基于语料库的名词短语类型及其句法功能研究
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摘要
名词短语是自然语言的重要组成部分,在句子当中提供大量信息。句子的语义内涵大部分都是伴随着名词短语的出现而产生的。近年来人们已经认识到名词短语的重要性,并且进行了大量研究。然而,不同名词短语类型的使用特点以及其在句子中所作成分的复杂性一直困扰着英语学习者。本文以语料库为基础,采用定量和定性分析相结合的研究方法,通过研究常用英语名词短语类型及其常用句法功能,旨在揭示名词短语类型与其在句子中所作成分的相关联系。
通过使用ICECUP,Foxpro和SPSS等数据库和统计分析软件,本研究探讨了国际英语语料库英国英语分库(ICE-GB)中不同种类名词短语及其句法功能的分布情况。研究结果表明:名词短语在口语语料库中的使用频率高于书面语语料库,其中简单名词短语比较常出现在口语语料库中,而复杂名词短语比较常出现在书面语语料库中。名词短语在ICE-GB中作主语的频率高于宾语和补语,而作补语频率又高于补语,其中名词短语在书面语语料库中作直接宾语和宾语及主语补语的比率高于口语语料库,而名词短语在口语语料库中作间接宾语和介词补语的比率高于书面语语料库。研究还发现简单名词短语与主语相关,加前缀修饰的复杂名词短语及部分加后缀修饰的复杂名词短语(从句和介词短语)与宾语关系密切,而其他加后缀修饰复杂名词短语(副词短语和名词短语)与补语密切相关。
Noun phrases,as the basic components of all the texts,play a key role in natural language.They always carry and offer a large amount of information in sentences.With the awareness of the vital importance of noun phrases,many studies have been carried out and great progress was made.However,the usages and features of various noun-phrase types and their syntactic functions are complex and problematic for language learners.The author,in this corpus-based study attempts to explore the usages and features of noun-phrase types and their syntactic functions across speech and writing,as well as the associations between them.With the assistance of ICECUP,SPSS and FoxPro programs,the frequencies and proportions of noun-phrase types and their syntactic functions in ICE-GB are quantified and compared.
The study shows that the frequencies of noun phrases are higher in speech than those in writing.The proportion of simple noun phrases in speech is larger than that in writing,while the proportion of complex noun phrases is larger in writing than in speech.Besides,the frequencies of noun phrases as subject are higher than those as object and complement,and the frequencies in complement position are higher than in object position.The proportions of direct object,subject and object complement are larger in writing than in speech,while the proportions of indirect object and prepositional complement are larger in speech than in writing.
Furthermore,there seems be an association between subject position and simple noun phrases;and for the complex noun phrases,there is an association between object position and all three premodifier + head types and two types of head + postmodifier (H + CL and H + PP),and an association between complement position and other two head + postmodifier types referring to H + AVPO and H + NPPO.
通过使用ICECUP,Foxpro和SPSS等数据库和统计分析软件,本研究探讨了国际英语语料库英国英语分库(ICE-GB)中不同种类名词短语及其句法功能的分布情况。研究结果表明:名词短语在口语语料库中的使用频率高于书面语语料库,其中简单名词短语比较常出现在口语语料库中,而复杂名词短语比较常出现在书面语语料库中。名词短语在ICE-GB中作主语的频率高于宾语和补语,而作补语频率又高于补语,其中名词短语在书面语语料库中作直接宾语和宾语及主语补语的比率高于口语语料库,而名词短语在口语语料库中作间接宾语和介词补语的比率高于书面语语料库。研究还发现简单名词短语与主语相关,加前缀修饰的复杂名词短语及部分加后缀修饰的复杂名词短语(从句和介词短语)与宾语关系密切,而其他加后缀修饰复杂名词短语(副词短语和名词短语)与补语密切相关。
Noun phrases,as the basic components of all the texts,play a key role in natural language.They always carry and offer a large amount of information in sentences.With the awareness of the vital importance of noun phrases,many studies have been carried out and great progress was made.However,the usages and features of various noun-phrase types and their syntactic functions are complex and problematic for language learners.The author,in this corpus-based study attempts to explore the usages and features of noun-phrase types and their syntactic functions across speech and writing,as well as the associations between them.With the assistance of ICECUP,SPSS and FoxPro programs,the frequencies and proportions of noun-phrase types and their syntactic functions in ICE-GB are quantified and compared.
The study shows that the frequencies of noun phrases are higher in speech than those in writing.The proportion of simple noun phrases in speech is larger than that in writing,while the proportion of complex noun phrases is larger in writing than in speech.Besides,the frequencies of noun phrases as subject are higher than those as object and complement,and the frequencies in complement position are higher than in object position.The proportions of direct object,subject and object complement are larger in writing than in speech,while the proportions of indirect object and prepositional complement are larger in speech than in writing.
Furthermore,there seems be an association between subject position and simple noun phrases;and for the complex noun phrases,there is an association between object position and all three premodifier + head types and two types of head + postmodifier (H + CL and H + PP),and an association between complement position and other two head + postmodifier types referring to H + AVPO and H + NPPO.
引文
Aarts,B.(1998).English binominal noun phrases.Transactions of the Philological Society,96,117-158.
Aarts,B.et al.(1998).Using Fuzzy Tree Fragments to explore English grammar.English Today,55,52-56.
Aarts,F.G.A.M.(1971).On the distribution of noun-phrase types in English clause-structure.Lingua,26,281-293.
Abney,S.(1986).The English noun phrase in its sentential aspect,Ph.D.diss.,MIT.
Aijmer,K.,& Altenberg,B.(1991).English corpus linguistics.London:Longman.
Akibbaso,F.(1982).On the difference between spoken and written language.Language and Speech,25,97-125.
Anderson,J.(1976).On serialization in English syntax.Ludwigsburg:R.O.U.Strauch.
Auwera,J.van der.(1980).The semantics of determiners.London:Croom Helm.
Baker,M.(2003).Lexical categories:verbs,nouns,and adjectives.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Baltin,M.(1984).Extraposition rules and discontinuous constituents.Linguistic Inquiry,15,157-163.
Bartlett,M.,& Collins,C.(2001).The handbook of contemporary syntactic theory.Malden,Mass:Blackwell.
Biber,D.et al.(2000).Longman dictionary of spoken and written English.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Biber,D.,Conard,S.,& Reppcn,R.(2000).Corpus linguistics.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Bresnan,J.(2001).Lexical-functional syntax.Malden,Mass:Blackwell.
Burton-Roberts,N.(1997).Analyzing sentences:an introduction to English syntax.New York:Longman.
Chomsky,N.(1957).Syntactic structures.The Hague:Mouton & Co.
Chomsky,N.(1965).Aspects of the theory of syntax.Cambridge,MA:MIT Press.
Chomsky,N.(1966).Language and mind.New York:Harper and Row.
Chomsky,N.(1972).Studies on semantics in generative grammar.The Hague:Mouton.
Chomsky,N.(1980).Rules and representations.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Chomsky,N.(1982).Some concepts and consequences of the theory of government and binding.Cambridge,MA:MIT Press.
Chomsky,N.(2008).The minimalist program.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Coppen,A.(1992).Specifying the noun phrase.Computational Linguistics,18,115.
Crowther,J.et al.(2003).Oxford collocations dictionary for students of English.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Emonds,J.(1985).A unified theory of syntactic categories.Dordrecht:Foris Publications.
Fries,P.(1999).Post nominal modifiers in the English noun phrase.In P.Collins and D.Lee(1999)(eds) The Clause in English.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.93-110.
Gu(?)ron,J.(1980).On the syntax and semantics of PP extraposition.Linguistic Inquiry,11,636-678.
Haan,P.de(1987).Postmodifying clauses in the English noun phrase:a corpus-based study,Amsterdam:Rodopi.
Halliday,M.A.K.(1994).An introduction to functional grammar.London:Edward Arnold Limited.
Hammond,M.,Moravcsik,E.A.,& Wirth,J.(1988).Studies in syntactic typology.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.
Hannay,M.(1985).English existentials in functional grammar.Dordrecht:Foris.
Hawkins,J.A.(1983).Word order universals.New York:Academic Press.
Hockett,Ch.F.(1958).Attribution and apposition in English.American Speech,30,99-102.
Hoeksema,J.(1996).Partitive:studies on the syntax and semantics of partitive and related constructions.Berlin:Mouton the Gruyter.
Hopper,P.,& Traugott,E.C.(1993).Grammaticalization.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Huck,G.,& Ojeda,A.E.(1987).Syntax and semantics 20:discontinuous constituency.New York:Academic Press.
Huddleston,R.(1984).Introduction to the grammar of English.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Huddleston,R.,& Pullum,G.K.(2002).The cambridge grammar of the English language.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Hudson,R.(1990).English word grammar.Oxford:Blackwell.
Kayne,R.(1994).The antisymmetry of syntax.Cambridge,Mass:The MIT Press.
Keenan,E.L.(1975).Formal semantics of natural language.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Keizer,E.(2007).The English noun phrase:the nature of linguistic categorization,studies in English language(series).Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Kennedy,G.(2000).An introduction to corpus linguistics.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Kroeger,P.R.(2005).Analyzing grammar.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Kuno,S.(1970).Some properties of non-referential noun phrases.In:R.Jakobson and S.Kawamoto,348-373.
Lee,D.W.(1952).Close apposition:an unresolved problem.American Speech,27,268-275.
Lehmann,W.G,& Malkiel,Y.(1968).Directions for Historical Linguistics.Austin:University of Texas Press.
Levi,J.N.(1978).The syntax and semantics of complex nominals.New York:Academic Press.
Levinson,S.C.(2001).Pragmatics.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Lyons,J.(1968).Introduction to theoretical linguistics.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Lyons,J.(1991).Chomsky.London:Fontana.
Mackenzie,J.L.(1986).Aspects of nominalization in English and Dutch.Working Papers in Functional Grammar,15.
Maestre,M.D.L.(1998).Noun phrase complexity as a style marker:an exercise in stylistic analysis.Atlantis,2,91-105.
Mardh,I.(1980).Headlines:on the grammar of English front page headlines.Lund:CWK Gleerup.
Matthews,P.H.(1981).Syntax.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Matthews,P.H.(2000).Oxford concise dictionary of linguistics.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
McCawley,J.D.(1988).The syntactic phenomena of English.Chicago:Chicago University Press.
Meyer,Ch.F.(1987).Apposition in English.Journal of Linguistics,20,101-121.
Meyer,Ch.F.(1992).Apposition in contemporary English.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Nelson,G.et al.(2002).Exploring natural language:working with the British component of the International Corpus of English.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.
Newmeyer,F.L.(1998).Language form and lLanguage function.Cambridge,MA:MIT Press.
O'Donnell,R.(1974).Syntactic differences between speech and writing.Academic Speech,49,102-110.
Oostdijk,N.,& Aarts,J.(1997).Multiple postmodification in the English noun phrase.In:Aarts,J.et al.,107-121.
Payne,J.(1993).The headedness of noun phrases:slaying the nominal Hydra.In:Corbett,G.G.et al.,114-139.
Poutsma,H.(1914).A grammar of late modern English,part IA:nouns,adjectives and articles.Groningen:Noordhoff.
Quirk,R.,Greenbaum,S.,Leech,G.,& Svartvik,J.(1985).A comprehensive grammar of the English language.London:Longman.
Radford,A.(1997).Syntactic theory and the structure of English:A minimalist program.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Rosch,E.(1973).Natural categories.Cognitive Psychology,4,328-350.
Rosch,E.et al.(1976).Basic objects in natural categories.Cognitive Psychology,8,382-439.
Ross,J.R.(1967).Constraints on variables in syntax.Ph.D.diss.,MIT.
Sampson,G.(1980).Schools of linguistics.London:Hutchinson.
Seiler,H.(1983).Possessivity,subject and object.Studies in Language,7,89-117.
Selkirk,E.(1977).Some remarks on noun phrase structure.In:P.W.Culicover et al.,285-316.
Sinclair,J.et al.(2000).Collins COBUILD English dictionary.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Slade,C.(2000).Form and style:research papers,reports and theses.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Sopher,H.(1971).Apposition.English Studies,52,401-412.
Stockwell,R.P.et al.(1973).The major syntactic structures of English.New York:Holt,Rinehart and Winston.
Tallerman,M.(1998).Understanding syntax.London,New York:Arnold.
Thomas,J.,& Short,M.(2000).Using corpora for language research.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Van Valin,R.D.et al.(1997).Syntax:structure,meaning and function.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Yule,G.(2000).The study of language.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Zwicky,A.(1985).Heads.Journal of Linguistics,21,1-29.
胡壮麟,(2006),《语言学教程》,北京:北京大学出版社。
胡壮麟、姜望琪,(2002),《语言学高级教程》,北京:北京大学出版社。
刘润清、封宗信,(2002),《语言学理论和流派》,南京:南京师范大学出版社。
沈园,(2007),《句法-语义界面研究》,上海:上海教育出版社。
周世界,(2004),《语言统计学》,大连:大连海事大学出版社。
Aarts,B.et al.(1998).Using Fuzzy Tree Fragments to explore English grammar.English Today,55,52-56.
Aarts,F.G.A.M.(1971).On the distribution of noun-phrase types in English clause-structure.Lingua,26,281-293.
Abney,S.(1986).The English noun phrase in its sentential aspect,Ph.D.diss.,MIT.
Aijmer,K.,& Altenberg,B.(1991).English corpus linguistics.London:Longman.
Akibbaso,F.(1982).On the difference between spoken and written language.Language and Speech,25,97-125.
Anderson,J.(1976).On serialization in English syntax.Ludwigsburg:R.O.U.Strauch.
Auwera,J.van der.(1980).The semantics of determiners.London:Croom Helm.
Baker,M.(2003).Lexical categories:verbs,nouns,and adjectives.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Baltin,M.(1984).Extraposition rules and discontinuous constituents.Linguistic Inquiry,15,157-163.
Bartlett,M.,& Collins,C.(2001).The handbook of contemporary syntactic theory.Malden,Mass:Blackwell.
Biber,D.et al.(2000).Longman dictionary of spoken and written English.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Biber,D.,Conard,S.,& Reppcn,R.(2000).Corpus linguistics.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Bresnan,J.(2001).Lexical-functional syntax.Malden,Mass:Blackwell.
Burton-Roberts,N.(1997).Analyzing sentences:an introduction to English syntax.New York:Longman.
Chomsky,N.(1957).Syntactic structures.The Hague:Mouton & Co.
Chomsky,N.(1965).Aspects of the theory of syntax.Cambridge,MA:MIT Press.
Chomsky,N.(1966).Language and mind.New York:Harper and Row.
Chomsky,N.(1972).Studies on semantics in generative grammar.The Hague:Mouton.
Chomsky,N.(1980).Rules and representations.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Chomsky,N.(1982).Some concepts and consequences of the theory of government and binding.Cambridge,MA:MIT Press.
Chomsky,N.(2008).The minimalist program.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Coppen,A.(1992).Specifying the noun phrase.Computational Linguistics,18,115.
Crowther,J.et al.(2003).Oxford collocations dictionary for students of English.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Emonds,J.(1985).A unified theory of syntactic categories.Dordrecht:Foris Publications.
Fries,P.(1999).Post nominal modifiers in the English noun phrase.In P.Collins and D.Lee(1999)(eds) The Clause in English.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.93-110.
Gu(?)ron,J.(1980).On the syntax and semantics of PP extraposition.Linguistic Inquiry,11,636-678.
Haan,P.de(1987).Postmodifying clauses in the English noun phrase:a corpus-based study,Amsterdam:Rodopi.
Halliday,M.A.K.(1994).An introduction to functional grammar.London:Edward Arnold Limited.
Hammond,M.,Moravcsik,E.A.,& Wirth,J.(1988).Studies in syntactic typology.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.
Hannay,M.(1985).English existentials in functional grammar.Dordrecht:Foris.
Hawkins,J.A.(1983).Word order universals.New York:Academic Press.
Hockett,Ch.F.(1958).Attribution and apposition in English.American Speech,30,99-102.
Hoeksema,J.(1996).Partitive:studies on the syntax and semantics of partitive and related constructions.Berlin:Mouton the Gruyter.
Hopper,P.,& Traugott,E.C.(1993).Grammaticalization.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Huck,G.,& Ojeda,A.E.(1987).Syntax and semantics 20:discontinuous constituency.New York:Academic Press.
Huddleston,R.(1984).Introduction to the grammar of English.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Huddleston,R.,& Pullum,G.K.(2002).The cambridge grammar of the English language.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Hudson,R.(1990).English word grammar.Oxford:Blackwell.
Kayne,R.(1994).The antisymmetry of syntax.Cambridge,Mass:The MIT Press.
Keenan,E.L.(1975).Formal semantics of natural language.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Keizer,E.(2007).The English noun phrase:the nature of linguistic categorization,studies in English language(series).Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Kennedy,G.(2000).An introduction to corpus linguistics.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Kroeger,P.R.(2005).Analyzing grammar.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Kuno,S.(1970).Some properties of non-referential noun phrases.In:R.Jakobson and S.Kawamoto,348-373.
Lee,D.W.(1952).Close apposition:an unresolved problem.American Speech,27,268-275.
Lehmann,W.G,& Malkiel,Y.(1968).Directions for Historical Linguistics.Austin:University of Texas Press.
Levi,J.N.(1978).The syntax and semantics of complex nominals.New York:Academic Press.
Levinson,S.C.(2001).Pragmatics.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Lyons,J.(1968).Introduction to theoretical linguistics.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Lyons,J.(1991).Chomsky.London:Fontana.
Mackenzie,J.L.(1986).Aspects of nominalization in English and Dutch.Working Papers in Functional Grammar,15.
Maestre,M.D.L.(1998).Noun phrase complexity as a style marker:an exercise in stylistic analysis.Atlantis,2,91-105.
Mardh,I.(1980).Headlines:on the grammar of English front page headlines.Lund:CWK Gleerup.
Matthews,P.H.(1981).Syntax.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Matthews,P.H.(2000).Oxford concise dictionary of linguistics.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
McCawley,J.D.(1988).The syntactic phenomena of English.Chicago:Chicago University Press.
Meyer,Ch.F.(1987).Apposition in English.Journal of Linguistics,20,101-121.
Meyer,Ch.F.(1992).Apposition in contemporary English.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Nelson,G.et al.(2002).Exploring natural language:working with the British component of the International Corpus of English.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.
Newmeyer,F.L.(1998).Language form and lLanguage function.Cambridge,MA:MIT Press.
O'Donnell,R.(1974).Syntactic differences between speech and writing.Academic Speech,49,102-110.
Oostdijk,N.,& Aarts,J.(1997).Multiple postmodification in the English noun phrase.In:Aarts,J.et al.,107-121.
Payne,J.(1993).The headedness of noun phrases:slaying the nominal Hydra.In:Corbett,G.G.et al.,114-139.
Poutsma,H.(1914).A grammar of late modern English,part IA:nouns,adjectives and articles.Groningen:Noordhoff.
Quirk,R.,Greenbaum,S.,Leech,G.,& Svartvik,J.(1985).A comprehensive grammar of the English language.London:Longman.
Radford,A.(1997).Syntactic theory and the structure of English:A minimalist program.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Rosch,E.(1973).Natural categories.Cognitive Psychology,4,328-350.
Rosch,E.et al.(1976).Basic objects in natural categories.Cognitive Psychology,8,382-439.
Ross,J.R.(1967).Constraints on variables in syntax.Ph.D.diss.,MIT.
Sampson,G.(1980).Schools of linguistics.London:Hutchinson.
Seiler,H.(1983).Possessivity,subject and object.Studies in Language,7,89-117.
Selkirk,E.(1977).Some remarks on noun phrase structure.In:P.W.Culicover et al.,285-316.
Sinclair,J.et al.(2000).Collins COBUILD English dictionary.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Slade,C.(2000).Form and style:research papers,reports and theses.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Sopher,H.(1971).Apposition.English Studies,52,401-412.
Stockwell,R.P.et al.(1973).The major syntactic structures of English.New York:Holt,Rinehart and Winston.
Tallerman,M.(1998).Understanding syntax.London,New York:Arnold.
Thomas,J.,& Short,M.(2000).Using corpora for language research.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Van Valin,R.D.et al.(1997).Syntax:structure,meaning and function.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Yule,G.(2000).The study of language.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Zwicky,A.(1985).Heads.Journal of Linguistics,21,1-29.
胡壮麟,(2006),《语言学教程》,北京:北京大学出版社。
胡壮麟、姜望琪,(2002),《语言学高级教程》,北京:北京大学出版社。
刘润清、封宗信,(2002),《语言学理论和流派》,南京:南京师范大学出版社。
沈园,(2007),《句法-语义界面研究》,上海:上海教育出版社。
周世界,(2004),《语言统计学》,大连:大连海事大学出版社。