小学儿童尴尬情绪理解能力的发展及尴尬情绪对其合作行为的影响
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摘要
当今情绪领域的研究焦点逐渐转向自我意识情绪，自我意识情绪的研究得到情绪心理学家和发展心理学家的关注。作为自我意识情绪的一种，尴尬情绪的发生和发展对小学儿童的社会性发展尤其是亲社会行为的发展具有重要影响。本研究拟探讨小学儿童尴尬情绪理解能力的发展特点及尴尬情绪对小学儿童合作行为的影响。
本研究首先就国内外有关尴尬的概念、理论、相关研究、尴尬情绪与个体合作行为之间的关系等方面对尴尬情绪研究进行了系统详细的回顾。然后在以往研究结果的基础上，考察小学儿童尴尬情绪理解能力的发展特点，并进一步考察尴尬情绪对合作行为的影响。
研究一，从小学1-6年级中随机抽取两个群体（故事收集组194人，故事验证组193人）进行尴尬情境故事的收集和验证，进而编制研究二所用的小学儿童尴尬情绪理解能力实验材料。实验材料包括注意中心情境、失礼情境和棘手情境3类情境。结果表明：收集到的3类尴尬情境故事来自小学儿童常见的生活事件具有代表性和典型性。验证组的小学儿童大多能够理解筛选出的尴尬情境故事，故事材料具有较高的信效度，可以用于正式施测。
研究二，采用自编尴尬情绪理解能力的实验材料，对1-6年级共239名小学儿童的尴尬情绪理解能力的发展特点进行研究。结果表明：（1）总体上，小学儿童尴尬情绪理解能力呈发展趋势，存在年级差异但不存在性别差异。小学儿童尴尬情绪理解能在5-6年级有一个快速发展阶段；（2）不同情境中，小学儿童的尴尬情绪理解能力总体上与总的尴尬情绪理解能力的发展趋势大体一致，也是在5-6年级有一个快速发展阶段；3个情境中均不存在显著的性别差异；（3）不同情境间小学儿童的尴尬情绪理解能力之间不存在显著差异，其中被试在三种情境中的得分从高到低依次是：棘手情境、失礼情境、注意情境；（4）不同情境中小学儿童后继行为策略的选择存在显著的年级差异，但性别差异不显著；不同情境中小学儿童后继行为均以解释策略和弥补策略为主。
研究三中，采用由经典囚徒困境改编而来的合作游戏范式作为因变量的测查方式，以不同尴尬情绪理解能力、不同情绪状态为自变量，探讨了76名小学高年级儿童的尴尬情绪对其合作行为的影响。结果表明：（1）尴尬情绪理解能力对小学儿童的合作行为的主效应显著，即小学儿童的尴尬羞耻情绪理解能力对其合作行为有显著影响，高尴尬情绪理解能力的小学儿童表现出更多的合作行为；（2）情绪状态对小学儿童的合作行为的主效应显著，即尴尬情绪的激发对小学儿童的合作行为有显著影响，体验到尴尬情绪的小学儿童表现出更多的合作行为；（3）尴尬情绪理解能力与情绪状态对小学儿童合作行为的交互作用边缘显著。尴尬情绪状态下，高尴尬情绪理解能力和低尴尬情绪理解能力的被试均倾向于做出更多的合作行为；在情绪控制组被试中，高尴尬情绪理解能力的被试比低尴尬理解能力的被试做出更多的合作行为。
The focus of emotion research shift to the self-conscious emotion gradually，soembarrassment was focused on by emotional psychologists and developmentalpsychologists. As a kind of self-conscious emotions，embarrassment closely related to theprimacy school children's social development, especially the development of pro-socialbehavior. In this research primary school children’s developmental characteristics onembarrassment understanding and the influence of embarrassment on cooperative behaviorare investigated.
A comprehensive embarrassment literature review was made on the empirical findingsin the present existing study. On the basis of analysis on previous studies, three studieswere present.
In study1，we collected and verified the embarrassment context stories from twogroups which are randomly selected from1-6grades (194in group1，193in group2)as themeasure material for developmental characteristics of the ability of embarrassmentunderstanding in study2. The material includes three scenarios stories and each scenarioconsists of two story，each story was set after same three questions to find out theunderstanding of primary school children on feeling of embarrassment， reason ofembarrassment and the behavior after embarrassment.
In study2， we used the measure material made in study1to measure thedevelopmental characteristics of239primary school children’s ability of embarrassmentunderstanding from1-6grades.The results were as follows:
(1) Primary school children's ability of embarrassment understanding has an overalldevelop trend，and in grade5-6there was a stage of rapid development. There was nogeneral gender difference on ability of embarrassment understanding；(2) The ability ofembarrassment understanding in different scenarios stories generally conform to the whole line development trend of embarrassment understanding. And，there was no significantgender differences in three scenarios；(3) There were no significant differences on abilityof embarrassment understanding among three scenarios，and score in the three scenarios indescending order was sticky situation、faux passituation、being the center of attentionsituation.；(4) There were significant grade differences on subsequent behaviors ofprimary school children in different embarrassment scenarios，but no significant genderdifferences. The subsequent behavior of primary school children is most commonly used intwo ways: explanation and compensation.
In study3，we used adjusted prisoner's dilemma game as the dependent variablemeasuring，and different ability of embarrassment understanding，different emotion stateand different type of embarrassment understanding as the independent variables，to studythe influence of embarrassment on cooperation of76children from Grade4-6. The resultswere as follows:
(1) There was a significant main effect of ability of embarrassment understanding tocooperative behavior of primary school children，that children of high embarrassmentunderstanding showed more cooperative behaviors；(2)The main effect of emotional stateon primary school children’s cooperative behavior was significant,that children who feelembarrassment showed more cooperative behaviors comparede with children who didn’tfeel embarrassment；(3)There was a marginally significant two-way interactions betweenability of embarrassment understanding and emotional state，that among the children whoexperience embarrassment，all children were inclined to cooperate;among the childrenwho didn't experience embarrassment， children of high embarrassment understandingshowed more cooperative behaviors.
本研究首先就国内外有关尴尬的概念、理论、相关研究、尴尬情绪与个体合作行为之间的关系等方面对尴尬情绪研究进行了系统详细的回顾。然后在以往研究结果的基础上，考察小学儿童尴尬情绪理解能力的发展特点，并进一步考察尴尬情绪对合作行为的影响。
研究一，从小学1-6年级中随机抽取两个群体（故事收集组194人，故事验证组193人）进行尴尬情境故事的收集和验证，进而编制研究二所用的小学儿童尴尬情绪理解能力实验材料。实验材料包括注意中心情境、失礼情境和棘手情境3类情境。结果表明：收集到的3类尴尬情境故事来自小学儿童常见的生活事件具有代表性和典型性。验证组的小学儿童大多能够理解筛选出的尴尬情境故事，故事材料具有较高的信效度，可以用于正式施测。
研究二，采用自编尴尬情绪理解能力的实验材料，对1-6年级共239名小学儿童的尴尬情绪理解能力的发展特点进行研究。结果表明：（1）总体上，小学儿童尴尬情绪理解能力呈发展趋势，存在年级差异但不存在性别差异。小学儿童尴尬情绪理解能在5-6年级有一个快速发展阶段；（2）不同情境中，小学儿童的尴尬情绪理解能力总体上与总的尴尬情绪理解能力的发展趋势大体一致，也是在5-6年级有一个快速发展阶段；3个情境中均不存在显著的性别差异；（3）不同情境间小学儿童的尴尬情绪理解能力之间不存在显著差异，其中被试在三种情境中的得分从高到低依次是：棘手情境、失礼情境、注意情境；（4）不同情境中小学儿童后继行为策略的选择存在显著的年级差异，但性别差异不显著；不同情境中小学儿童后继行为均以解释策略和弥补策略为主。
研究三中，采用由经典囚徒困境改编而来的合作游戏范式作为因变量的测查方式，以不同尴尬情绪理解能力、不同情绪状态为自变量，探讨了76名小学高年级儿童的尴尬情绪对其合作行为的影响。结果表明：（1）尴尬情绪理解能力对小学儿童的合作行为的主效应显著，即小学儿童的尴尬羞耻情绪理解能力对其合作行为有显著影响，高尴尬情绪理解能力的小学儿童表现出更多的合作行为；（2）情绪状态对小学儿童的合作行为的主效应显著，即尴尬情绪的激发对小学儿童的合作行为有显著影响，体验到尴尬情绪的小学儿童表现出更多的合作行为；（3）尴尬情绪理解能力与情绪状态对小学儿童合作行为的交互作用边缘显著。尴尬情绪状态下，高尴尬情绪理解能力和低尴尬情绪理解能力的被试均倾向于做出更多的合作行为；在情绪控制组被试中，高尴尬情绪理解能力的被试比低尴尬理解能力的被试做出更多的合作行为。
The focus of emotion research shift to the self-conscious emotion gradually，soembarrassment was focused on by emotional psychologists and developmentalpsychologists. As a kind of self-conscious emotions，embarrassment closely related to theprimacy school children's social development, especially the development of pro-socialbehavior. In this research primary school children’s developmental characteristics onembarrassment understanding and the influence of embarrassment on cooperative behaviorare investigated.
A comprehensive embarrassment literature review was made on the empirical findingsin the present existing study. On the basis of analysis on previous studies, three studieswere present.
In study1，we collected and verified the embarrassment context stories from twogroups which are randomly selected from1-6grades (194in group1，193in group2)as themeasure material for developmental characteristics of the ability of embarrassmentunderstanding in study2. The material includes three scenarios stories and each scenarioconsists of two story，each story was set after same three questions to find out theunderstanding of primary school children on feeling of embarrassment， reason ofembarrassment and the behavior after embarrassment.
In study2， we used the measure material made in study1to measure thedevelopmental characteristics of239primary school children’s ability of embarrassmentunderstanding from1-6grades.The results were as follows:
(1) Primary school children's ability of embarrassment understanding has an overalldevelop trend，and in grade5-6there was a stage of rapid development. There was nogeneral gender difference on ability of embarrassment understanding；(2) The ability ofembarrassment understanding in different scenarios stories generally conform to the whole line development trend of embarrassment understanding. And，there was no significantgender differences in three scenarios；(3) There were no significant differences on abilityof embarrassment understanding among three scenarios，and score in the three scenarios indescending order was sticky situation、faux passituation、being the center of attentionsituation.；(4) There were significant grade differences on subsequent behaviors ofprimary school children in different embarrassment scenarios，but no significant genderdifferences. The subsequent behavior of primary school children is most commonly used intwo ways: explanation and compensation.
In study3，we used adjusted prisoner's dilemma game as the dependent variablemeasuring，and different ability of embarrassment understanding，different emotion stateand different type of embarrassment understanding as the independent variables，to studythe influence of embarrassment on cooperation of76children from Grade4-6. The resultswere as follows:
(1) There was a significant main effect of ability of embarrassment understanding tocooperative behavior of primary school children，that children of high embarrassmentunderstanding showed more cooperative behaviors；(2)The main effect of emotional stateon primary school children’s cooperative behavior was significant,that children who feelembarrassment showed more cooperative behaviors comparede with children who didn’tfeel embarrassment；(3)There was a marginally significant two-way interactions betweenability of embarrassment understanding and emotional state，that among the children whoexperience embarrassment，all children were inclined to cooperate;among the childrenwho didn't experience embarrassment， children of high embarrassment understandingshowed more cooperative behaviors.
引文
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Keltner, D.,&Anderson, C.(2000). Saving face for Darwin: The functions and uses ofembarrassment. Current Directions in Psychological Science,9(6),187-192.
Krumhuber, E., Manstead, A. S. R., Kappas, A., Cosker, D., Marshall, D.,&Rosin, P.L.(2007). Facial dynamics as indicators of trustworthiness and cooperative behavior.Emotion,7(4),730-735.
Lewis, M.,&Ramsay, D.(2002).Cortisol Response to Embarrassment and Shame. ChildDevelopment,73(4),1034-1045.
Lewis, M., Stanger, C., Sullivan, M. W.,&Barone, P.(1991). Changes in embarrassmentas a function of age, sex and situation. British Journal of Developmental Psychology,9(4),485-492.
Lewis, M., Sullivan, M, W., Stanger, C.,&Weiss, M.(1989).Self-development andself-conscious emotions. Child Development,60(11),146-156.
Manstead, A. S. R.,&Semin, G. R.(1981). Social transgression, social perspectives, andsocial emotionality. Motivation and Emotion,5(3),249-261.
Metts, S.,&Cupach, W. R.(1989). Situational influence on the use of remedial strategiesin embarrassing predicaments. Communication Monographs,56(2),151-162.
Miller, R. S.(1995). On the nature of embarrassability: Shyness, social evaluation, andsocial skill. Journal of Personality,63(2),315-339.
Miller, R. S.(2001). On the primacy of embarrassment in social life. Psychological Inquiry,12(1),30-33.
Moore, S. G., Dahl, D. W., Gorn, G. J.,&Weinberg, C. B.(2006). Coping with condomembarrassment. Psychology, Health and Medicine,11(1),70-79.
Modiglianai, A.(1968).Embarrassment and embarrassability. Sociometry,31(3),313-326.
Modigliani, A.(1971). Embarrassment, facework, and eye contact: Testing a theory ofembarrassment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,17(1),15-24.
Modigliani, A.,&Blumenfeld, S.(1979). A developmental study of embarrassment andself-presentation. Unpublished Research Proposal. In M. Bennett (1989). Children’sself attribution of embarrassment. British Journal of Developmental Psychology,7,207-217.
Nelson, N. L., Hudspeth, K.,&Russell, J.(2013).A. Story superiority effects for disgust,fear, embarrassment, and pride. British Journal of Developmental Psychology. doi:10.1111/bjdp.12011
Parrott, W. G., Sabini, J.,&Silver, M.(1988). The role of self-esteem and socialinteraction in embarrassment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,14(1),191-202.
Parrott, W. G.,&Smith, S. F.(1991). Embarrassment: Actual vs. typical cases, classical vs.prototypical representations. Cognition and Emotion,5(5/6),467-488.
Pons, F., Lawson, J., Harris, P, L.,&Rosnay, M, D.(2003). Individual differences inchildren’s emotion understanding: Effects of age and language. Scandinavian Journalof Psychology,44(4),347-353.
Rowland, M,S.(1987).Empathic embarrassment: Situational and personal determinants ofreactions to the embarrassment of another. Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology,53(6),1061-1069.
Sabini, J., Seipmann, M.,&Stein, J.(2001). The really fundamental attribution error insocial psychological research. Psychological Inquiry,12(1),1-15.
Sabini, J., Siepmann, M., Stein, J.,&Meyerowitz, M.(2000). Who is embarrassed by what?Cognition and Emotion,14(2),213-240.
Schnell, K., Bluschke, S., Konradt, B., Walterb, H.(2011). Functional relations of empathyand mentalizing: An fMRI study on the neural basis of cognitive empathy. NeuroImage,54(29),1743-1754.
Schug, J., Matsumoto, D., Horita, Y., Yamagishi, T.,&Bonnet, K.(2010).Emotionalexpressivity as a signal of cooperation. Evolution and Human Behavior,31(2),87-94.
Schlenker, B. R.,&Leary, M. R.(1982). Social psychology and self presentation:Aconceptualization and model. Psychological Bulletin,92(3),641-669.
Sharkey, W. F.,&Stafford, L.(1990). Responses to embarrassment. HumanCommunication Research,17(2),315-342.
Sharkey, W. F., Kim, M. S.,&Diggs, R. C.(2001). Intentional embarrassment:a look atembarrassor’s and targets’ perspectives.Personality and Individual Differences,31(8),1261-1272.
Stipek, D., Reccnia, S.,&McCIintic, S.(1992). Self-evaluation in young children.Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development,57(1),1-84.
Sugawara, K.(1992). A study on embarrassment in new role situation: Using the data fromuniversity students at their probation in nursery school for the first time.Communication&Society,2,31-39.
Silver, M., Sabini, J.,&Parrott, W. G.(1987). Embarrassment: A dramaturgic account.Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior,17(1),47-61.
Tangney, J. P., Miller, R. S., Flicker, L.,&Barlow, D. H.(1996). Are shame, guilt, andembarrassment distinct emotions? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,70(6),1256-1264.
Tarr, N. D., Kim, M. S.,&Sharkey, W. F.(2005). The effects of self-construals andembarrassability on predicament response strategies. International Journal ofIntercultural Relations,29(5),497-520.
Tomkins, S. S.(1963). Affect, imagery, consciousness. Vol.2: The negative affects. NewYork: Springer.
Tracy, J. L.,&Robins, R. W.(2008). The automaticity of emotion recognition. Emotion,8(1),81-95.
Twenge, J. M., Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Ciarocco, N. J.,&Bartels, J. M.(2007).Social exclusion decreases prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and socialpsychology,92(1),56-66.
Utz, S., Ouwerkerk, J. W.,&Van Lange, P. A. M.(2004). What is smart in a socialdilemma? Differential effects of priming competence on cooperation. EuropeanJournal of Social Psychology,34(3),317-332.
Withers, L. A.,&Vernon, L. L.(2005). To err is human: Embarrassment, attachment, andcommunication apprehension. Personality and Individual Differences,40(1),99-110.
Withers, L. A.,&Sherblom, J. C.(2008). Embarrassment: The communication of anawkward actor anticipating a negative evaluation. Human Communication,11(2),241-260.
Zoccola, P. M., Green, M. C., Karoutsos, E., Katonac, S. M.,&Sabini, J.(2011). Theembarrassed bystander: Embarrassability and the inhibition of helping. Personality andIndividual Differences,51(8),925-929.
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Keltner, D.(1995). Signs of appeasement: Evidence for the distinct displays ofembarrassment, amusement, and shame. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,68(3),441-454.
Keltner, D.,&Buswell, B. N.(1997). Embarrassment: Its distinct form and appeasementfunctions. Psychological Bulletin,122(3),250-270.
Keltner, D.,&Anderson, C.(2000). Saving face for Darwin: The functions and uses ofembarrassment. Current Directions in Psychological Science,9(6),187-192.
Krumhuber, E., Manstead, A. S. R., Kappas, A., Cosker, D., Marshall, D.,&Rosin, P.L.(2007). Facial dynamics as indicators of trustworthiness and cooperative behavior.Emotion,7(4),730-735.
Lewis, M.,&Ramsay, D.(2002).Cortisol Response to Embarrassment and Shame. ChildDevelopment,73(4),1034-1045.
Lewis, M., Stanger, C., Sullivan, M. W.,&Barone, P.(1991). Changes in embarrassmentas a function of age, sex and situation. British Journal of Developmental Psychology,9(4),485-492.
Lewis, M., Sullivan, M, W., Stanger, C.,&Weiss, M.(1989).Self-development andself-conscious emotions. Child Development,60(11),146-156.
Manstead, A. S. R.,&Semin, G. R.(1981). Social transgression, social perspectives, andsocial emotionality. Motivation and Emotion,5(3),249-261.
Metts, S.,&Cupach, W. R.(1989). Situational influence on the use of remedial strategiesin embarrassing predicaments. Communication Monographs,56(2),151-162.
Miller, R. S.(1995). On the nature of embarrassability: Shyness, social evaluation, andsocial skill. Journal of Personality,63(2),315-339.
Miller, R. S.(2001). On the primacy of embarrassment in social life. Psychological Inquiry,12(1),30-33.
Moore, S. G., Dahl, D. W., Gorn, G. J.,&Weinberg, C. B.(2006). Coping with condomembarrassment. Psychology, Health and Medicine,11(1),70-79.
Modiglianai, A.(1968).Embarrassment and embarrassability. Sociometry,31(3),313-326.
Modigliani, A.(1971). Embarrassment, facework, and eye contact: Testing a theory ofembarrassment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,17(1),15-24.
Modigliani, A.,&Blumenfeld, S.(1979). A developmental study of embarrassment andself-presentation. Unpublished Research Proposal. In M. Bennett (1989). Children’sself attribution of embarrassment. British Journal of Developmental Psychology,7,207-217.
Nelson, N. L., Hudspeth, K.,&Russell, J.(2013).A. Story superiority effects for disgust,fear, embarrassment, and pride. British Journal of Developmental Psychology. doi:10.1111/bjdp.12011
Parrott, W. G., Sabini, J.,&Silver, M.(1988). The role of self-esteem and socialinteraction in embarrassment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,14(1),191-202.
Parrott, W. G.,&Smith, S. F.(1991). Embarrassment: Actual vs. typical cases, classical vs.prototypical representations. Cognition and Emotion,5(5/6),467-488.
Pons, F., Lawson, J., Harris, P, L.,&Rosnay, M, D.(2003). Individual differences inchildren’s emotion understanding: Effects of age and language. Scandinavian Journalof Psychology,44(4),347-353.
Rowland, M,S.(1987).Empathic embarrassment: Situational and personal determinants ofreactions to the embarrassment of another. Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology,53(6),1061-1069.
Sabini, J., Seipmann, M.,&Stein, J.(2001). The really fundamental attribution error insocial psychological research. Psychological Inquiry,12(1),1-15.
Sabini, J., Siepmann, M., Stein, J.,&Meyerowitz, M.(2000). Who is embarrassed by what?Cognition and Emotion,14(2),213-240.
Schnell, K., Bluschke, S., Konradt, B., Walterb, H.(2011). Functional relations of empathyand mentalizing: An fMRI study on the neural basis of cognitive empathy. NeuroImage,54(29),1743-1754.
Schug, J., Matsumoto, D., Horita, Y., Yamagishi, T.,&Bonnet, K.(2010).Emotionalexpressivity as a signal of cooperation. Evolution and Human Behavior,31(2),87-94.
Schlenker, B. R.,&Leary, M. R.(1982). Social psychology and self presentation:Aconceptualization and model. Psychological Bulletin,92(3),641-669.
Sharkey, W. F.,&Stafford, L.(1990). Responses to embarrassment. HumanCommunication Research,17(2),315-342.
Sharkey, W. F., Kim, M. S.,&Diggs, R. C.(2001). Intentional embarrassment:a look atembarrassor’s and targets’ perspectives.Personality and Individual Differences,31(8),1261-1272.
Stipek, D., Reccnia, S.,&McCIintic, S.(1992). Self-evaluation in young children.Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development,57(1),1-84.
Sugawara, K.(1992). A study on embarrassment in new role situation: Using the data fromuniversity students at their probation in nursery school for the first time.Communication&Society,2,31-39.
Silver, M., Sabini, J.,&Parrott, W. G.(1987). Embarrassment: A dramaturgic account.Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior,17(1),47-61.
Tangney, J. P., Miller, R. S., Flicker, L.,&Barlow, D. H.(1996). Are shame, guilt, andembarrassment distinct emotions? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,70(6),1256-1264.
Tarr, N. D., Kim, M. S.,&Sharkey, W. F.(2005). The effects of self-construals andembarrassability on predicament response strategies. International Journal ofIntercultural Relations,29(5),497-520.
Tomkins, S. S.(1963). Affect, imagery, consciousness. Vol.2: The negative affects. NewYork: Springer.
Tracy, J. L.,&Robins, R. W.(2008). The automaticity of emotion recognition. Emotion,8(1),81-95.
Twenge, J. M., Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Ciarocco, N. J.,&Bartels, J. M.(2007).Social exclusion decreases prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and socialpsychology,92(1),56-66.
Utz, S., Ouwerkerk, J. W.,&Van Lange, P. A. M.(2004). What is smart in a socialdilemma? Differential effects of priming competence on cooperation. EuropeanJournal of Social Psychology,34(3),317-332.
Withers, L. A.,&Vernon, L. L.(2005). To err is human: Embarrassment, attachment, andcommunication apprehension. Personality and Individual Differences,40(1),99-110.
Withers, L. A.,&Sherblom, J. C.(2008). Embarrassment: The communication of anawkward actor anticipating a negative evaluation. Human Communication,11(2),241-260.
Zoccola, P. M., Green, M. C., Karoutsos, E., Katonac, S. M.,&Sabini, J.(2011). Theembarrassed bystander: Embarrassability and the inhibition of helping. Personality andIndividual Differences,51(8),925-929.