furnishing financial security pursuant to Article VII, if the law of the competent court so provides.” Article 3(9) of Annex to Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage; 原文是“The right to compensation for nuclear damage may be exercised only against the operator liable, provided that national law may permit a direct right of action against any supplier of funds that are made available pursuant to provisions in national law to ensure compensation through the use of funds from sources other than the operator.” Article 6(a) of the Paris Convention. 原文是“The right to compensation for damage caused by a nuclear incident may be exercised only against the operator liable for the damage in accordance with this Convention, or, a direct right of action against the insurer or other financial guarantor furnishing the security required pursuant to Article 10 is given by national law, against the insurer or other financial guarantor.”
① 例如,《中华人民共和国海商法》第十一章(第二百零四至二百一十五条)就“海事赔偿限额”问题作了具体规定。该法于 1992 年 11 月 7 日第七届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第二十八次会议通过,自 1993年 7 月 1 日起施行。1989 年 1 月 3 日国务院第 31 次常务会议通过、自 1989 年 5 月 1 日起施行的《国内航空运输旅客身体损害赔偿暂行规定》第六至七条规定:“承运人按照本规定应当承担赔偿责任的,对每名旅客的最高赔偿金额为人民币二万元。”“旅客可以自行决定向保险公司投保航空运输人身意外伤害险。此项保险金额的给付,不得免除或减少承运人应当承担的赔偿金额。”根据 1993 年 11 月 29 日《国务院关于修改﹤国内航空运输旅客身体损害赔偿暂行规定﹥的决定》(自 1994 年 1 月 1 日起施行),对每名旅客的最高赔偿金额提高到人民币七万元。1993 年 11 月 7 日国务院批准、1993 年 11 月 15 日交通部令第 5 号发布的《关于不满 300 总吨船舶及沿海作业船舶海事赔偿限额的规定》第三、四条分别对此类的海事赔偿限额作了具体的规定。在国际海事公约方面,《1976 年海事赔偿责任限制公约》(LLMC)1996 年议定书(尚未生效)规定,旅客人身伤亡赔偿责任限额为 175000 SDR,而船员人身伤亡按照公约计算则更要低得多;《1969 年国际油污损害民事责任公约》(CLC)1992 年议定书规定的责任限额为 59700000 SDR,包括基金的最高赔偿限额为 135000000 SDR;《1996 年国际海上运输有害有毒物质损害责任和赔偿公约》(HNS)规定的责任限额为 100000000 SDR,包括基金的最高赔偿限额为 250000000 SDR;《1974 年海上旅客及其行李运输雅典公约的 2002 年议定书》及其修订后的《2002 年海上旅客及其行李运输雅典公约》采用单层责任限额体系还是双层责任限额体系。
② 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 365 页。
① 英文表述概括为“The amount for which the operator will be liable is limited.” And “The liability of the operator is also subjected to a time limit.”
① 英文表达是“Strict liability means the utility must waive legal defenses against paying claims,relieving victims of the necessity of proving negligence.”
① 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号, 第 364 页。
② Retrospective premiums - As provided in the 1975 and 1988 amendments to the Price-Anderson Act, these premiums can be assessed by the nuclear insurance pools on each licensed nuclear power plant operator for the prorated share of damages in excess of the $200 million in primary insurance. The 1988 amendments provide that plant operators are responsible for maximum retrospective premium assessments (or deferred premiums) of $63 million per reactor, subject to inflation indexing and a 5 percent surcharge, but no more than $10 million per reactor, per year. See Appendix A (Glossary) of Report to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accidents, available at http://www.state.nv.us/nucwaste/news/rpccna/pcrcna11.htm, viewed on 3 February 2005.
① 2001 年 9 月 11 日上午(美国东部时间),国际恐怖主义分子劫持美国航空公司和美国联合航空公司的 4架民航客机,其中两架客机分别撞击世界贸易中心北部一号大楼和南部二号大楼(世贸双塔)的顶部,并引发大火;一架客机撞击华盛顿五角大楼(美国国防部)和国家草地广场(位于国会大厦和华盛顿纪念碑之间),也引发大火;第四架被劫持飞机坠毁在西南宾夕法尼亚州匹兹堡附近的乡村社区。这次事件直接导致世界贸易中心大楼整体倒塌,2,792 人遇难。为了报复,美国先后发动了对阿富汗塔利班政权、伊拉克萨达姆政权的所谓反恐战争。截止到 2004 年 4 月,美国“9·11”事件赔偿基金管理机构向在“9·11”事件中死亡或受伤者的亲属支付的赔偿金额,已达 26 亿多美元。综合新华社消息。另可参见赵秉志、王志祥、王文华等译:《“9·11”委员会报告——美国遭受恐怖袭击国家委员会最终报告》(The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (Authorized Edition)), 中国人民公安大学出版社 2004 年 9 月第 1 版。
② (November 2001) Who Foots the Bill in the Event of a Nuclear Accident? The Price-Anderson Act Comes up For Renewal, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/fall01.htm#price, viewed on 4 April 2004.
③ Section 170(d) (5) of The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, in: NLB 42, p.26.
④ 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 436 页。
① A defendant must waive any statute of limitations more restrictive than a 3-year discovery rule. This means that a person affected by an ENO may/must make a personal injury claim within three years of discovering the injury, such as cancer, regardless of how long it has been since the incident. See Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for:The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler Technical Carson City, Nevada, pp.3, 5, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004.
② See Sections 4, 9, 15 of (France) Act on Third Party Liability, in Supplement to NLB 46 (December 1990), pp.3-4, 7.
① See Article VI (3) of the 1963/1997 Vienna Convention; 原文分别是:“The law of the competent court may establish a period of extinction or prescription of not less than three years from the date on which the person suffering nuclear damage had knowledge or should have had knowledge of the damage and of the operator liable for the damage, provided that the period established pursuant to paragraphs 1 and 2 of this Article shall not be exceeded.”“Rights of compensation under the Convention shall be subject to prescription or extinction, as provided by the law of the competent court, if an action is not brought within three years from the date on which the person suffering damage had knowledge or ought reasonably to have had knowledge of the damage and of the operator liable for the damage, provided that the periods established pursuant to sub-paragraphs (a) and (b) of paragraph 1 of this Article shall not be exceeded.” See also Article 8 (c) of the Paris Convention. 原文是:“National legislation may establish a period of not less than two years for the extinction of the right or as a period of limitation either from the date at which the person suffering damage has knowledge or from the date at which he ought reasonably to have known of both the damage and the operator liable: provided that the period established pursuant to paragraphs (a) and (b) of this Article shall not be exceeded.”
② 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 365 页。
③ 2002 年 4 月 25 日,官方公布的最低免税收入为 17 Ukrainian Hryvnia (UAH),约合 3.3 美元或 3.6 欧元(EUR)。下同。See footnote 2 of (Ukraine) 2001 Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security.
④ Article 6(1-5) of (Ukraine) 2001 Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security.
⑤ 英文表述是:where conclusive evidence of the death of that person is not available, after three years from the date an order presuming the person to be dead is made by a court having jurisdiction in those matters.
① 有人提议删去 10 年诉讼时效的法律规定,因为大多数辐射致癌都有 10 年以上的潜伏期(Most radiation-induced cancers take more than 10 years to develop)。See Gordon Edwards, ‘The Historical Origins of Canada’s Nuclear Liability Act’, available at http://www.ccnr.org/insurance.html, viewed on June 18, 2003.
② See Articles 13, 31 of Canada Nuclear Liability Act. 考虑到 7500 万元这一责任限制数额过低,该法的建议修正案提出将责任限制标准提高到 5 亿元。但也有人提议提高到至少 10 亿元,以有利于国库 (In order to protect the public purse, let us raise the liability limit to at least one billion dollars.)。See Gordon Edwards, ‘The Historical Origins of Canada’s Nuclear Liability Act’, available at http://www.ccnr.org/insurance.html, viewed on 18 June 2003.
③ Article 13 of (Republic of Korea) Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage.
④ 国函(1986)44 号采取了两级赔偿机制,即一级是营运人对全体受害人的最高赔偿额为人民币 1, 800万元;这一规定与 1963 年《维也纳公约》第 5 条第 1 款“营运人的赔偿责任可以由装置国限制为每一核事件不得少于 500 万美元”具有一致性,因为按照当时 1:3.6 的美元对人民币汇率将 500 万美元折合成人民币 1,800 万元。二级是国家财政补偿的最高限额为人民币 3 亿元,即所谓的“国家兜底”。这也体现了国家从政策上促进核电发展,同时也关心和保护受害人利益。3 亿元人民币在当时相当于 8, 333 多万美元。参见核电发展战略研究(续编)编委会编写:《核电发展战略研究(续编)》,(北京)中国言实出版社 2001年 1 月第 1 版,第 209 页。
① 台湾《原子能法》(中华民国六十年十二月二十四日公布施行)第一条。
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 483 页。
③ 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年增订版,第 445~453 页。
④ 参见 K?tz, Gef?hrdungshaftung, Gutachten und Vorschl?ge zur überarbeitung des Schuldrechts, Bd. II. 1981, S 1826。转引自王泽鉴著:“‘公路法’关于损害赔偿特别规定与‘民法’侵权行为一般规定之适用关系”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(6),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 47 页注释[2]。
⑤ 王泽鉴著:“‘公路法’关于损害赔偿特别规定与‘民法’侵权行为一般规定之适用关系”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(6),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 46~48 页。
① See U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Theoretical Possibilities and Consequences of Major Accidents in Large Nuclear Power Plants, Washington 1957 (WASH-740); International Problems of Financial Protection Against Nuclear Risk, New York 1959 (A Forum Report), p.45. 转引自陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 445 页。
① 德国学者关于德国责任法、道路交通法及航空法上之损害,赔偿最高限额规定之存废问题,争论非常激烈,多数学者反对设最高限额之规定。K?tz 教授在其关于德国债法修正关于“危险责任”之研究报告中,建议废除最高限额, Gef?hrdungshaftung, aaO., S. 1825f。参阅 Well, Quellen erh?hter Gefahr, 1980, S.30。转引自王泽鉴著:“‘公路法’关于损害赔偿特别规定与‘民法’侵权行为一般规定之适用关系”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(6),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 48 页注释[1]。
① Royners, Limiting the Liability of the Nuclear Operator, NEA Newsletter 4 (1986), No. 1, p.3 ff. 转引自陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 465 页,脚注 112。
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 503 页。台湾《核子损害赔偿法》(1997 年 5 月 14 日修正)第二十八条采纳了陈春生教授的建议。
③ In Japan, since there is no specific provision governing the limitation period during which claims for compensation for nuclear damage should be entered, the general rules governing prescription under the law of tort pursuant to the Civil Code are applicable. Under Section 724 of the Civil Code, the right to compensation for damage shall be extinguished if an action is not brought within three years from the date on which the person suffering damage had knowledge both of the damage and of the person liable for such damage. The right to compensation shall also be fully extinguished twenty years after the date on which a tort occurs. See Tokai-Mura Accident, Japan: Third Party Liability and Compensation Aspects, prepared by the Secretariat of the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency in collaboration with the Japanese authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb-/Nlb-66/013-022.pdf, viewed on 7 April 2004.
④ 韩国以前在核责任领域也实行无限责任制度,但根据韩国 2001 年 1 月 16 日《第 6350 号法令》的规定,将在其核责任法领域引入有限责任的原则。
⑤ 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 365 页。
① 傅济熙、董保同:“浅谈第三方核责任法律制度”,载《中国核工业》1998 年第 3 期,第 47 页;陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 466~467 页。陈春生教授认为,美国采取反应器所有人的责任限额制度。同时,他将“Retrospective Premium System”译为“相互补偿制度”。
② 英文表述概括为“The operator is required to have and maintain insurance or other financial security to cover his liability; if such security is insufficient, the Installation State is obliged to make up the difference up to the limit of the operator’s liability.”
③ 邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版;覃有土主编:《保险法教程》(2002 年修订本),法律出版社 2002 年 4 月第 1 版,第 299~308 页。
④ 刘士国著:《现代侵权损害赔偿研究》,法律出版社 1998 年版,第 26 页。
① 王泽鉴著:《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 163 页;台湾《保险法》(民国 93 年 1 月 13 日制定、修正,民国 93 年 2 月 4 日公布、施行)第 90 条(责任保险人之责任):“责任保险人于被保险人对于第三人,依法应负赔偿责任,而受赔偿之请求时,负赔偿之责。”。
② 《中华人民共和国保险法》于 1995 年 6 月 30 日第八届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第十四次会议通过,1995 年 6 月 30 日中华人民共和国主席令第 51 号公布,自 1995 年 10 月 1 日起施行。
③ 填补损害也是各国侵权行为法的共同目的和最重要的功能,主导着侵权行为法的发展。例如,我国《民法通则》基本上是采取全部赔偿的原则,即侵权责任的构成要件一旦具备,加害人应对所生的损害负全部赔偿责任,不因加害人的故意或过失而异其赔偿范围。财产上的损害,除恢复原状外,亦得以金钱加以赔偿。关于精神损害的金钱赔偿,是民法学上一项重大争论问题。参见王泽鉴著:“《中华人民共和国民法通则》之侵权责任:比较法的分析”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(6),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1版,第 280 页。填补损害系基于公平正义的理念,其主要目的在于使受害人的损害能获得实质、完整迅速的填补,有助于促进侵权行为法的发展,如过失责任的客观化、举证责任的倒置、无过失责任的建立及损害赔偿数额的合理化等。参见王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1版,第 8 页。
④ 第一人保险是指以被保险人的人身或财产(自身利益)为保险标的、以意外事故为承保危险的保险。被保险人利用第一人保险的目的是保护其自身免受意外事件造成的经济上的不利后果。而该意外事件的发生并不考虑民事责任的归责原则。由此可见,第一人保险的保险危险如果发生,必将立即造成被保险人的财产或利益的灭失或减损,被保险人将失去利用它们的机会。第一人保险的保险标的为被保险人的财产或利益,该财产或利益将因意外事故的发生而受到直接的损失。参见邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社1999 年 11 月第 1 版,第 31~32 页。
① 邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版,第 30~32 页。
② 社会保险和属于强制保险范围的责任保险具有本质的差别:社会保险由国家设立的社会保险机构经营,实行法定费率制度。有义务交纳社会保险费的机构或个人,不论是否实际交纳保险费,享受社会保险利益的被保险人均可取得法定利益;而责任保险由商业保险公司经营,被保险人以投保责任保险为条件,享受责任保险的利益。保险公司按照商业保险的经营理念,开展责任保险业务。参见邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版,第 58 页。
① 《中华人民共和国保险法》第 49 条第 1 款规定:“保险人对责任保险的被保险人给第三者造成的损害,可以依照法律的规定或者合同的约定,直接向该第三者赔偿保险金。”
② 《中华人民共和国保险法》第 44 条第 1 款规定:“因第三者对保险标的的损害而造成保险事故的,保险人自向被保险人赔偿保险金之日起,在赔偿金额范围内代位行使被保险人对第三者请求赔偿的权利。”
③ 邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版,第 58~66 页。
④ See Latent Harms and Risk-Based Damages (Notes), Harvard Law Review, Vol.111, 1998, p.1522. 转引自王明远著:《环境侵权救济法律制度》,中国法制出版社 2001 年 2 月第 1 版,第 261 页注释①。
⑤ 现代西方国家侵权行为法的功能已经逐渐由“损失的移转”发展为“损失的分散”。立法者或法院在决定何人应该负担侵权责任时,政策上所考虑的,不是加害人的行为在道德上是否可资非难,而是他是否能够依市场上的价格机能和责任保险制度,将损失分散给社会大众,由大家共同承担。参见王泽鉴著:“《中华人民共和国民法通则》之侵权责任:比较法的分析”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(6),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 281 页。
① 邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版,第 33~36 页;陈欣著:《保险法》,北京大学出版社 2000 年 9 月第 1 版,第 174~175 页。
② 吕忠梅著:《环境法学》法律出版社 2004 年 9 月第 1 版,第 175 页。
① 邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版,第 369~371 页。
② 覃有土主编:《保险法教程》(2002 年修订本),法律出版社 2002 年 4 月第 1 版,第 299 页。
③ [日]加藤一郎著:《不法行为》(增补版),有斐阁,第 40~41 页。
① 王泽鉴著:“侵权行为法之危机及其发展趋势”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 163 页。
② 覃有土主编:《保险法教程》(2002 年修订本),法律出版社 2002 年 4 月第 1 版,第 300 页。
① 曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版,第 10 页。
① 王泽鉴著:“侵权行为法之危机及其发展趋势”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 164~165 页;邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版,第 45~51页;刘士国著:《现代侵权损害赔偿研究》,法律出版社 1998 年版,第 26~28 页。
② 责任保险依据不同的划分标准,可以有不同的分类。以责任保险承保的风险性状为标准,责任保险可分为公众责任保险、产品责任保险、雇主责任保险、专家责任保险、展览会责任保险、环境责任保险、汽车第三者责任保险、飞机第三者责任保险、工程承包商第三者责任保险、承运人旅客责任保险等;以责任保险适用的范围和承保对象为标准,责任保险可分为企业责任保险、专家责任保险和个人责任保险三大类;以保险人承担保险责任的基础为标准,责任保险可分为索赔型责任保险(liability insurance on a claims-made basis)和事故型责任保险(liability insurance on an occurrence basis);以责任保险的效力或依据为标准,责任保险可分为自愿责任保险和强制责任保险。其中,自愿责任保险,是指投保人(被保险人)和责任保险人在自愿、平等、互利的基础上,经协商一致而订立的责任保险合同。契约自由是自愿责任保险存在的效力基础,而这种契约自由是一种建立在定式合同基础上的受限制的契约自由。参见邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版,第 67~72 页。
③ 邹海林著:《责任保险论》,法律出版社 1999 年 11 月第 1 版,第 72~76 页。
① 除核领域外,责任保险和财务保证法律制度也适用于其他若干领域,如运输领域。例如,《2002 年海上旅客及其行李运输雅典公约》第 4bis 条中规定: “When passengers are carried on board a ship registered in a State Party that is licensed to carry more than twelve passengers, and this Convention applies, any carrier who actually performs the whole or a part of the carriage shall maintain insurance or other financial security, such as the guarantee of a bank or similar financial institution, to cover liability under this Convention in respect of the death of and personal injury to passengers.”
② 覃有土主编:《保险法教程》(2002 年修订本),法律出版社 2002 年 4 月第 1 版,第 303 页。
① 英文表述是“A contract of liability insurance for nuclear damage (hereinafter referred to a‘sliability insurance contract’) means a contract under which an insurer (a person who is authorised to engage in liability insurance in accordance with the Insurance Business Act) agrees to indemnify a nuclear operator for loss arising from compensation of nuclear damage resulting from specified causes and under which the nuclear operator agrees to pay a premium to the insurer, in case the operator becomes liable for the compensation of nuclear damage in accordance with the provisions of Article 3.”
② 按 1 SDR 约等于 1.4 USD 计算,1.5 亿 SDRs 等于 2.1 亿 USD;按 1 SDR 约等于 11.5 RMB 计算,1.5亿 SDRs 约等于 17.25 亿 RMB。
③ Dwight Eisenhower(1890~1969),美国陆军五星上将,曾于 1953~1961 年出任美国第 34~35 任总统。他是出任之前就相当了解核武器的第一位美国总统。著有回忆录《远征欧陆》、《授权变革》、《争取和平》等书。
④ “Atoms for Peace”, Address by Mr. Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, to the 470th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, Tuesday, 8 December 1953, 2:45 p.m., available at http://www.iaea.org/About/history_speech.html, viewed on 7 December 2003. 艾森豪威尔在整个演说过程中,没有被一次掌声打断过,演说结束后,会场也非常寂静,但包括俄国人在内的 3500 名代表随之立即爆发出了热情洋溢的雷鸣般的掌声,其壮观场景在联合国历史上是空前的。艾森豪威尔的思想在现代又得 到了新发展,人们提出了“Atoms for Peace, Atoms for Prosperity” 的口号。
① 一译“化刀剑为犁锄”,亦即“化干戈为玉帛”、“化战争为和平”之意。
② 这两句话所在的段落原文分别是:“We shall carry into these private or diplomatic talks a new conception. The United States would seek more than the mere reduction or elimination of atomic materials for military purposes. It is not enough to take this weapon out of the hands of the soldiers. It must be put into the hands of those who will know how to strip its military casing and adapt it to the arts of peace.”“To the making of these fateful decisions, the United States pledges before you, and therefore before the world, its determination to help solve the fearful atomic dilemma - to devote its entire heart and mind to finding the way by which the miraculous inventiveness of man shall not be dedicated to his death, but consecrated to his life.”另可参见[美]麦乔治·邦迪著,楮广友等译:《美国核战略》,世界知识出版社1991年7月第1版,第392~402页。McGeorge Bundy, Danger and Survival—Choices about the Bomb in the First Fifty Years, Random House, Inc., 1988, 201E. 50th Street, New York, NY, U.S.A.
① See Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for:The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler Technical Carson City, Nevada, p.2, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004.
② Gordon Edwards, “The Historical Origins of Canada’s Nuclear Liability Act”, available at http://www.ccnr.org/insurance.html, viewed on June 18, 2003; “Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 2003”, available at http://www.ans.org/pi/news/sd/1049495547-redline.pdf, viewed on 18 September 2003; Omer F Brown II, “Nuclear Liability: A Continuing Impediment To Nuclear Commerce”, The Uranium Institute 24th Annual Symposium 8-10 September 1999: London, available at http://www. world-nuclear.org/sym/1999/pdfs/brown.pdf, viewed on 14 July 2003; David S. Ziegler, “Report on the Price-Anderson Act and its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final March 10, 2003) ”, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/price003.htm, viewed on 18 September 2003; American Nuclear Society, “The Price-Anderson Act ”(Background Report, March 2001, Revised November 2002, November 2004 ), available at http://www.ans.org/pi/ps/docs/ps54-bi.pdf, viewed on 18 September 2003 and 25 January 2005.
① 王泽鉴著:“侵权行为法之危机及其发展趋势”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(2),中国政法大学出版社1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 174~175 页。
② 李亚虹著:《美国侵权法》,法律出版社 1999 年版,第 129 页。
① 王利明著:《侵权行为法归责原则研究》,中国政法大学出版社 2003 年 1 月修订版,第 132~133 页;王明远著:《环境侵权救济法律制度》,中国法制出版社 2001 年 2 月第 1 版,第 144~152 页;李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 366 页。
① 王晓丽:“论环境责任保险制度”,载《行政与法》2005 年第 6 期,第 113 页。另可参见 Nick Lockett, Environmental Liability Insurance, Cameron May London 1996。
① 王明远著:《环境侵权救济法律制度》,中国法制出版社 2001 年 2 月第 1 版,第 145~146 页。
② The term “financial protection” means the ability to respond in damages for public liability and to meet the costs of investigating and defending claims and settling suits for such damages. See Section 11(k) of The Price-Anderson Amendment Act of 1988, in: Supplement to NLB 42, p.19.
③ 核风险比单纯的核事件风险(a risk of a nuclear incident)更加宽泛,核能的和平利用也包括核武器扩散(proliferation of nuclear weapons)和核材料非法贸易的风险。See Mitsuru KUROSAWA, “Nuclear Non- Proliferation and Export Control”, Osaka University Law Review, No.49 (February 2002), pp.1-18. 本书仅指核事件风险。
① 大多数核保险基金都给营运人自身及第三人责任提供赔偿。营运人的强制性责任保险范围一般包括核设施营运人因核事件导致损害的合同(契约)外责任(extra-contractual liability)的赔偿,即使该核事件是直接由于重大自然灾害(grave natural disaster)所造成。应该将这种做法与对营运人本身造成潜在损害进行投保的做法明确区分开来。
② Tom vanden Borre, “Chanelling of Liability: A Few Juridical and Economic Views on an Inadequate Legal Construction”, in: Contemporary Developments in Nuclear Energy Law: Harmonising Legislation in CEEC/NIS, edited by Nathalie L.J.T. Horbach, Kluwer Law International, the Hague-London-Boston 1999, pp.16-17.
① Article VII(1)(a-b), (3-4) of the 1997 Vienna Convention. 原文如下:1. a.The operator shall be required to maintain insurance or other financial security covering his liability for nuclear damage in such amount, of such type and in such terms as the Installation State shall specify. The Installation State shall ensure the payment of claims for compensation for nuclear damage which have been established against the operator by providing the necessary funds to the extent that the yield of insurance or other financial security is inadequate to satisfy such claims, but not in excess of the limit, if any, established pursuant to Article V. Where the liability of the operator is unlimited, the Installation State may establish a limit of the financial security of the operator liable, provided that such limit is not lower than 300 million SDRs. The Installation State shall ensure the payment of claims for compensation for nuclear damage which have been established against the operator to the extent that the yield of the financial security is inadequate to satisfy such claims, but not in excess of the amount of the financial security to be provided under this paragraph. b. Notwithstanding sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph, where the liability of the operator is unlimited, the Installation State, having regard to the nature of the nuclear installation or the nuclear substances involved and to the likely consequences of an incident originating therefrom, may establish a lower amount of financial security of the operator, provided that in no event shall any amount so established be less than 5 million SDRs, and provided that the Installation State ensures the payment of claims for compensation for nuclear damage which have been established against the operator by providing necessary funds to the extent that the yield of insurance or other financial security is inadequate to satisfy such claims, and up to the limit provided pursuant to sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph. 2. Omitted. 3.The funds provided by insurance, by other financial security or by the Installation State pursuant to paragraph 1 of this Article or sub-paragraphs (b) and (c) of paragraph 1 of Article V shall be exclusively available for compensation due under this Convention. 4. No insurer or other financial guarantor shall suspend or cancel the insurance or other financial security provided pursuant to paragraph 1 of this Article without giving notice in writing of at least two months to the competent public authority or, in so far as such insurance or other financial security relates to the carriage of nuclear material, during the period of the carriage in question.
② Article 10 (a-c) of the Paris Convention. 原文如下:a. To cover the liability under this Convention, the operator shall be required to have and maintain insurance or other financial security of the amount established pursuant to Article 7 and of such type and terms as the competent public authority shall specify. b. No insurer or other financial guarantor shall suspend or cancel the insurance or other financial security provided for in paragraph (a) of this Article without giving notice in writing of at least two months to the competent public authority or in so far as such insurance or other financial security relates to the carriage of nuclear substances, during the period of the carriage in question. c. The sums provided as insurance, reinsurance, or other financial security may be drawn upon only for compensation for damage caused by a nuclear incident.
① The term “legal costs” means the costs incurred by a plaintiff or a defendant in initiating, prosecuting, investigation, settling, or defending claims or suits for damage arising under such section. See Section 11(jj.) of The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, in: NLB 42, p.22.
② Note that some reports say that damage could exceed the caps by a large margin.
③ See Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for:The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler Technical Carson City, Nevada, pp.7-8, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004.
④ See “Increase of nuclear liability and property insurance coverage”, in: NLB 19 (1977), p.17, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-19-EN.pdf, viewed on 1 March 2004.
① See “Financial protection requirements and indemnity agreements (1988)”, in: NLB 43 (June 1989), pp.82-83, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-43-EN.pdf, viewed on 2 March 2004.
② See “Amendment of Regulations concerning financial protection consequent upon the 1988 amendment of the Price-Anderson Act (1989)”, in: NLB 44 (December 1989), pp.53-54, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-44-EN.pdf, viewed on 3 March 2004.
③ 本段最后一句的英文表述是:Licensee may not be charged more than its pro rata share of the aggregate public liability claims and costs arising out of the incident.
① See Section 170(b)(C) of The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, in :Supplement to NLB 42, pp.22-24 or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-42-SUP.pdf, viewed on 10 November 2003. Also see “Regime applicable to large power reactors (1990)”, in: NLB 45 (June 1990), pp.67-68, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-45-EN.pdf, viewed on 3 March 2004.
② The term “Consumer Price Index” means the Consumer Price Index for all the urban consumers published by the Secretary of Laboor. See t(2) of The Price-Anderson Amendment Act of 1988, in: Supplement to NLB 42, p.39.
③ See “Increase of limits (1993)”, in: NLB 52 (December 1993), p.70, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-52-EN.pdf, viewed on 2 March 2004.
① The Reauthorization Act would: (1) Reauthorize the PAA for 15 years, to August 1, 2017; (2) Through retrospective premium increases, raise the industry's indemnity for nuclear power plants and related facilities to $10.2 billion, plus a potential five percent surcharge; (3) Raise the aggregate indemnity for DOE contractors from $9.43 billion to $10 billion, and require an inflation adjustment to the indemnification limit at least once every five years; (4) Require the Secretary of Energy to issue industrial health and safety regulations applicable to contractors at DOE facilities, providing worker protection and establishing civil penalties equivalent to the regulations of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration; and (5)Authorize the Attorney General to bring a federal action to recover amounts paid by the federal government under an indemnification agreement for public liability resulting from the intentional misconduct of any corporate officer, manager, or superintendent of a DOE contractor, subcontractor, or supplier. See Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for:The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler Technical Carson City, Nevada, p.13, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004.
② 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 367~368 页。
① See Sections 13-14 of 1959 Act on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy and Protection against its Hazards (Atomic Energy Act), as amended in 2002, in:Supplement to NLB 70 (2002).
② Article 7(1-2) of (Ukraine) 2001 Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security.
③ Article 8(1-5) and Article 9 of (Ukraine)2001 Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security.
④ Articles 15-17 of Canada Nuclear Liability Act.
① “Minister” means such member of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada as is designated by the Governor in Council as the Minister for the purposes of this Act. See Article.2 of Canada Nuclear Liability Act. “Privy Council” means body of statesmen, politicians, etc appointed by the sovereign formerly as advisers on affairs of State, but now (in Britain) more as a personal honour for its members. See Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary (Fourth Edition), The Commercial Press and Oxford University Press 1997, p1175.
② 英文表述是“The Minister may designate as an approved insurer for the purposes of this Act any insurer or association of insurers that meets the requirements that, in his opinion, are necessary for the proper performance of the obligations to be undertaken by an approved insurer.”
③ 英文表述是“All amounts payable by Her Majesty pursuant to an agreement entered into under section 16 shall be paid out of the Consolidated Revenue Fund and charged to a special account in the accounts of Canada to be known as the Nuclear Liability Reinsurance Account, and all amounts received by Her Majesty pursuant to the agreement shall be paid into the Consolidated Revenue Fund and credited to that Account.”
④ 台湾《核子损害赔偿法施行细则》,中华民国八十七年三月二十五日行政院原子能委员会,会综字第五 三七○号令发布,全文十二条,自中华民国八十七年五月十四日施行。参见 http://www.aec.gov.tw/start.php,2004 年 4 月 7 日浏览。
① 李疌:“中国核共体遭遇分保难题”,2003 年 9 月 12 日《中国证券报》第 11 版;赵冰:“中国核保险亟待突破”,2003 年 9 月 12 日《国际金融报》,或 http://www.chinaacc.net/new/2003_8/30826100210.htm,2004年 3 月 14 日浏览。
② “为发展核电事业提供必要保障 中国核保险共同体成立”, 1999 年 9 月 6 日《证券时报》。
① 郑丽虹、杨静虹:“平安保险 14 亿美元保单承保广东岭澳核电站”,2001 年 12 月 12 日《南方都市报》。
② 李光茹:“中国人保为秦山三期核电站提供全程保险服务”,2001 年 12 月 28 日 17:48 新华网。
① “人保财险成功续保大亚湾、岭澳核电站保险项目”,2003 年 12 月 10 日 13:57:00 中国人民财产保险股份有限公司网站,http://www.picc.com.cn:89/gate/big5/www.picc.com.cn/cn/xwzx/rbcz/3560.shtml,2004 年 3月 24 日浏览。
② 苏莉:“从‘9·11’事件看国际保险业的调整”,载《世界经济与政治》2002 年第 2 期,第 46~48 页;吴爱雯:“世界保险公司暴露在‘9·11’创伤之下”,载《金融与保险》2001 年第 11 期。
① See Article 13 (a) of the Paris Convention. 英文表述概括为“Jurisdiction over claims concerning nuclear incidents shall lie exclusively with the courts of the Contracting Party in whose territory the nuclear incident occurred.”
② See Article 13 (a)-(e) of Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982.
③ See I.M.a)-f) of Protocol to Amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris_convention.pdf, viewed on 26 March 2004.
① See Articles XI(1-4), XII(1-2) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage.
② See Articles XIII(1-6) of Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage.
③ 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 465 页。
④ 大审法院(庭)(Tribunal de Grande Instance),是指法国民事系统的法院,按照 1958 年 12 月 22 日颁布的民事诉讼法典规定,各行政区设大审法庭,由审判长 1 人、法官 2 人和检察官 1 人组成。参见陈春龙主编:《法汉汉法法律词典》,中国社会科学出版社 2003 年版,第 613 页;《英汉法律词典》编写组编:《英汉法律词典》(修订本),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 826 页。在法国,第一审普通法院是大审法院,具有一般管辖权和专门管辖权。原则上,每省拥有一个大审法院,其中设一个民事审判庭、一个轻罪 法庭,如果在当地无商事法庭,则设一个商事审判庭。审判人员由院长、副院长和若干法官组成。大审法院原则上采用合议制。参见[法]雅克·盖斯旦(Jacques Ghestin)、吉勒·古博(Gilles Goubeaux)著,缪黑埃·法布赫·马南(Muriel Fabre-Magnan)协著,陈鹏、张丽娟等译:《法国民法总论》,法律出版社 2004年 5 月第 1 版,第 374~376 页。
① 原文是:“In implementation of this Act, where the nuclear incident occurs in the territory of the French Republic or where, in implementation of the Paris Convention, a French court has jurisdiction, such jurisdiction shall lie only with the‘Tribunal de Grande Instance de Paris’. However, the Public Prosecutor and the examining magistrate of the court within whose jurisdiction the nuclear incident occurred are empowered to take any emergency measures required. The records of proceedings are subsequently transferred to the‘Tribunal de Grande Instance de Paris’. In no case shall a criminal court in which proceedings may be instituted entertain a civil claim.”See Section 17 of (France) Act No. 68-943 of 30th October 1968 on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Field, as Amended by Act No. 90-488 of the 16th June 1990, in: Supplement to NLB 46 (December 1990), p.7. The English version is unofficial translation by the NEA Secretariat.
② “Original jurisdiction”可译为“初审管辖权、初审审判权、原始管辖权。”参见《英汉法律词典》编写组编:《英汉法律词典》(修订本),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 562 页。
③ With respect to any public liability action arising out of or resulting from a nuclear incident, the United States district court in the district where the nuclear incident takes place, or in the case of a nuclear incident taking place outside the United States, the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, shall have original jurisdiction without regard to the citizenship of any party or the amount in controversy. Upon motion of the defendant or of the Commission or the Secretary, as appropriate, any such action pending in any State court (including any such action pending on the date of the enactment of the Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988) or United States district court shall be removed or transferred to the United States district court having venue under this subsection. Process of such district court shall be effective throughout the United States.… See Section 170(n)(2)-(3) of The Price-Anderson Amendment Act of 1988, in: NLB 42, pp.35-36.
④ The term “public liability action”, as used in section 170, means any suit asserting public liability. A public liability action shall be deemed to be an action arising under section 170, and the substantive rules for decision in such action shall be derived from the law of the State in which the nuclear incident involved occurs, unless such law is inconsistent with the provisions of such section. See Section 11(hh.) of The Price-Anderson Amendment Act of 1988, in: NLB 42, p.22.
① Article 14 of Canada Nuclear Liability Act, available at http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/N-28/86947.html, viewed on 24 August 2003. See 1970 Act on Nuclear Third Party Liability, in: Supplement to NLB 6 and its 1985 Amendment, in: NLB 44, p.34.
② 环境法中的国家干预是指国家以社会公共利益代表者的资格(并非仅以国有资源所有者的资格),依法对各种开发利用环境资源的活动直接进行管理的政府行为。国家干预是国家行使环境管理权的充分体现。国家对环境干预有以下主要手段:由国家向不发达或待开发地区大量投资,促使其生产均衡发展;实行财政援助或发放低息贷款、优惠贷款,帮助企业修建防污、排污设施;利用税收杠杆促进对环境的保护和改善;征收排污费或排污税制度等。国家对环境问题的干预还表现在国家强化公民的环境意识方面。国家干预离不开公众参与,应该通过必要的国家干预,使保护环境成为全体国民的自觉行动,这才是环境保护所追求的最佳效果。参见周珂著:《生态环境法论》,法律出版社 2001 年 3 月第 1 版,第 70~71 页。
③ 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 441 页。
① 《中华人民共和国宪法》(1982 年 12 月 4 日通过和公布施行,分别于 1988 年 4 月 12 日、1993 年 3 月29 日、1999 年 3 月 15 日和 2004 年 3 月 14 日修正)。总结我国 2003 年抗击非典(Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, SARS)的经验教训,并借鉴国际上的普遍做法,需要完善应对严重自然灾害、突发公共卫生事件、人为重大事故等紧急状态的法律制度。因此,2004 年的宪法修正案将“戒严”修改为“紧急状态”,使“紧急状态”包括“戒严”又不限于“戒严”,适用范围更宽,既便于应对各种紧急状态,也同国际上通行的做法相一致。参见 2004 年 3 月 8 日在第十届全国人民代表大会第二次会议上,全国人民代表大会常务委员会副委员长王兆国作的《关于〈中华人民共和国宪法修正案(草案)〉的说明》。
② 参见“中华民国宪法”(民国 35 年 12 月 25 日制定,民国 36 年 12 月 25 日公布施行)前言,http://www.6law.idv.tw/law/憲法.doc,2004 年 4 月 30 日浏览。
③ 陈慈阳著:《环境法总论》,台湾元照出版公司 2003 年 1 月第 2 版,第 426 页。
① See Article VII(1)(a-b) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage: “1. a. The operator shall be required to maintain insurance or other financial security covering his liability for nuclear damage in such amount, of such type and in such terms as the Installation State shall specify. The Installation State shall ensure the payment of claims for compensation for nuclear damage which have been established against the operator by providing the necessary funds to the extent that the yield of insurance or other financial security is inadequate to satisfy such claims, but not in excess of the limit, if any, established pursuant to Article V. Where the liability of the operator is unlimited, the Installation State may establish a limit of the financial security of the operator liable, provided that such limit is not lower than 300 million SDRs. The Installation State shall ensure the payment of claims for compensation for nuclear damage which have been established against the operator to the extent that the yield of the financial security is inadequate to satisfy such claims, but not in excess of the amount of the financial security to be provided under this paragraph. b. Notwithstanding sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph, where the liability of the operator is unlimited, the Installation State, having regard to the nature of the nuclear installation or the nuclear substances involved and to the likely consequences of an incident originating therefrom, may establish a lower amount of financial security of the operator, provided that in no event shall any amount so established be less than 5 million SDRs, and provided that the Installation State ensures the payment of claims for compensation for nuclear damage which have been established against the operator by providing necessary funds to the extent that the yield of insurance or other financial security is inadequate to satisfy such claims, and up to the limit provided pursuant to sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph.” Also see Article 5 (1)(a-b) of Annex to Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage.
② See Article XV of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage: “The Contracting Parties shall take appropriate measures to ensure that compensation for nuclear damage, interest and costs awarded by a court in connection therewith, insurance and reinsurance premiums and funds provided by insurance, reinsurance or other financial security, or funds provided by the Installation State, pursuant to this Convention, shall be freely transferable into the currency of the Contracting Party within whose territory the damage is suffered, and of the Contracting Party within whose territory the claimant is habitually resident, and, as regards insurance or reinsurance premiums and payments, into the currencies specified in the insurance or reinsurance contract.”
① Articles VI-VII of Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage.
② See Section 170 (Indemnification and Limitation of Liability) of The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988.
③ In the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accidents, Members: Steve C. Griffith, Jr., Chairman, Gerald G. Fain,Kenneth RL Feinberg, S. Robert Foley,Theodore J. Garrish, John J. Kearney, William F. Kennedy,Arthur W. Murphy, Norman C. Rasmussen, Raymond W. Stahl;Commission Staff:Jerome Saltzman, Executive Director,Susan W. Beach, Deputy Executive Director, John Imber; Consultants:Rochelle Cooper Dreyfuss, Joseph B. Knotts, Jr., Peter H. Woodin. SeeReport to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accidents, available at http://www.state.nv.us/nucwaste/news/rpccna/pcrcna03.htm, viewed on 20 March 2004.
④ SeeReport to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accidents, which includes the following parts: Index ; Cover Page ; Letter to the Senate ; Study Participants ; Table of Contents ; Introduction ; Conclusions And Recommendations ; Chapter 1 Background, Assumptions and Observations ; Chapter 2 Procedure for the Resolution of Price-Anderson Claims ; Chapter 3 Claim Priority ; Chapter 4 Standards and Procedures for Latent Illnesses ; Appendix A Glossary ; Appendix B The Nature of Severe Nuclear Accidents ; Appendix C The Provisions of the Act Pertaining to Latent Illness Claims ; Appendix D Latent Illness Claims Under Present Law ; Appendix E Atomic Veterans Legislation ;Appendix F Ontario Workers' Compensation Law ; Appendix G BNFL/UKAEA Agreement with Unions; Appendix H Probability of Causation Recommendation: Detailed Discussion and Examples ; Appendix I Bibliography. Available at http://www.state.nv.us/nucwaste/news/rpccna/, viewed on 20 March 2004.
① 德国《原子能法》第 13 条第 1~3 项。
② 德国《原子能法》第 14 条第 1 项。
③ 德国《原子能法》第 34、36 条。
④ 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 454~455页。
⑤ 德国《原子能法》第 25 条第 4 项。
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 460~465页。
② 德国《原子能法》第34条的英文表述是:“Section 34 Indemnification (Adopted: 22 April 2002) (1) If, as a result of the effects of a nuclear incident, the operator of a nuclear installation located within the territorial scope of this Act has become legally liable to pay compensation for damage under the provisions of the Paris Convention in conjunction with Section 25, paragraphs (1)-(4) and the Paris Convention and the Joint Protocol in conjunction with Section 25, paragraphs (1), (2) and (4) or under foreign laws applicable to the incident or in the cases outlined in Section 26, paragraph (1a), the operator of the nuclear installation or owner of radioactive material shall be indemnified against any liability to pay compensation for damage to the extent such liability is not covered by or cannot be satisfied out of the financial security provided. The maximum amount of indemnification shall be 2.5 billion euros. The obligation to indemnify the operator shall be restricted to this maximum amount minus the amount which is covered by and can be met out of the financial security provided. (2) If, after the occurrence of a harmful incident, recourse to such indemnification seems likely, the operator of the nuclear installation or holder of radioactive material shall be obliged to: 1. notify the Federal Ministry designated by the Federal Government and the L?nder authorities designated by the L?nder Governments without delay of such anticipation; 2. inform the responsible Federal Ministry and the responsible L?nder authorities without delay of any claims for compensation which have been raised or preliminary investigations which have been instituted, and provide, upon request, all information which is necessary to examine the circumstance and appreciate the merits of the case; 3. comply with the instructions of the responsible L?nder authorities with regard to negotiations, in and out of court, concerning the claims for compensation which have been raised; 4. refrain from acknowledging or satisfying any claim for compensation without the consent of the responsible L?nder authorities unless such acknowledgement or satisfaction cannot be refused without obvious inequity.”See Section 34 of (Germany) Atomic Energy Act, in: Supplement to NLB 70, pp.51-52.
① 原文是“Section 37(1) establishes, in certain cases, the state’s right of recourse vis-à-vis the liable operator with regard to indemnification granted pursuant to Section 34 of the Atomic Energy Act. A new paragraph 2 now entitles the state to such recourse irrespective of whether the prerequisites pursuant to paragraph 1 are met, if the operator is not of German nationality and does not have his domicile, principal place of business or permanent residence either within the territory of a European Union State, a Paris Convention State, a Vienna Convention/Joint Protocol State or any other state with which Germany has concluded an agreement on compensation for nuclear damage.” See Amendment to the nuclear third party liability provisions of the Atomic Energy Act (2001), Nuclear Law Bulletin 67, pp.34-35. Also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-67/029_058.pdf, viewed on 30 October 2003. 德国《原子能法》第37条的英文表述是:“Section 37 Recourse in the case of indemnification (Adopted: 5 March 2001) (1) If the operator of a nuclear installation or holder of radioactive material has been indemnified of the liability to pay compensation for damage pursuant to Section 34, recourse may be taken against such an operator of a nuclear installation or against such a holder of radioactive material to the extent of the indemnities paid if 1. the operator has violated the obligations pursuant to Section 34, paragraphs (2) or (3); however, recourse shall be excluded to the extent that such violation has not affected the ascertainment of the damage nor the ascertainment or extent of the indemnities paid; 2. the operator or, in the event of a legal entity, its legal representatives, in the discharge of the functions incumbent on them, caused the damage wilfully or by gross negligence; 3. the indemnities have been paid because the extent and amount of the financial security provided did not correspond to the extent and amount as determined by the authority in charge. (2) Recourse may be taken against the operator of a nuclear installation or holder of radioactive material without the existence of the requirements cited in paragraph (1) if said individual is not a German citizen and his domicile, residence, or place of permanent abode is in a state which is neither a Party to the Treaties of the European Communities, nor to the Paris Convention in conjunction with the Joint Protocol, nor to any other convention with the Federal Republic of Germany concerning liability for nuclear damages which is in force at the time of the nuclear incident.” See Section 37(1)-(2) of (Germany) Atomic Energy Act, in: Supplement to NLB 70, p.53.
② 英文表述是:“Section 38 Compensation from the Federation (Adopted: 5 March 2001) (1) If a party which suffered from the effects of a nuclear incident within the territorial scope of this Act cannot claim compensation pursuant to the laws of another Contracting State of the Paris Convention or the Vienna Convention in conjunction with the Joint Protocol which apply to such incident because: 1. the nuclear incident occurred in the territory of a Non-Contracting State of the Paris Convention or the Vienna Convention in conjunction with the Joint Protocol; 2. the damage was caused by a nuclear incident which is a direct consequence of acts in an armed conflict, hostilities, civil war, insurrection or a grave natural disaster of an exceptional kind; 3. the applicable laws do not provide for any liability for damage to the means of transport upon which the nuclear substances were located at the time of the nuclear incident; 4. the applicable laws do not provide for any liability of the operator if the damage is caused by ionising radiation emitted by another radiation source located in the nuclear installation; 5. the applicable laws provides a shorter limitation period or term of preclusion than is provided for herein; or 6. the total amount available for compensation is lower than the maximum amount of the governmental indemnification; the Federation shall grant compensation up to the maximum amount of the governmental indemnification.
(2) The Federation shall further grant compensation up to the maximum amount of the governmental indemnification if the foreign laws applicable to damage suffered within the territorial scope of this Act, or the provisions of an international treaty, provide for such compensation to be paid to the injured person as, with regard to nature, terms and amount, is far lower than the compensation which the injured person would have been awarded had this Act been applied, or if prosecution in the state in whose territory the harmful event originated has no prospect of success. (3) Paragraphs (1) and (2) above shall not apply to injured persons who are not Germans as defined in Article 116, paragraph (1), of the Basic Law and who do not have their habitual residence within the territorial scope of this Act, unless their mother country had provided, at the time of the nuclear incident, for an arrangement which, in relation to the Federal Republic of Germany, is equivalent as to nature, terms and amount.
(4) Claims under paragraphs (1) and (2) above shall be lodged with the Federal Office of Administration [Bundesverwaltungsamt – BVA]. Such claims shall lapse three years after the time at which the decision on compensation rendered under foreign or international law has become unappealable, or it becomes apparent that prosecution pursuant to paragraph (2) has no prospect of success.” See Section 38 of (Germany) Atomic Energy Act, in: Supplement to NLB 70, p.54.
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 481 页。
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 480 页。
② 台湾《核子损害赔偿法》中多处使用“国家”的表述,但台湾只是中华人民共和国的一个省或地区,是中华人民共和国不可分割的部分,世界上只有一个中国,即中华人民共和国。
③ 英文表述是:“Section 5: Compensation in excess of the operator’s liability shall be paid by the State under the conditions and within the limits specified in the Brussels Supplementary Convention. In the case of installations for other than peaceful purposes, victims who under the terms of the Brussels Convention would have been entitled to compensation if the installations were for peaceful uses shall be compensated by the State, provided that the total compensation paid shall not exceed 2500 million francs per incident.”“Section 8: If the victims of a nuclear incident are unable to recover compensation from the insurer, guarantor or operator, this shall be met in the last resort by the State, up to the limit set in Section 4 and without prejudice to the application of Section 5.”See Section 5 and Section 8 of (France) Act on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, in: Supplement to NLB 46, p.4.
④ The Government of the Russian Federation provides for the payment of compensation for loss and damage that has been caused by radiation exposure and for which the operating organization is liable, for that part of the liability of the operating organization that exceeds the upper limits of the liability laid down in article 55 of this Federal Law by granting the sums required to make up full compensation for the loss and damage caused, and also in cases for which there is provision in the legislation of the Russian Federation. See Article 57 of (Russian Federation) Federal Law on the Use of Atomic Energy (Adopted by the State Duma on 20 October 1995), in: Supplement to NLB 57 (June 1996), p.33.
① Article 10 (1-4) and Article 11 of (Ukraine) 2001 Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security (Unofficial translation established by the NEA Secretariat.), in: Supplement to NLB 69 (2002), pp.11-17, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-69/Ukraine.pdf, viewed on 24 August 2003.
② Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage (Republic of Korea). Act No. 2094 of 24 January 1969, as amended by: Act No. 2765 of 7 April 1975, Act No. 3549 of 1 April 1982 (the Atomic Energy Act), Act No. 3849 of 12 May 1986, Act No. 4940 of 1 January 1995 (the Atomic Energy Act), and Act No. 6350 of 16 January 2001. Unofficial translation kindly provided by the Korean authorities. See Nuclear Law Bulletin No. 68, also available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 August 2003.
① See Annex to the Convention of 31 January 1963 Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29 July 1960 on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, as Amended by the Additional Protocol of 28 January 1964, by the Protocol of 16 November 1982 and by the Protocol of 12 February 2004: “THE GOVERNMENTS OF THE CONTRACTING PARTIES declare that compensation for nuclear damage caused by a nuclear incident not covered by the Supplementary Convention solely by reason of the fact that the relevant nuclear installation, on account of its utilisation, is not on the list referred to in Article 13 of the Supplementary Convention (including the case where such installation, which is not on the list, is considered by one or more but not all of the Governments to be outside the Paris Convention): a. shall be provided without discrimination among the nationals of the Contracting Parties to the Supplementary Convention; and b. shall not be limited to less than 1 500 million euro. In addition, if they have not already done so, they shall endeavour to make the rules for compensation of persons suffering damage caused by such incidents as similar as possible to those established in respect of nuclear incidents occurring in connection with nuclear installations covered by the Supplementary Convention.”
② Article XIII(1) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage: “This Convention and the national law applicable thereunder shall be applied without any discrimination based upon nationality, domicile or residence.”
③ Articles III (2)(a-b) of Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage: “2. a. Compensation for nuclear damage in accordance with paragraph 1(a) shall be distributed equitably without discrimination on the basis of nationality, domicile or residence, provided that the law of the Installation State may, subject to obligations of that State under other conventions on nuclear liability, exclude nuclear damage suffered in a non-Contracting Party. b. Compensation for nuclear damage in accordance with paragraph 1(b), shall, subject to Articles V and XI.1(b), be distributed equitably without discrimination on the basis of nationality, domicile or residence.”
④ I.M. g) i-ii) of Protocol to Amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (12 February 2004), p.21, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/paris_convention.pdf, viewed on 26 March 2004. 原文是“g) The Contracting Party whose courts have jurisdiction shall ensure that in relation to actions for compensation of nuclear damage: i) any State may bring an action on behalf of persons who have suffered nuclear damage, who are nationals of that State or have their domicile or residence in its territory, and who have consented thereto; and ii) any person may bring an action to enforce rights under this Convention acquired by subrogation or assignment.”
① Article 8 of Protocol to Amend the Convention of 31st January 1963 Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (12 February 2004), p.16, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/brussels_supplementary_convention.pdf, viewed on 26 March 2004. 原文是“Any person who is entitled to benefit from the provisions of this Convention shall have the right to full compensation in accordance with national law for nuclear damage suffered, provided that where the amount of such damage exceeds or is likely to exceed 1 500 million euro, a Contracting Party may establish equitable criteria for apportioning the amount of compensation that is available under this Convention. Such criteria shall be applied whatever the origin of the funds and, subject to the provisions of Article 2, without discrimination based on the nationality, domicile or residence of the person suffering the damage.”
② The provisions of this Law are applied without discrimination based upon nationality, domicile or residence. See Article 2 of (Romania) Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (adopted on 3 December 2001), unofficial translation kindly provided by the Romanian Authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 11 July 2003.
③ This Act shall apply to any other State on condition of reciprocity, i.e. if a State prohibits or restricts compensation for nuclear damage suffered by an individual, legal person, entity or government of the Republic of Korea, this Act may exclude from or restrict in its application thereof any individual, legal person, entity or Government of such State. See Article 2-2 of (Republic of Korea) Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage, as Last Amended on 16 January 2001, in: NLB 68, p.5. Translation kindly provided by the Korean authorities.
① 梁西主编:《国际法》(修订第二版),武汉大学出版社 2000 年 3 月修订版,第 70~71 页。
② 联合国大会 1970 年 10 月 24 日通过。
① [英]詹宁斯、瓦茨修订,王铁崖等译:《奥本海国际法》(第一卷第一分册),中国大百科全书出版社 1995年版,第 288~290、361 页。
① “Unless the States concerned have agreed otherwise for the protection of the interests of persons, natural or juridical, who may be or are exposed to the risk of significant transboundary harm as a result of an activity within the scope of the present articles, a State shall not discriminate on the basis of nationality or residence or place where the injury might occur, in granting to such persons, in accordance with its legal system, access to judicial or other procedures to seek protection or other appropriate redress.” See Article 15 of Draft articles on Prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities, adopted by the International Law Commission at its fifty-third session (2001), in: the Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its Fifty-third session, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixth session, Supplement No. 10 (A/56/10), chp.V.E.1, p.375.
② The Council of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has adopted a recommendation on implementation of a regime of equal right of access and non-discrimination in relation to transfrontier pollution. Paragraph 4 (a) of that recommendation provides as follows: Countries of origin should ensure that any person who has suffered transfrontier pollution damage or is exposed to a significant risk of transfrontier pollution shall at least receive equivalent treatment to that afforded in the country of origin in cases of domestic pollution and in comparable circumstances, to persons of equivalent condition or status…. See Commentaries to the draft articles on Prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities adopted by the International Law Commission at its fifty-third session (2001), in: the Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its Fifty-third session, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixth session, Supplement No. 10 (A/56/10), chp.V.E.2, pp.427-429.
① [法]亚历山大·基斯著,张若思编译:《国际环境法》,法律出版社 2000 年 7 月第 1 版,第 64~65、105~108页。
① 来小鹏等主编:《民法学》,陕西人民出版社 1998 年 6 月第 1 版,第 290 页。
② 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 193 页。
① 韩世远著:《违约损害赔偿研究》,法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版,第 14 页。
② 陈慈阳著:《环境法总论》,台湾元照出版公司 2003 年 1 月第 2 版,第 226~238、426~427 页。
① 台湾《核子事故紧急应变法》(民国 92 年 12 月 9 日制定、修正,民国 92 年 12 月 24 日公布、施行)第二条第七、八款规定:“应变措施:指核子事故发生或有发生之虞时,为防止事故持续恶化及保护民众生命、身体及财产安全所进行之各项作为。”“复原措施:指核子事故经控制不再持续恶化,至受事故影响区域可恢复正常生活状况前,所需完成之暂时移居、地区进出管制、食物及饮水管制等相关防护措施。” 第十至十二款规定:“民众防护:指核子事故发生或有发生之虞时,为减少辐射曝露,保障民众生命、身体安全,所实行之掩蔽、服用碘片、疏散收容、食物及饮水管制、暂时移居、地区进出管制、污染清除、医疗救护等措施。”“掩蔽:指核子事故发生或有发生之虞时,民众停留于室内,并立即关闭门窗及通风系统,以降低吸入放射性核种及辐射曝露可能性之措施。”“碘片:指核子事故发生或有发生之虞时,适时服用一定剂量,可防止外释放射性碘积存于人体甲状腺部位,以避免或减少甲状腺癌发生之碘化钾药剂。”
② 台湾“民法”第一百九十六条 ( 修正):(修正前条文)不法毁损他人之物者,应向被害人赔偿其物因毁损所减少之价额。(立法理由 )物因毁损所减少之价额,有时难于估计,且被毁损者有回复原状之可能时,被害人有时较愿请求回复原状。为使被害人获得周密之保护,不宜剥夺被害人请求回复原状之权利。爰以修正,赋予被害人选择之自由,使被害人得请求赔偿其物因毁损所减少之价额,亦不排除其选择请求回复原状。第二百一十三条 (修正):(修正前条文 )负损害赔偿责任者,除法律另有规定或契约另有订定外,应回复他方损害发生前之原状。因回复原状而应给付金钱者,自损害发生时起,加给利息。(立法理由 )民法损害赔偿之方法,以回复原状为原则,金钱赔偿为例外。然回复原状,若必由债务人为之,对被害人有时可能缓不济急,或不能符合被害人之意愿。为期合乎实际需要,并使被害人获得更周密之保障,爰增设第三项,使被害人得请求支付回复原状所必要之费用,以代回复原状。参见台湾 “民法历年修正条文及理由”,http://www.6law.idv.tw/law2/民法歷年修正條文及理由.doc#a884021,2004 年 4 月 26 日浏览。
① 参见郑冲、贾红梅译:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 1999 年 5 月第 1 版,第 50 页。该书将德国民法第249 条译为“负损害赔偿义务的人,应回复损害发生前的原状。因人身或者损毁物件而应赔偿损害时,债权人可以要求以金钱赔偿代替回复原状。”另可参见陈卫佐译著:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 2004 年 5 月第 1 版,第 75 页。
② 王泽鉴著:“物之损害赔偿制度的突破与发展”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(6),中国政法大学出版社1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 26~27 页。
③ 王泽鉴著:“物之损害赔偿制度的突破与发展”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(6),中国政法大学出版社1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 22 页。
④ 曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版,第 1 页。
⑤ 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 572 页。
① 王泽鉴著:《侵权行为法》(第一册),中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 7 月第 1 版,第 8 页。
② 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 572~573 页。
① [美]迈克尔·D·贝勒斯著,张文显等译:《法律的原则——一个规范的分析》,中国大百科全书出版社1996 年 1 月第 1 版,第 311、433 页。
② 郑冲、贾红梅译:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 1999 年 5 月第 1 版,第 51 页。此条为《德国民法典》253 条第 1 款,一译:“只有在法律规定的情况下,才能因财产损害以外的损害而请求金钱赔偿。”参见陈卫佐译注:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 2004 年 5 月第 1 版,第 76 页。
③ [德]Larenz 著,王泽鉴译:“德国法上损害赔偿制归责原则”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(5),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 263、277 页。另外,曾世雄教授分别对肯定和否定危险责任下非财产上之损害赔偿的理由(各有四方面的理由)进行了全面而深刻地分析和检讨,颇具学术参考价值。参见曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 376~382 页。
④ 王利明、杨立新著:《侵权行为法》,法律出版社 1997 年版,第 76 页。
① 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 204~206 页。
① 参见罗结珍译:《法国民法典》,中国法制出版社 1999 年 10 月北京第 1 版,第 514 页。例如,《法国民法典》规定:“任何人均不得提前抛弃时效;但可以抛弃已取得的时效。”(第 2220 条)“不得让与财产的人,不得抛弃已经取得的时效。”(第 2222 条)“法官不得依职权援用因时效所产生的方法。” (第 2223条)“对不属于商事交易之内的物,不得主张适用时效之规定。”(第 2226 条)“国家、公共机构以及市镇行政区,同于个人,受相同的时效规定的约束,并且可以主张时效。”(第 2227 条)这些规定多为现代各国民法的时效制度所采纳。
② 胡长清:《中国民法总论》,中国政法大学出版社 1997 年版,第 349~350 页。另外,除语言表述略有不同外,史尚宽所著《民法总论》、梅仲协所著《民法要义》等著作中均有相同论述。参见于敏:“侵权损害赔偿请求权的消灭时效”,载王利明主编:《民法典·侵权责任法研究》,人民法院出版社 2003 年 2 月第 1版,第 284~328 页。
③ 史尚宽:《民法总论》,中国政法大学出版社 2000 年版,第 625 页。
④ 郑冲、贾红梅译:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 1999 年 5 月第 1 版,第 202 页。
① 参见于敏:“侵权损害赔偿请求权的消灭时效”,载王利明主编:《民法典·侵权责任法研究》,人民法院出版社 2003 年 2 月第 1 版,第 287 页。
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 503 页。
③ 傅济熙编著:《核损害的民事责任与赔偿》,原子能出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 51、57 页。
④ 1997 年《核损害补充赔偿公约》(附件)第 9 条;1997 年《核损害民事责任维也纳公约》第 VI 条;2004年《巴黎公约》修正议定书对原第 8 条的修订;台湾 1997 年《核子损害赔偿法》第 28~30 条。另外,按照我国《民法通则》的规定,侵权行为法的最长时效是 20 年。如果受害人不能知道自己的权利受到损害的事实,则自权利被侵害之日起,受害人在 20 年内不提出诉讼请求的,法院不再予以保护。对于侵权行为法的最长时效,侵权特别法也有特殊的规定。例如,我国《产品质量法》第 33 条第 2 款规定:“因产品存在缺陷造成损害要求赔偿的请求权,在造成损害的缺陷产品交付用户、消费者满 10 年丧失;但是,尚未超过明示的安全使用期的除外。”按照这一规定,产品侵权责任的最长时效为 10 年,不适用 20 年的最长时效,并且最长时效期间届满,消灭的是请求权的实体权利,而不是胜诉权。杨立新教授建议,在民法典关于诉讼时效制度的规定上,明确规定诉讼时效的适用范围为债权请求权,自债权请求权人知道或者应当知道权利受到侵害之时起计算。参见杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 227 页。
① 郑冲、贾红梅译:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 1999 年 5 月第 1 版,第 38 页。德国民法典第 195 条规定:“普通消灭时效期间为三年。”《债法现代化法》自 2002 年 1 月 1 日起施行后,德国民法典上的普通消灭时效期间不再是三十年,而是三年。三年的普通消灭时效期间适用于大部分合同上的请求权,包括给付请求权和损害赔偿请求权,也是用于由法定债务关系产生的请求权,如侵权行为产生的请求权。参见陈卫佐译注:《德国民法典》,法律出版社 2004 年 5 月第 1 版,第 56 页注释[5]。
② 罗结珍译:《法国民法典》(下册),法律出版社 2005 年 3 月第 1 版,第 1603 页。
③ 曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版,第 401~402 页。
① 根据我国《民法通则》的规定,我国民事立法的诉讼时效制度,是采诉权消灭主义,即诉讼时效完成,权利人消灭的只是胜诉权,不消灭起诉权,更不消灭实体权利(但《产品质量法》例外,该法关于最长时效的规定,就不是消灭诉权,而是消灭请求权)。在侵权行为法中,侵权行为的诉讼时效与此相同,诉讼时效完成,侵权损害赔偿请求权人丧失的是胜诉权,即法院对起诉到法院的当事人的诉讼请求,不再予以支持,但是可以起诉;当事人不起诉,加害人自愿履行赔偿义务的,法律予以准许。关于诉讼时效的最终法律后果究竟是消灭胜诉权,还是合理抗辩的问题,法学界学者提出了若干不同意见。参见杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 223~224 页。
② 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 574~574 页。
① 曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 30~31、39~55 页。以下是曾世雄教授就维生上不利益所作的阐述。维生上不利益:人类营社会生活需要各种生活资源。生活资源有具财产价值,不具财产价值。具财产价值之生活资源受到破坏,衍生财产上不利益或生理、心理上不利益。不具财产价值之生活资源受到破坏,衍生生理、心理上不利益。财产上不利益,概念单一,包括财产之积极减少及财产之消极不增加。非财产上不利益,概念多元,有痛苦、不适、不愉快、不方便等。
① 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 577~579 页。台湾学者曾世雄教授认为,侵权行为之场合,仅直接被害人有损害赔偿请求权,第三人有赔偿请求权而为赔偿请求权利人者,有被害人之法定扶养权利人、被害人指父母、配偶及子女、被害人死亡支付丧葬费之人。参见曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版,第 30~31 页。
② Z.B.OVG Lüneburg, DBVI. 1975, 190; 1981, 664. 又在 VG Oldenburg, Urteil v. 10.11.1978 判决中,肯定距离 400 公里之原告适格,对有关原告放射线负担之可能性,要求专家之鉴定。转引自陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 266 页,注释 22。
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版,第 262~266页。
② [美]迈克尔·D·贝勒斯著,张文显等译:《法律的原则——一个规范的分析》,中国大百科全书出版社1996 年 1 月第 1 版,第 258 页。
③ 关于人身伤害赔偿责任的法律规定在很早以前就获得了很大的发展。最重要的例子就是那些极为严重的导致受害人格完全丧失的事故。在这些事故中,受害人虽然还活着,但已无任何知觉和感觉能力且是无法恢复的。他遭受了非财产损失吗?这个问题得到了越来越多的肯定回答。重要的是把这样一种极为严重的人格侵害本身就看作是一种可赔偿性损害。比利时、德国、法国、意大利、西班牙、葡萄牙和奥地利等都是这样看待这个问题的,而在荷兰和瑞士则尚有争议。参见[德]克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,焦美华译,张新宝审校:《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(下卷),法律出版社 2001 年 12 月第 1 版,第 23~25 页。
① 杨立新著:《侵权法论》(上册),吉林人民出版社 2000 年 3 月第 1 版,第 530~531 页。台湾“民法”第二百一十六条第一项规定:“损害赔偿,除法律另有规定或契约另有订定外,应以填补债权人所受损害及所失利益为限。”依此规定,损害赔偿的范围可分为一般法定赔偿范围、特殊法定赔偿范围与约定赔偿范围三种。一般法定赔偿范围包括被害人所受损害及所失利益。被害人所受损害,学说上称为积极损害;被害人所失利益,学说上称为消极损害。特殊法定赔偿范围有过失相抵、损益相抵、赔偿义务人生计之酌减等;约定赔偿范围包括赔偿额之预定和事后约定赔偿额。参见曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年版 3 月第 1 版,第 413~417 页。
② Section 11 of (U.S.) The Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, in: Supplement to NLB 42, or available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-42-SUP.pdf, viewed on 10 November 2004. 原 文 如 下 : The term “precautionary evacuation” means an evacuation of the public within a specified area near a nuclear facility, or the transportation route in the case of an accident involving transportation of source material, special nuclear material, byproduct material, high-level radioactive waste, spent nuclear fuel, or transuranic waste to or from a production or utilization facility, if the evacuation is: 1. The result of any event that is not classified as a nuclear incident but that poses imminent danger of bodily injury or property damage from the radiological properties of source material, special nuclear material, byproduct material, high-level radioactive waste. spent nuclear fuel, or transuranic waste, and causes an evacuation; and 2. Initiated by an official of a State or a political subdivision of a State, who is authorized by State law to initiate such an evacuation and who reasonably determined that such an evacuation was necessary to protect the public health and safety.
① Latent injuries - The term used in the Price-Anderson Act to refer to disease or illness, principally cancer, caused by exposure to radiation as a result of a nuclear incident but delayed in manifestation for some years or decades. See Appendix A (Glossary) of Report to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accidents, available at http://www.state.nv.us/nucwaste/news/rpccna/pcrcna11.htm, viewed on 3 February 2005.
② Phrase One: In the first phrase, claims are filed, removed and consolidated in a “central” federal court; Phrase Two: In the second phrase, the court groups claimants by subclass (using, perhaps, registry information), identifies common issues, and holds generic hearings. Its decisions create rebuttable or conclusive determinations; Phrase Three: In the final phrase, the parties receive individualized treatment on a multi-tier model. See Chapter Two ( Procedure for the Resolution of Price-Anderson Claims) of Report to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accident.
① See Chapter Three (Claim Priority) and Chapter Four (Standards and Procedures for Latent Illnesses) of Report to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accident; Report to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accidents (1990), in: NLB 46, pp.75-76.
② See Article VIII(1)-(2) of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage: “1. Subject to the provisions of this Convention, the nature, form and extent of the compensation, as well as the equitable distribution thereof, shall be governed by the law of the competent court. 2. Subject to application of the rule of sub-paragraph (c) of paragraph 1 of Article VI, where in respect of claims brought against the operator the damage to be compensated under this Convention exceeds, or is likely to exceed, the maximum amount made available pursuant to paragraph 1 of Article V, priority in the distribution of the compensation shall be given to claims in respect of loss of life or personal injury.”
① [法]亚历山大·基斯著,张若思编译:《国际环境法》,法律出版社 2000 年 7 月第 1 版,第 71~83 页。
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 476~478、503~505 页。
③ 有关核责任领域的若干双边或多边协定,可参见 OECD/NEA 出版的各期 Nuclear Law Bulletin。Issues 1968-2000 are available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-1968-2000.html, issues 2001-2004 are available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/index.html.
① 有关人身损害和财产损害的赔偿,可参见杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1月第 2 版,第五编“损害赔偿”,第 604~732 页。该书的论述非常全面和缜密,颇具理论和实践意义。另可参见曾隆兴著:《详解损害赔偿法》,中国政法大学出版社 2004 年 3 月第 1 版;曾世雄著:《损害赔偿法原理》,中国政法大学出版社 2001 年 10 月第 1 版;王泽鉴著:“侵害生命权之损害赔偿”,载《民法学说与判例研究》(4),中国政法大学出版社 1998 年 1 月第 1 版,第 293~316 页。
② 可参阅以下相关文章:夏光、赵毅红:“中国环境污染损失的经济计量与研究”,载《管理世界》1995年第 6 期,,第 198~205 页;郑易生等:“90 年代中期中国环境污染经济损失估算”,,载《管理世界》1999年第 2 期,,第 189~197 页。
③ 严格地说,“环境侵害”应该有广狭两义。广义的环境侵害是指只要是对环境有害的行为就构成侵权行为,这是一种侵犯“环境之权”的行为。狭义的环境侵害是指因为对环境的侵害进而造成了人身或财产损害后果的侵权行为,这是一种侵犯“人之权利”的行为。一般采用的是狭义的环境侵害的概念。因为,人类的生存与发展都必然会对环境造成一定的不利影响,如果只要对环境有不利影响,法律就规定为侵权行为,将对人类发展造成影响,不符合可持续发展的价值目标。参见吕忠梅著:《环境法学》,法律出版社 2004年 9 月第 1 版,第 167 页注释[2]。
① 吕忠梅著:《环境法学》,法律出版社 2004 年 9 月第 1 版,第 167~168 页。
② [德]克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,焦美华译,张新宝审校:《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(下卷),法律出版社2001 年 12 月第 1 版,第 506~507 页。
① 韩健、陈立虎著:《国际环境法》,武汉大学出版社 1992 年 7 月第 1 版,第 291 页。
② 参见 http://www.kepu.com.cn/gb/technology/nuclear/scrap/200207310076.html,2004 年 4 月 6 日浏览。
③ [苏] В·Я·沃兹尼亚克等著,伍仁毅、杜凡等译:《切尔诺贝利核事故与教训》,中国劳动出版社 1991年 5 月北京第 1 版,第 112~113、129 页。
① 刘国华等:“森林在净化放射性核污染中的作用”,载《世界林业研究》2002 年 8 月第 4 期,第 34~37页。
② 肖剑鸣著:《比较环境法》,中国检察出版社 2001 年 12 月第 1 版,第 358 页。《瑞典环境损害赔偿法》的中译文可参见 http://www.riel.whu.edu.cn/ruleshow.asp?ID=1275, 2005 年 2 月 16 日浏览。
① 罗结珍译:《法国民法典》,法律出版社 2005 年 3 月第 1 版,第 1073、1096、1081~1086 页。
① [德]克雷斯蒂安·冯·巴尔著,焦美华译:《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(下卷),法律出版社 2001 年 12 月第 1 版,第 512 页、第 512 页注释 658。
② 准据法(applicable law, lex causae)是国际私法中的一个特有概念,它是指经冲突规范指引用来确定国际民事关系的当事人的权利义务关系的具体实体法规范。参见韩德培主编:《国际私法》,高等教育出版社和北京大学出版社 2000 年 8 月第 1 版,第 105 页。
③ [法]亚历山大·基斯著,张若思编译:《国际环境法》,法律出版社 2000 年 7 月第 1 版,第 363~367、 376~379 页。
① 陈慈阳著:《环境法总论》,台湾元照出版公司 2003 年 1 月第二版,第 423 页。
② Bundesgerichtshof, 13 May 1975 (1975) 28 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 2061-3. Also see Peter Wetterstein, Harm to the Environment: The Right to Compensation and the Assessment of Damages, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1997, pp.139-140.
① 高家伟著:《欧洲环境法》,工商出版社 2000 年 11 月第 1 版,第 150 页。
② 1978 年 3 月,超级油轮“阿莫科·卡迪兹”号在离法国布列塔尼海岸不远处触礁,从而酿成了世界上最严重的石油污染事件之一。该致害油轮的登记船东是利比里亚的阿莫科运输公司,其真实的所有人是阿莫科运输公司的母公司——总部设在美国伊利诺州的 STANDARD 跨国石油公司。该油轮泄漏造成污染损害事故后,考虑到其实际造成的损失额远远超出《1969 年国际油污损害民事责任公约》(CLC1969)中规 定的责任限额,包括法国国家和地方政府、自然保护者协会、专业团体等在内的赔偿请求人为寻求更切合实际的保护,回避适用 CLC1969,向该船舶真实所有人 STANDARD 跨国石油公司的住所地法院——美国法院提起诉讼,因为美国不是 CLC1969 的成员国,其国内的《1990 年油污法》规定的赔偿范围比 CLC1969更为具体而且范围广,责任限额也更高。
① [法]亚历山大·基斯著,张若思编译:《国际环境法》,法律出版社 2000 年 7 月第 1 版,第 365~367 页。
① 参见“《中国国民经济核算体系(2002)》:附属表”,中国统计信息网 2003-05-26 14:25:52,或 http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjdt/gmjjhs/t20030527_80216.htm, 2004 年 4 月 2 日浏览。
② 参见“森林资源核算将纳入绿色 GDP”,载《科技日报》2004 年 4 月 13 日第 11 版。另可参见高敏雪、谷弘:“对环境经济核算的总体认识”,载《统计研究》1998 年第 3 期,第 22~25 页。
③ 潘岳:“谈谈绿色 GDP”,载《科技日报》2004 年 4 月 9 日第 6 版。
① [苏] В·Я·沃兹尼亚克等著,伍仁毅、杜凡等译:《切尔诺贝利核事故与教训》,中国劳动出版社 1991年 5 月北京第 1 版,第 107、177 页。
② 董应璧:“切尔诺贝利仍在哭泣——纪念切尔诺贝利核事故 18 周年”,载《科技日报》2004 年 4 月 26日第 2 版。
③ 傅济熙编著:《核损害的民事责任与赔偿》,原子能出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 111 页。
① 傅济熙编著:《核损害的民事责任与赔偿》原子能出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 112 页。
② 参见 http://www.kepu.com.cn/gb/technology/nuclear/scrap/200207310077.html,2004 年 4 月 4 日浏览。
③ The Price-Anderson Act: Background Report (March 2001, Revised November 2002, November 2004), available at http://www.ans.org/pi/ps/docs/ps54-bi.pdf, viewed on September 16, 2003 and 30 January 2005.
① See Tokai-Mura Accident, Japan: Third Party Liability and Compensation Aspects, prepared by the Secretariat of the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency in collaboration with the Japanese authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb-/Nlb-66/013-022.pdf, viewed on 7 April 2004. 此例内容丰富翔实,对核损害赔偿颇具参考和示范意义。所谓临界事故,又称临界效应或临界状态,是指一定以上的量的核分裂物质或原料(如铀或钸)集中后,会发生激烈的、自然的核子分裂,此时需限制核分裂物质的集中量,此即“临界安全管理”,否则过度集中的分裂物质会因发热而熔解及至爆炸,酿成临界事故。
② 两名工人分别死于 1999 年 12 月 21 日和 2000 年 4 月 27 日。
① 1961 Basic Law for Countermeasures against Disaster, which deals principally with natural disasters, was not deemed appropriate for the countermeasures necessary for this criticality accident: pursuant to the 1961 Law, local governments are directly responsible for the disaster prevention system of nuclear facilities, upon the advice of the government. In order to strengthen the emergency response regime, a Special Law on Emergency Preparedness for Nuclear Disaster was enacted in December 1999 in order to clarify the responsibilities of the government, local authorities and operators in nuclear emergencies. See Footnote 2 of Tokai-Mura Accident, Japan: Third Party Liability and Compensation Aspects, prepared by the Secretariat of the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency in collaboration with the Japanese authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb-/Nlb-66/013-022.pdf, viewed on 7 April 2004.
② This Committee issued its “Urgent Recommendations – Interim Report” on 5 November 1999. This Interim Report described the social and economic effects of the accident as follows:“With evacuation of approximately 50 households within 350 metres and the recommendation to remain indoors for approximately 300 000 people living within a 10 km radius, transportation facilities were cancelled and schools and other public facilities were temporarily closed as were private companies. The effects of the accident were very large both socially and economically. Residents living near the site were not only inconvenienced due to the evacuation and the recommendation to stay indoors, but they also were subjected to the mental and physical effects caused by rumours. At the same time, sufficient measures including psychological counselling are necessary. Following the accident, there are many adverse effects due to rumours from misunderstanding”.The final report was issued by the Investigation Committee on 24 December 1999.
① It is difficult to estimate how much compensation JCO could provide. JCO’s assets were estimated to be approximately JPY 4 billion, but in general, companies cannot mobilise the full amount of the estimated value of their assets. See Footnote 9 of Tokai-Mura Accident, Japan: Third Party Liability and Compensation Aspects, prepared by the Secretariat of the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency in collaboration with the Japanese authorities.
① 参见傅济熙编著:《核损害的民事责任与赔偿》,原子能出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 117~118 页。2003年 3 月 3 日日本茨城县水户地方法院对于 1999 年 9 月在茨城县东海村 JCO 东晦事务所发生的临界事故中,以业务过失致死罪被起诉的原事业所所长越岛建三(56 岁)等 6 名成员及该公司作出了判决。该公司被罚款100 万日元;越岛被判 3 年监禁,缓期 5 年执行,并罚款 50 万日元;宣布另外 5 名被告受缓期执行的有罪判决。 判决指出,JCO 是一场极其重大的事故,它给社会造成了很大影响,致使国民对原子能安全性的信赖感产生了动摇。参见《国外核新闻》2003 年第 6 期。
① 2005 年 11 月 20 日至 22 日,由全国人民代表大会环境与资源保护委员会主办、联合国环境规划署协办的“环境立法与可持续发展国际论坛”在北京友谊宾馆举行,论坛的主题为“环境立法与中国可持续发展战略”。本书作者有幸应邀参会,并提交题为“中国核损害责任制度的构建”的论文,收入“环境立法与可持续发展国际论坛论文汇编”。同时,作者还有幸于 22 日上午在专场 12(“资源与能源立法问题”)做了题为“中国核损害责任制度的构建”的主题报告。在此特向全国人大环资委和 “环境立法与可持续发展国际论坛”组委会的邀请和宁波大学法学院的支持表示感谢。
② 耿云卿著:《侵权行为之研究》,台湾商务印书馆股份有限公司,中华民国七十年第三版,第 154~175页;陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 431~488页。
③ 台湾国立清华大学目前仍设有“原子科学院原子科学系”、“原子科学技术发展中心”。民国 44 年,美国和台湾订立原子和平用途协议,台湾当局决定设立原子科学研究机构,发展原子科学研究,乃电召梅贻琦校长赴台筹议。组设清华大学研究院筹备委员会,勘定校址于新竹,筹划复校,创办原子科学研究所。民国 45 年 1 月,在台北成立筹备处,聘陈可忠为主任,正式展开筹备工作。同年 7 月,原子科学研究所成立,招考第一研究生。民国 50 年,具有一千功率的水池式核子反应器(原子炉)一座,完成初步临界运转,开始作业。一方面适应教学研究需要,一方面配合台湾的政策,展开原子能和平用途的推广工作,这成为台湾进入原子能时代的里程碑。民国 59 年,原子科学研究所核工组改设为原子核工程研究所。民国 70 年,增设动力机械工程、材料科学工程、原子核工程研究所博士班。核子工程学系自七十年度开始招生。具体可查询 http://www.nthu.edu.tw/intro/intro.htm, 2005 年 10 月 2 日浏览。
④ 台湾《原子能法》(民国 60 年 12 月 14 日修正)第 1 条。
① 台湾《原子能法》(中华民国六十年十二月二十四日公布施行)第一条。
② 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 483 页。
① 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 476~478页。
② 台湾于 1987 年开始建造核电站,目前拥有核一、核二、核三共三座核电站,核四即龙门核电站正在建造之中。
③ 陈春生著:《核能利用与法之规制》,台湾月旦出版社股份有限公司 1995 年 11 月增订版, 第 472~488、503~505 页。
① 但是,台湾现行《核子损害赔偿法施行细则》并未规定单一管辖法院的问题。参见《核子损害赔偿法施行细则》,中华民国八十七年三月二十五日行政院原子能委员会 会综字第五三七○号令发布。
① See Chapter Three (Claim Priority) of Report to the Congress from the Presidential Commission on Catastrophic Nuclear Accident.
① 《核材料实物保护公约》(Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material,Vienna and New York,1980)是一项以保护用于和平目的的核材料的国际运输为主要目的的公约,1980 年 3 月 3 日在维也纳和纽约同时开放签署,1987 年 2 月 8 日生效。1988 年 12 月 2 日,中华人民共和国政府向国际原子能机构总干事交存加入书,同时声明不受公约第 17 条第 2 款规定的两种争端解决程序的约束。该公约于 1989 年 1 月2 日对我国生效。
② 《核事故及早通报公约》(Convention on Early Notification of Nuclear Accident,Vienna,1986)的目的是建立一个核事故及早通报制度,以便最大限度地减少核事故造成的跨界影响。1986 年 9 月 26 日签订于维也纳,1986 年 10 月 27 日正式生效。1986 年 9 月 26 日,中华人民共和国政府代表作了有待核准的签署,1987 年 9 月 10 日向国际原子能机构交存《公约》批准书,同时声明:一、不受公约第 11 条第 2 款规定的两种争端解决程序的约束;二、在公约对我国生效前,我国接受公约第 13 条临时适用条款。该公约于 1987年 10 月 11 日对我国生效。
③ 《核事故或辐射紧急情况援助公约》(Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency,Vienna,1986)的宗旨是建立一个便利在发生核事故时迅速提供援助以减轻事故后果的国际框架。1986 年 9 月 26 日签订于维也纳,1986 年 10 月 27 日正式生效。1986 年 9 月 26 日,中华人民共和国政府代表作了有待核准的签署,同时声明:一、不受公约第 13 条第 2 款规定的两种争端解决程序的约束;二、在由于个人重大过失而造成死亡、受伤、损失或毁坏的情况下,我国不适用该公约第10 条第 2 款。该公约于 1987 年 10 月 14 日对我国生效。
④ 《核安全公约》(Convention on Nuclear Safety,Vienna,1994)的目的是加强本国措施和国际合作,在世界范围内实现和维持高水平的核安全。1994 年 6 月 17 日通过于维也纳,1996 年 10 月 24 日正式生效。1996 年 4 月 9 日,中国代表向国际原子能机构总干事提交国家批准书。该公约于 1996 年 10 月 24 日对我国生效。
① 参见核电发展战略研究(续编)编委会编写:《核电发展战略研究(续编)》,(北京)中国言实出版社2001 年 1 月第一版,分报告“核损害民事责任”,第 199~222 页。
② 原子能法是调整原子能科学研究和开发利用及其规制,以维护社会公共利益,保证原子能安全、合理、有效利用和保护环境的法律规范的总称。原子能法调整的原子能关系分为两类:第一类,原子能科学研究主体和开发利用主体权利能力取得、变更和终止而发生的原子能支配关系;第二类,原子能科学研究主体和开发利用主体与政府之间因政府对原子能科学研究和开发利用的规制而发生的原子能事业关系。因此,核工业不是纯市场和商业性的物质活动,而是受到政府严格规制的市场和商业性的活动。参见肖乾刚、肖国兴编著:《能源法》,法律出版社 1996 年 6 月第 1 版,第 192~193 页。我国目前涉及放射性管理的法律法规主要有:《中华人民共和国放射性污染防治法》(2003 年 6 月 28 日第十届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第三次会议通过,自 2003 年 10 月 1 日起施行)、《中华人民共和国民用核设施安全监督管理条例》(1986年 10 月 29 日国务院发布)、《中华人民共和国核材料管理条例》(1987 年 6 月 15 日国务院发布)、《核电厂核事故应急管理条例》(1993 年 8 月 4 日国务院令第 124 号发布)、《核电厂核事故应急管理条例实施细则之一——核电厂营运单位的应急准备和应急响应》(1998 年 5 月 12 日国家核安全局批准发布)、《放射性同位素与射线装置放射防护条例》(1989 年 10 月 24 日国务院令第四十四号发布)、《放射事故管理规定》(2001年 8 月 26 日卫生部、公安部发布)、《核电厂核事故应急报告制度》(2001 年 12 月 11 日国防科学技术工业委员会发布)、《核事故辐射影响越境应急管理规定》(2002 年 2 月 4 日国防科学技术工业委员会发布)、《核电厂核事故应急演习管理规定》(2003 年 2 月 28 日国防科学技术工业委员会发布)、《核事故医学应急管理规定》(1994 年 10 月 8 日卫生部发布)、《核电厂设计安全规定》(1991 年 7 月 27 日国家核安全局发布)、《核电厂运行安全规定》(1991 年 7 月 27 日国家核安全局发布)、《核电厂质量保证安全规定》(1991 年 7月 27 日国家核安全局发布)、《中华人民共和国国家标准电离辐射防护与辐射源安全基本标准》(GB18871-2002 2002 年 10 月 8 日发布)等。
① 耿志成:“关于建立原子能法体系的初步探讨”,载《中国能源》1991 年第 5 期, 第 22 页。在该文中,作者提出的原子能法律体系如下:法律,《中华人民共和国原子能法》;行政法规,《放射性矿产资源勘察开采条例》、《放射性矿产资源勘察开采登记条例》、《核电站投资管理条例》、《促进核电设备技术国产化条例》、《核设施管理条例》、《核材料运输管理条例》、《核材料管理条例》、《放射性同位素及其制品和辐射装置管理条例》、《民用核设施安全监督管理条例》、《核事故应急条例》、《核承压设备管理条例》、《核电站保护条例》、《核损害赔偿条例》。
② 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号, 第 369~370 页。
③ 1984 年有关部门就开始起草《原子能法》,并曾于 1989 年将《原子能法》(草案)报请国务院审议。根据中共中央批准的第八届全国人大常委会立法规划,《原子能法》已列入第八届全国人大常委会计划审议的第一类立法项目。但由于种种原因,《原子能法》至今仍未能颁布。参见李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号, 第 371 页。
④ 《中华人民共和国国家赔偿法》于 1994 年 5 月 12 日第八届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第七次会议通过,自 1995 年 1 月 1 日起施行。有人望文生义,认为《国家赔偿法》就是国家关于赔偿的法律,是关于赔偿责任的(包括侵权损害赔偿和违约损害赔偿等所有的赔偿)最高法律。这种认识是错误的。
① 例如,王家福著:《民法债权》,法律出版社 1991 年版,第 514 页;陈泉生著:《环境法原理》,法律出版社 1997 年版,第 224 页;金瑞林主编:《环境法学》,北京大学出版社 2002 年 4 月重排本,第 147 页。
② 吕忠梅著:《环境法学》,法律出版社 2004 年 9 月第 1 版,第 176~181 页。
③ 参见秦志军、郭伟:“建立核损害赔偿机制 促进核电发展”,载《中国电力企业管理》2004 年第 11 期。
① 张文显教授认为,应该用“法的形式”指代“法的渊源”。法的形式指法的具体的外部表现形态,主要是法由何种国家机关制定或认可,具有何种表现形式或效力等级。法的形式问题具有重要意义:第一,法的形式是区分法律规范同其他社会规范的一个重要标志;第二,不同法的形式由不同国家机关或主体产生, 立法者不能产生不属于自己权限范围的法的形式;第三,不同法的形式可表现法的不同效力等级;第四,不同法的形式适合于调整不同社会关系。参见张文显主编:《法理学》,高等教育出版社/北京大学出版社1999 年 10 月第 1 版,第 58~60 页。另可参见姜明安主编:《行政法与行政诉讼法》,高等教育出版社/北京大学出版社 1999 年 10 月第 1 版,第 33~34 页。
① 《中华人民共和国产品质量法》于 1993 年 2 月 22 日第七届全国人大常委会第三十次会议通过,根据2000 年 7 月 8 日第九届全国人大常委会第六次会议《关于修改<中华人民共和国产品质量法>的决定》修正。
① 秦志军、郭伟:“建立核损害赔偿机制 促进核电发展”,载《中国电力企业管理》2004 年第 11 期,第58 页;吴齐:“中国核电工业迎来黄金发展时期目前有 6 座核电站”(新华网 2004 年 10 月 8 日),http://www.chinagateway.com.cn/chinese/gongye/32185.htm ,2005 年 8 月 9 日浏览。
② 李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 370 页。
③ 注意原则:人们应该尽其注意,该注意为,与他们的年龄、经验及生理特征一致的合理谨慎之人在相同条件下所尽之注意。可预见性原则:注意之义务应展延至且仅可展延至由于可预见的原因类型而对可预见的人产生的损害。参见[美]迈克尔·D·贝勒斯著,张文显等译:《法律的原则——一个规范的分析》,中国大百科全书出版社 1996 年 1 月第 1 版,第 269、274 页。
① 张文显主编:《法理学》,高等教育出版社、北京大学出版社 1999 年 10 月第 1 版,第 271 页。
② 陈俊:“我国核法律制度研究基本问题初探”,载《中国法学》1998 年第 6 期,第 59 页;李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号,第 370~371 页。
① 在汉语中,“保护和保障”是同义语,都是指尽力照顾或保护生命、财产、权利等,使之不受侵犯和破坏或损害。通常讲权利保障,有两个层面的含义:一是指权利实现时的无阻却性保障;二是指权利实现出现障碍时的司法救济性保障。权利保障可分为广狭两义:狭义的权利保障是指权利未受侵犯或破坏之前就存有的各项措施或制度的保障;广义的权利保障除上述含义外,还包括权利受侵犯或破坏之后而存在的权力救济。参见吕忠梅著:《环境法学》,法律出版社 2004 年 9 月第 1 版,第 112~113 页;范进学:“论权利的制度保障”,载《法学杂志》1996 年第 6 期;杨春福:《权利法哲学研究导论》,南京大学出版社 2000 年版,第 148 页。
② 参见《世界人权宣言》和国际人权两个公约,即《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》和《经济、社会和文化权利国际公约》。它们共同构成了“国际人权宪章”,并且是联合国人权规划的支柱。联合国大会于 1966年 12 月 20 日通过的《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》和《经济、社会和文化权利国际公约》是当代得到普遍接受的最低人权标准的最权威的表达。目前国际社会中已有三分之二的国家成为这两个公约的缔约国。
③ code civil, Librairie Dalloz, Paris, 1999. 罗结珍译:《法国民法典》,中国法制出版社 1999 年 10 月北京第1 版,第 4 页。
④ See Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, done at Aarhus, Denmark, on 25 June 1998.
⑤ See Principle 1 of Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, adopted by the U.N. Conference on the Human Environment at Stockholm, 16 June 1972. Report of the UN Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 5-16 June 1972, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.48/14/Rev. 1 at 3 (1973), U.N. Doc. A/CONF. 48/14 at 2-65, and Corr. 1 (1972), 11 I.L.M. 1416 (1972). 原文如下:“Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations. …”
① 吕忠梅著:《环境法学》,法律出版社 2004 年 9 月第 1 版,第 85~133 页。有关“环境权”的探讨,还可参见周训芳著:《环境权论》,法律出版社 2003 年 12 月第 1 版;蔡守秋:“论环境权”,载《金陵法律评论》2002 年春季卷;吕忠梅:“论公民环境权”,载《法学研究》1995 年第 6 期;吕忠梅:“再论公民环境权”,载《法学研究》2000 年第 6 期,等等。另可参见杨成铭主编:《人权法学》,中国方正出版社 2004 年1 月北京第 1 版。
② [日]富井利安等:《环境法的新展开》,法律文化社 1995 年版,第 101~103 页。转引自吕忠梅著:《环境法学》,法律出版社 2004 年 9 月第 1 版,第 90 页。
① 中国共产党第十六届中央委员会第四次全体会议于 2004 年 9 月 16 日至 19 日在北京召开,2004 年 9 月19 日通过《中共中央关于加强党的执政能力建设的决定》。
② 傅治平著:《和谐社会导论》,人民出版社 2005 年 3 月第 1 版,第 2~3、26~27、110 页。
③ 《国际原子能机构规约》于 1956 年 10 月 26 日订于联合国总部,1957 年 7 月 29 日生效,曾经两次修订。1984 年 1 月 1 日我国政府向美国政府交存接受书,同日对我国生效。
① 中国民法典立法研究课题组(负责人:梁慧星):《中国民法典草案建议稿》,法律出版社 2003 年 5 月第 1 版,第 321 页。
② 徐国栋主编:《绿色民法典(草案)》,社会科学文献出版社 2004 年 5 月第 1 版,第 719~720 页。2004年 5 月 13 日,适逢徐国栋教授应邀到宁波大学法学院讲学,本书作者有幸当面向他请教,他就其书中有关核责任的几个条款的起草经过做了解释和说明。在此谨向徐国栋教授再次表示感谢。
① 《中华人民共和国民法(草案)》(2002 年 12 月 22 日九届全国人大常委会第三十一次会议讨论稿)“第八编 侵权责任法”;中国人民大学民商事法律科学研究中心:《<中国民法典·侵权行为法编>草案建议稿》(课题负责人:王利明),均载于王利明主编:《民法典·侵权责任法研究》,人民法院出版社 2003 年 2 月第 1 版,第 2~57 页。
② 王利明主编:《中国民法典草案建议稿及说明》,中国法制出版社 2004 年 11 月第 1 版,第 248~249 页。
③ See (Germany) Act on the Peaceful Utilisation of Atomic Energy and the Protection Against its Hazards (Atomic Energy Act), in: Supplement to NLB 70, pp.5-69.
④ See (Russian Federation) Federal Law on the Use of Atomic Energy (Adopted by the State Duma on 20 October 1995), in: Supplement to NLB 57 (June 1996), pp.3-39.
① See (Ukraine) Law on the Use of Nuclear Energy and Radiation Safety, in: Supplement to NLB 56.
② See (Ukraine) Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security (adopted on 13 December 2001), in: NLB 69.
③ See (United Kingdom) Nuclear Installations Act 1965, as Amended, in: Supplement to NLB 33, pp.42-68.
④ See (Japan) The Law of 17th June 1961 on Compensation for Nuclear Damage, as Last Amended on 31st March 1989, in: Supplement to NLB 45, pp.3-12; (Republic of Korea) Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage, as Last Amended on 16 January 2001, in: NLB 68, pp.3-10.
⑤ See (France) Act No. 68-943 of 30th October 1968 on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, as Amended by Act No. 90-488 of 16th June 1990, in: Supplement to NLB 46, pp.3-9.
⑥ See (Sweden) Nuclear Liability Act of 8th March 1968, as Amended by an Act of 10th May 1974 and by an Act of 22nd December 1982, in: Supplement to NLB 33, pp.22-41; (Canada) Nuclear Liability Act, available at http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/N-28/86947.html, viewed on 10 June 2003.
⑦ See (Romania) Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (adopted on 3 December 2001), available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 11 July 2003.
⑧ This Convention shall not apply to nuclear installations used for non-peaceful purposes. See Article IB of 1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage.
① The purpose of this Act is: 1. to phrase out the use of nuclear energy for the commercial generation of electricity in a structured manner, and to ensure on-going operation up until the date of discontinuation; 2. to protect life, health and property against the hazards of nuclear energy and the detrimental effects of ionizing radiation and to provide compensation for damage and injuries caused by nuclear energy or ionizing radiation; 3. to prevent danger to the internal or external security of the Federal Republic of Germany from the application or release of nuclear energy; 4.to enable the Federal Republic of Germany to meet its international obligations in the field of nuclear energy and radiation protection. See (Germany) Act on the Peaceful Utilisation of Atomic Energy and the Protection Against its Hazards (Atomic Energy Act), in: Supplement to NLB 70, pp.5-6. Unofficial translation kindly provided by the German Authorities.
② The present Federal Law defines the legal basis and the principles of the regulation of relations arising in the use of atomic energy, is aimed at safeguarding human health and life and protecting the environment, protecting property in the use of atomic energy and technology, is called upon to promote the development of nuclear science and technology, and to contribute to the strengthening of international procedures for the safe use of atomic energy. The main principles of legal regulation in the sphere of the use of atomic energy are: … compensation for damage caused by radiation; provision of social and economic compensation for the adverse health effects of radiation and the additional risk factors for workers in plants using atomic energy; and the guaranteeing of social protection for those who live and /or work in areas where such plants are situated. See Articles 1-2 of (Russian Federation) Federal Law on the Use of Atomic Energy (Adopted by the State Duma on 20 October 1995), in: Supplement to NLB 57 (June 1996), pp.3-4. Unofficial translation prepared by the NEA Secretariat.
③ It is the purpose of this Law to protect persons suffering from nuclear damage and also to contribute to the sound development of nuclear industry by establishing the basic system regarding compensation in case of the occurrence of nuclear damage through reactor operation, etc. See Section 1 of (Japan) The Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage, in: Supplement to NLB 45, p.3. Unofficial translation by the NEA Secretariat.
④ The provisions of this Act shall apply to any individuals or bodies corporate, public or private, operating a civil or military installation to which the Paris Convention applies, … See Section 2 of (France) Act No. 68-943 of 30th October 1968 on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, as Amended by Act No. 90-488 of 16th June 1990, in: Supplement to NLB 46, p.3. Unofficial translation by the NEA Secretariat.
⑤ The purpose of this Act is to protect victims and to contribute to the sound development of nuclear industry by establishing matters relating to compensation in the event of nuclear damage arising during the operation of a nuclear reactor. See Article 1 of (Republic of Korea) Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage, as Last Amended on 16 January 2001, in: NLB 68, p.3. Unofficial translation kindly provided by the Korean Authorities.
① This Law governs relations in respect of civil liability for nuclear damage, establishes the rules and procedures for compensation for damage caused by a nuclear incident, defines the methods of ensuring financial security of civil liability and establishes its limits. See (Ukraine) Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security (adopted on 13 December 2001), in: NLB 69.
② The objective of this Law is to regulate civil liability for the compensation of damage resulting from activities involving the utilisation of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. See Article 1 of (Romania) Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (adopted on 3 December 2001), unofficial translation kindly provided by the Romanian Authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 11 July 2003.
① 按照我国《民法通则》的规定,侵权行为法的最长时效是 20 年。如果受害人不能知道自己的权利受到损害的事实,则自权利被侵害之日起,受害人在 20 年内不提出诉讼请求的,法院不再予以保护。对于侵权行为法的最长时效,侵权特别法也有特殊的规定。例如,我国《产品质量法》第 33 条第 2 款规定:“因产品存在缺陷造成损害要求赔偿的请求权,在造成损害的缺陷产品交付用户、消费者满 10 年丧失;但是,尚未超过明示的安全使用期的除外。”按照这一规定,产品侵权责任的最长时效为 10 年,不适用 20 年的最长时效,并且最长时效期间届满,消灭的是请求权的实体权利,而不是胜诉权。杨立新教授建议,在民法典关于诉讼时效制度的规定上,明确规定诉讼时效的适用范围为债权请求权,自债权请求权人知道或者应当知道权利受到侵害之时起计算。参见杨立新著:《侵权法论》(第二版),人民法院出版社 2004 年 1 月第 2 版,第 227 页。
1.Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage, 23 July 1998.
2.Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, 21 May 1963.
3.Protocol to Amend the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, 23 July 1998.
4.1997 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, 12 September 1997.
5.Protocols to amend the Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy and the Brussels Convention Supplementary to the Paris Convention.
6.Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 29 December 1972.
7.Code of Practice on the International Transboundary Movement of Radioactive Waste, 21 September 1990.
8.Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention, 21 September 1988.
9.Nordic Mutual Emergency Assistance Agreement in Connection with Radiation Accidents, 17 October 1963.
10.Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management.
11.Optional Protocol Concerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes to Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, 14 October 1999.
12.Convention on the Establishment of a Security Control in the Field of Nuclear Energy, 20 December 1957.
13.Treaty on Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, 15 August 1963.
14.Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, 22 March 1989.
15.Convention on Nuclear Safety, 17 July 1994.
16.The Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, 3 March 1980.
17.Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident, 26 September 1986.
18.Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency, 26 September 1986.
19.Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982.
20.Convention of 31st January 1963 Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982.
21.Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships, 25 May 1962.
22.Convention Relating to Civil Liability in the Field of Maritime Carriage of Nuclear Material, 17 December 1971.
23 . Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, 25 June 1998.
24.Protocol to Amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (12 February 2004).
25.Protocol to Amend the Convention of 31st January 1963 Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29th July 1960, as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28th January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16th November 1982 (12 February 2004).
1.《注册核安全工程师岗位培训丛书》编委会编著:《核安全相关法律法规》,中国环境科学出版社 2004 年 10 月第 1 版。
2.台湾《原子能法》,中华民国六十年十二月二十四日公布实施。
3.台湾《原子能法施行细则》,行政院原子能委员会中华民国九十一年十一月二十二日公布。
4.台湾《核子损害赔偿法》,中华民国八十六年五月十四日修正公布。
5.台湾《核子损害赔偿法施行细则》,中华民国八十七年三月二十五日行政院原子能委员会,会综字第五三七○号令发布。
6.台湾《核子反应器设施管制法》,中华民国九十二年元月十五日华总一义字第○九二○○○○五四八○号令公布。
7.台湾《放射性物料管理法》,中华民国九十一年十二月二十五日华总一义字第○九一○○二四八七六○号令公布。
8.台湾《放射性物料管理法施行细则》,中华民国九十二年七月三十日会物字第○九二○○一八九三五○号函发文实施。
9.台湾《核子事故紧急应变法》,中华民国九十二年十二月二十四日华总一义字第○九二○○二四○九八一号令公布。
10.United Kingdom - 1965 Nuclear Installations Act (NLB 1); 1965 Nuclear Installations Act, as amended in 1983 (NLB 33).
11.Sweden - 1968 Nuclear Liability Act (NLB 2); 1968 Nuclear Liability Act; as amended in 1982, (NLB 33).
12.Germany - 1959 Act on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy and Protection against its Hazards (Atomic Energy Act) (Supplement to NLB 4), as amended in 1975 (Supplement to NLB 15), 1976 (Supplement to NLB 18), 1985 (Supplement to NLB 36) and 2002 (Supplement to NLB 70).
13.Germany - 1976 Nuclear Financial Security Ordinance (Supplement to NLB 18).
14.Germany - 1977 Ordinance concerning the Procedure for Licensing Nuclear Installations (Supplement to NLB 19), as amended in 1982 (Supplement to NLB 30).
15.Germany - 1977 Ordinance concerning the Procedure for Licensing Nuclear Installations (Supplement to NLB 19), as amended in 1982 (Supplement to NLB 30).
16.Canada - 1970 Act on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (Supplement to NLB 6).
17.Japan - 1961 Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage, as amended in 1971 (Supplement to NLB 9) and 1989 (Supplement to NLB 45) and its 1962 Enforcing Ordinance, as amended in 1989 (Supplement to NLB 45).
18.Japan - 1961 Law on Indemnity Agreement for Compensation on Nuclear Damage, as amended 1971(Supplement to NLB 11).
19.Japan-1961 Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage, as amended in 1988 (Supplement to NLB 9) and 1989 and its 1962 Enforcing Ordinance, as amended in 1989 (Supplement to NLB 45).
20.Japan - 1997 Law on Indemnity for Compensation of Nuclear Damage (as amended 1998) (Supplement to NLB 45).
21.France - 1963 Decree concerning Nuclear Installations, as amended in 1973 (Supplement to NLB 12).
22.France - 1968 Act on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy (NLB 2), as amended in 1990 (Supplement to NLB 46).
23.Canada - 1974 Atomic Energy Regulations (Supplement to NLB 14).
24.United States-1954 Price-Anderson Act (Supplement to NLB 17); USA - 1954 Price-Anderson Act as amended in 1988 (Supplement to NLB 42).
25.Ukraine - 1995 Law on the Use of Nuclear Energy and Radiation Protection (Supplement to NLB 56).
26 . Russian Federation - 1995 Federal Law on the Use of Atomic Energy (Supplement to NLB 57).
27.Ukraine-Law on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage and its Financial Security (2001) (Supplement to NLB 69).
28 . Republic of Korea-Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage (2001) (Supplement to NLB 68).
29.Finland-Nuclear Liability Act of 8th June 1972 as Amended by the Act of 15th September 1989.
30.United States- Price-Anderson Act (Indemnification and Limitation of Liability Provisions of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 ) as Amended, Revised as of 31st December 1975, Supplement to NLB 17 (April 1974).
31.Netherlands- Nuclear Third Party Liability Act of 1979, As Last Amended by the Act of Parliament of 26 June 1991.
32.Belgium- Act of 22nd July 1985 on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy.
1.陈俊:“我国核法律制度研究基本问题初探”,载《中国法学》1998 年第 6 期。
2.李雅云:“核损害责任法律制度研究”,载《环球法律评论》2002 年秋季号。
3.林月晓、施安政:“1997 年世界核能核安全发展综述”,载《全球科技经济嘹望》1998 年第 4 期。
4.傅济熙、董保同:“浅谈第三方核责任法律制度”,载《中国核工业》1998 年第 3 期。
5.耿志成:“关于建立原子能法体系的初步探讨”,载《中国能源》1991 年第 5期。
6.秦志军、郭伟:“建立核损害赔偿机制 促进核电发展”,载《中国电力企业管理》2004 年第 11 期。
7.Flak., FN:“国际核安全公约:核法律的里程碑”,载《国际原子能机构通报》1994 年第 3 期。
8.张新宝:“美国有害物体侵权行为法介评”,载《外国法译评》1994 年第 1 期。
9.张新宝:“日本的健康保险法律制度”,载《外国法译评》1995 年第 1 期。
10.张新宝:“关于高度危险作业致人损害的赔偿责任的几个问题”,载《论坛译评》(中国政法大学学报)1994 年第 4 期。
11.张新宝:“侵权行为法的一般条款”,载《法学研究》2001 年第 4 期。
12.李浩:“民事证据立法与证据制度的选择”,载《法学研究》2001 年第 5 期。
14.叶自强:“举证责任的确定性”,载《法学研究》2001 年第 3 期。
15.汪习根、陈焱光:“论知情权”,载《法制与社会发展》2003 年第 2 期。
16.金瑞林:“环境侵权与民事救济——兼论环境立法中存在的问题”,载《中国环境科学》1997 年第 3 期。
17.谭大刚:“环境核辐射污染及防治对策”,载《沈阳师范学院学报》(自然科学版)1999 年第 1 期。
18.任德曦:“我国核电站人-机-环境的安全性及失误的预防”,载《衡阳工学院学报》1994 年第 12 期。
19.王曦译:“国际法未加禁止之行为引起有害后果之国际责任条款草案”,载《法学评论》1999 年第 6 期。
20.岳莹、蒋扬帆:“论国际法不加禁止行为造成损害后果的国际责任”,载《福建政法管理干部学院学报》2003 年第 1 期。
21.王旸:“侵权行为法上因果关系理论研究”,载梁慧星主编:《民商法论丛》第 11 卷(1998 年第 2 号),法律出版社 1999 年 1 月第 1 版。
22.陈聪富:“侵权行为法上之因果关系”,国立台湾大学《法学论丛》2000 年 1月第 29 卷第 2 期。
23.陈忠五:“法国侵权责任法上损害之概念”,国立台湾大学《法学论丛》2001年 7 月第 30 卷第 4 期。
24.[德]骆克信著,许玉秀译:“客观归责理论”,台湾《政大法学评论》1994 年5 月,第 50 期。
1.Omer F Brown II, Nuclear Liability: A Continuing Impediment To Nuclear Commerce, The Uranium Institute 24th Annual Symposium 8-10 September 1999: London, available at http://www. world-nuclear.org/sym/1999/pdfs/brown.pdf, viewed on 14 July 2003.
2.Yoshio Baba, The Problems Facing Nuclear Power in Japan: Emphasising Law and Regulations, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 July 2003.
3.Betsy Forinash, The US National System for Disposal of High-level and Transuranic Radioactive Wastes: Legislative History and its Effect on Regulatory Approaches, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, viewed on 18 July 2003.
4.Dr. Axel Vorwerk, The 2002 Amendment to the German Atomic Energy Act Concerning the Phase-out of Nuclear Power, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, OR http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-69/nlb69-vorwerk.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003.
5.Gordon Edwards, The Historical Origins of Canada’s Nuclear Liability Act, available at http://www.ccnr.org/insurance.html, viewed on 18 June 2003.
6.David S. Ziegler, Report on the Price-Anderson Act and its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final March 10, 2003), available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/price003.htm, viewed on 18 September 2003.
7.American Nuclear Society, The Price-Anderson Act (Background Report, March 2001, Revised November 2002), http://www.ans.org/pi/ps/docs/ps54-bi.pdf, viewed on 18 September 2003.
8.Dr. Martina Palm, The New German Radiation Protection Ordinance 2001, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html, OR http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/nlb-68/039_046.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003.
9.Ben McRae, The Compensation Convention: Path to a Global Regime for Dealing with Legal Liability and Compensation for Nuclear Damage, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/NLB-61/benfinal.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003.
10.Philippe Sands and Paolo Galizzi, The 1968 Brussels Convention and Liability forNuclear Damage, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/Nlb-64/sands&galizzi.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003.
11.Monika Hinteregger, The New Austrian Act on Third Party Liability for Nuclear Damage, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/Nlb-62/hintereg.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003.
12.Jon L.Woodard, Comparative Aspects of the French and German Nuclear Energy Regimes: Working Toward an International Legal Framework, Dickinson Journal of International Law, Spring 1998.
13.Bernd Kunth and Herbert Posser, Recent Developments in German Nuclear Energy Law, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/NLB-60-EN.pdf, viewed on 22 October 2003.
14.Report on the Price-Anderson Act and Its Potential Effects on Eureka County, Nevada (Final, March 10, 2003), prepared for: The Board of Eureka County Commissioners Eureka, Nevada and Abigail C. Johnson Consulting Carson City, Nevada, prepared by: David S. Ziegler, AICP Ziegler Technical Carson City, Nevada, available at http://www.yuccamountain.org/docs/price03.doc, viewed on 7 April 2004.
15.Tokai-Mura Accident, Japan: Third Party Liability and Compensation Aspects, prepared by the Secretariat of the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency in collaboration with the Japanese authorities, available at http://www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb-/Nlb-66/013-022.pdf, viewed on 7 April 2004.
1.王成孝编著:《核能与核技术应用》,原子能出版社 2002 年版。
2.阮可强等著:《核临界安全》,原子能出版社 2001 年版。
3.程建秀主编:《核设施质量保证基础教程》,原子能出版社 2001 年版。
4.刘天齐主编:《环境保护》,化学工业出版社 2000 年 4 月第 2 版。
5.肖乾刚、肖国兴编著:《能源法》,法律出版社 1996 年 6 月第 1 版。
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