论现代奥运会开幕式的历史演进
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摘要
开幕式是专门设计的、标志某届奥运会开始的程序化活动,是举办国、举办城市向世界展示其历史文化、地方特色和社会现状的良好契机和表达其对奥林匹克主义和精神理解的场所,也是社会因素对奥林匹克运动产生影响的集中表现,更是研究多元文化的互动点。
本研究以历届奥运会开幕式为研究对象,采用文献研究法、归纳法、观察法、访谈法、比较分析法和历史研究法等研究方法,以开幕式结构为衡量尺度,对其特点和功能进行阐述,将开幕式分为构形期(1896年～1912年)、剧变期(1920年～1936年)、质变期(1948年～1976年)和裂变期(1980年至今)进行分析,观点如下:
1.开幕式的结构主要包括形态结构和意义结构两部分。前者外在表现,后者是基础。
2.开幕式形态结构主要由时间、空间、器物、角色和行为组成。时间方面,开幕式从白天发展到了夜晚。空间方面,从体育场与教堂的结合到体育场的独立,再发展到与周围景观的有机联系,体育场的利用也日益立体化。器物方面主要是奥林匹克标识的发展,文艺表演道具呈现出越来越大型化的趋势。角色方面,除了由男性主导发展到男女平等,观众范围扩大为现场观众和媒体观众两部分,演员范围更是从单一表演者发展到包括现场观众和代表团。行为方面,则主要是入场式风格、圣火点燃和传递的变化等。
3.开幕式整体上呈现出从仪式向展演发展的趋势。一战前的开幕式主要是进行基本结构搭建;两次世界大战之间,仪式和文艺表演同时达到一个高峰,但文艺表演主要还是为仪式服务;二战后到70年代,展演异军突起,赋予了开幕式以新的风格;80年代至今,展演已经成为了开幕式的主要部分,整个开幕式日益变为一个大型的秀场,在入场式等方面,仪式已经开始为展演服务。
4.开幕式深刻反映了社会变迁,其演进同时受到其所处时代各因素的影响。
5.开幕式具有一定的独立性,这主要是由其意义结构决定的。
6.仪式和文艺表演谁为谁服务、如何保持仪式的效力已经成为影响开幕式发展的生死攸关的问题。奥林匹克运动要维持开幕式的意义结构,需要展开一场仪式效力的保卫战。
The opening ceremonies are a series of procedures specially designed to mark the beginning of the Olympic Games and it is a good opportunity for the host country and city to display their historical and cultural charm,local characteristics and social state,as well as their own understanding of Olympism and Olympic Spirit.Those social factors that influence the development of the Olympic movement also have an impact on this concentrated occasion,and it is point of interaction to study the multi-cultural diversity.
This study regards opening ceremonies as main object and uses the methods of previous literature study,induction study,observation study, interviews study,comparative analysis and historical analysis and so on to have a survey.On the base of analyze the basic structure of the opening ceremonies,this study summarize its features and functions.Then, this study divided the history of opening ceremonies into four periods, which is1896 ~1912,1920 ~1936,1948 ~1976 and 1980-present,and the main conclusions are as follows:
1.The structure of opening ceremonies includes figure structure and significance one,in which the latter one is the base of the former one and the figure structure is external appearance of significance.
2.The components of opening ceremonies figure structure includes five parts,which is time,space,implements,roles and behavior components.Time of opening ceremonies developed from day to night.Space of opening ceremonies from combination of stadium and church to stadium itself,and then developed to linking with the surrounding landscape. The dimensions of stadium are extremely increasing used.The perfection of the Olympic logo and the trend of performances prop's increasing larger is what change the implement of opening ceremonies made.When it comes to role,apart from the male-dominated to gender development,the scope of the audience and actors range from single one into multi one, which including both present audience and TV audience as well as audience and delegations.Behavior was mainly means parade style,torch lit and relay changes.
3.The trend of opening ceremonies development is from ritual to show. Its basic structure was formed before World War I and developed well between the two world wars.Meanwhile the performance reached a peak as well at the same time,yet the ritual is still the base of it.From after World WarⅡto the 1970s,ritual gave its way to show,which provide new style to opening ceremonies.After 1980's,show,but not ritual has become an essential part of the opening ceremonies.Admission type,and so on,the ceremony has begun to show services.
4.Opening ceremonies reflect the profound social changes,such as political,economic,cultural,media and technology.
5.Opening ceremonies also enjoy a certain degree of independence, which is mainly determined by its significance structure.
6.Whether ritual or show is the main base and how to maintain the effectiveness of the ritual has become a life-and-death issue affecting the development of the opening ceremonies.The Olympic movement may need to start a war to defend the effectiveness of the ritual and to maintain the significance structure of opening ceremonies.
本研究以历届奥运会开幕式为研究对象,采用文献研究法、归纳法、观察法、访谈法、比较分析法和历史研究法等研究方法,以开幕式结构为衡量尺度,对其特点和功能进行阐述,将开幕式分为构形期(1896年～1912年)、剧变期(1920年～1936年)、质变期(1948年～1976年)和裂变期(1980年至今)进行分析,观点如下:
1.开幕式的结构主要包括形态结构和意义结构两部分。前者外在表现,后者是基础。
2.开幕式形态结构主要由时间、空间、器物、角色和行为组成。时间方面,开幕式从白天发展到了夜晚。空间方面,从体育场与教堂的结合到体育场的独立,再发展到与周围景观的有机联系,体育场的利用也日益立体化。器物方面主要是奥林匹克标识的发展,文艺表演道具呈现出越来越大型化的趋势。角色方面,除了由男性主导发展到男女平等,观众范围扩大为现场观众和媒体观众两部分,演员范围更是从单一表演者发展到包括现场观众和代表团。行为方面,则主要是入场式风格、圣火点燃和传递的变化等。
3.开幕式整体上呈现出从仪式向展演发展的趋势。一战前的开幕式主要是进行基本结构搭建;两次世界大战之间,仪式和文艺表演同时达到一个高峰,但文艺表演主要还是为仪式服务;二战后到70年代,展演异军突起,赋予了开幕式以新的风格;80年代至今,展演已经成为了开幕式的主要部分,整个开幕式日益变为一个大型的秀场,在入场式等方面,仪式已经开始为展演服务。
4.开幕式深刻反映了社会变迁,其演进同时受到其所处时代各因素的影响。
5.开幕式具有一定的独立性,这主要是由其意义结构决定的。
6.仪式和文艺表演谁为谁服务、如何保持仪式的效力已经成为影响开幕式发展的生死攸关的问题。奥林匹克运动要维持开幕式的意义结构,需要展开一场仪式效力的保卫战。
The opening ceremonies are a series of procedures specially designed to mark the beginning of the Olympic Games and it is a good opportunity for the host country and city to display their historical and cultural charm,local characteristics and social state,as well as their own understanding of Olympism and Olympic Spirit.Those social factors that influence the development of the Olympic movement also have an impact on this concentrated occasion,and it is point of interaction to study the multi-cultural diversity.
This study regards opening ceremonies as main object and uses the methods of previous literature study,induction study,observation study, interviews study,comparative analysis and historical analysis and so on to have a survey.On the base of analyze the basic structure of the opening ceremonies,this study summarize its features and functions.Then, this study divided the history of opening ceremonies into four periods, which is1896 ~1912,1920 ~1936,1948 ~1976 and 1980-present,and the main conclusions are as follows:
1.The structure of opening ceremonies includes figure structure and significance one,in which the latter one is the base of the former one and the figure structure is external appearance of significance.
2.The components of opening ceremonies figure structure includes five parts,which is time,space,implements,roles and behavior components.Time of opening ceremonies developed from day to night.Space of opening ceremonies from combination of stadium and church to stadium itself,and then developed to linking with the surrounding landscape. The dimensions of stadium are extremely increasing used.The perfection of the Olympic logo and the trend of performances prop's increasing larger is what change the implement of opening ceremonies made.When it comes to role,apart from the male-dominated to gender development,the scope of the audience and actors range from single one into multi one, which including both present audience and TV audience as well as audience and delegations.Behavior was mainly means parade style,torch lit and relay changes.
3.The trend of opening ceremonies development is from ritual to show. Its basic structure was formed before World War I and developed well between the two world wars.Meanwhile the performance reached a peak as well at the same time,yet the ritual is still the base of it.From after World WarⅡto the 1970s,ritual gave its way to show,which provide new style to opening ceremonies.After 1980's,show,but not ritual has become an essential part of the opening ceremonies.Admission type,and so on,the ceremony has begun to show services.
4.Opening ceremonies reflect the profound social changes,such as political,economic,cultural,media and technology.
5.Opening ceremonies also enjoy a certain degree of independence, which is mainly determined by its significance structure.
6.Whether ritual or show is the main base and how to maintain the effectiveness of the ritual has become a life-and-death issue affecting the development of the opening ceremonies.The Olympic movement may need to start a war to defend the effectiveness of the ritual and to maintain the significance structure of opening ceremonies.
引文
1 薛艺兵.对仪式现象的人类学解释(上).广西民族研究,2003,72(2):26-33
2 薛艺兵.对仪式现象的人类学解释(上).广西民族研究,2003,73(3):39-48
3 彭兆荣.人类学仪式研究概述.民族研究,2002,(2):88-96
4 F.伊根,张雪慧.民族学与社会人类学的一百年.世界民族,1981,(2):40-46
5 埃里克J.夏普著.吕大吉等译.比较宗教史.上海:上海人民出版社,1988,p105
6 E.R.Leach深受列维·施特劳斯“新结构主义”学说影响,但他自认为是马林诺斯基传统的功能主义者,代表作为《缅甸高地的政治制度》(Political systems of Highland Burma.London,1954)。
7 维克多·特纳(1920～1983)20世纪六七十年代相当活跃和多产的人类学家。他在恢复人们对比宗教学的兴趣及开创“符号人类学”的研究方面扮演了主要的角色,是与格尔兹(Clifford Geertz)分庭抗争的象征人类学家。
8 仪式与现代性的关系不十分密切。一般学者认为,仪式以及仪式所承载的象征是空洞的形式主义,现代人将更加理性,而原始人或生活在部落中的非西方人则更加盲从、更轻信、更宗教,因而也就更加注重仪式化。可是道格拉斯认为,这两者没有必然的关系。
9 参见安托尼奥·阿里巴斯·帕洛,张珠圣,沈肖肖.人类学的主要流派简介.国外社会科学文摘,1982,(11):37-39
10 英国社会人类学派,又叫结构功能主义,于20世纪20年代兴起的文化人类学主要流派之一。其代表人物是马林诺夫斯基和德克利夫—布朗。功能学派认为,任何一种文化现象都有满足人类实际生活需要的作用,即都有一定的功能。
11 同2。
12 张立天.从神到人——奥运会仪式的变迁:[硕士学位论文].济南:山东师范大学,2006
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14 Bulletin du Comit(?) International Olympique,1948,(11):30,http://www.aafla.org
15 按照时间顺序,倒序从2003年到1883年排列,显示搜索结果为2679篇,但倒序逐篇参考时候,到1000篇时显示结果即到达1883年,结束。
16 任海.奥林匹克运动百科全书.北京:中国大百科全书出版社,2000
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18 邵慧芳.后现代主义设计理念对现代大型团体操设计的影响——试论2008年北京奥运会开幕式设计.体育与科学,2006,27(6):27-30
19 杨宾,陈晶晶.创编设计2008年奥运会开幕式表演应考虑因素的研究.湖北体育科技,2006,25(5):511-513
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22 Rappaport.R.A.Ecology,Meaning and religion,Richmond,Calif:North Atlantic Books,1977,p174.转引自彭兆荣.人类学仪式研究述评.民族研究,2002,(2):89
23 Staal,F.The Meaning of Titual,Numen 26,No.1.1975:p9转引自彭兆荣.人类学仪式研究述评.民族研究,2002,(2):89
24 Geertz,C..The Interpretation of Culture,New York:Basic Books,1973:112转引自彭兆荣.人类学仪式研究述评.民族研究,2002,(2):89
25 参考格兰姆斯在《仪式研究的起点》(Beginnings in Ritual Studies)中根据仪式的用途分为的六种仪式类型,转引自[129]薛艺兵.神圣的娱乐:中国民间祭祀仪式及其音乐的人类学研究.北京:宗教文化出版社,2003,p12-14
26 Smith,G.Elliot,李申,储光明、陈茅、郭方译.人类史.北京:社会科学文献出版社,2002,P2
27 根据薛艺兵《神圣的娱乐》p132文化时间结构模式图改编
28 转引自任海 顾拜旦与奥林匹克仪式.中国体育科技,2001.37(3):8
29 不过闭幕式颁奖典礼上,所有获奖运动员在马拉松冠军斯皮里宗·鲁伊斯的带领下绕场。
30 1904 St.Louis(Spalding Almanac)Official Olympic Reports.http://www.aafla.com,p17
32 转引熊斗寅 顾拜旦体育思想研究系列之三 顾拜旦与奥林匹克理想 体育与科学.2003.24(5):45
33 Slowinowski,1991a,1993:De Moragas et al.,1996
34 corteges
35 Kairos
36 Pierre de Coubertin.Does Cosmopolitan Life Lead to International Fridenliness? American Review of Reviews,1894,4,17.In John A.Lucas.Future of the Olympic Games,Human Kinetics,1992
45 时任德国科隆体育学院院长。
46 历史证明这一决定的正确性——墨尔本奥运会结束不到一个月。萨尔地区就经过全民公决回归了德国。
47 1952年冬,组委会主席在国际奥委会和组委会委员的陪伴下讲话。1952年,组委会主席直接邀请元首宣布开幕。47之后,组委会主席讲话……(讲话是背对运动员,面向贵宾席),没有国际奥委会主席讲话。1956年冬,也只是只有组委会主席讲话,然后开幕。1956年,运动员入场后组委会主席讲话。国际奥委会主席讲话,元首宣布开幕,1960年冬,开幕式由副总统理查德德·尼克松宣布开幕,1964年,组委会主席讲话后,播放顾拜旦讲话录音,国际奥委会主席讲话。
48 Borgers.1996:Buschma and Lennartz,1996:Cahill.1998,1999a.b
49[美]丹尼尔·贝尔.赵一凡等译,资本主义的文化矛盾,上海:三联书店,1989,p154
50 Bell,C.Ritual Theory.Ritual Practice.New York & Oxford:Oxford Press.1992,P221
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2 薛艺兵.对仪式现象的人类学解释(上).广西民族研究,2003,73(3):39-48
3 彭兆荣.人类学仪式研究概述.民族研究,2002,(2):88-96
4 F.伊根,张雪慧.民族学与社会人类学的一百年.世界民族,1981,(2):40-46
5 埃里克J.夏普著.吕大吉等译.比较宗教史.上海:上海人民出版社,1988,p105
6 E.R.Leach深受列维·施特劳斯“新结构主义”学说影响,但他自认为是马林诺斯基传统的功能主义者,代表作为《缅甸高地的政治制度》(Political systems of Highland Burma.London,1954)。
7 维克多·特纳(1920～1983)20世纪六七十年代相当活跃和多产的人类学家。他在恢复人们对比宗教学的兴趣及开创“符号人类学”的研究方面扮演了主要的角色,是与格尔兹(Clifford Geertz)分庭抗争的象征人类学家。
8 仪式与现代性的关系不十分密切。一般学者认为,仪式以及仪式所承载的象征是空洞的形式主义,现代人将更加理性,而原始人或生活在部落中的非西方人则更加盲从、更轻信、更宗教,因而也就更加注重仪式化。可是道格拉斯认为,这两者没有必然的关系。
9 参见安托尼奥·阿里巴斯·帕洛,张珠圣,沈肖肖.人类学的主要流派简介.国外社会科学文摘,1982,(11):37-39
10 英国社会人类学派,又叫结构功能主义,于20世纪20年代兴起的文化人类学主要流派之一。其代表人物是马林诺夫斯基和德克利夫—布朗。功能学派认为,任何一种文化现象都有满足人类实际生活需要的作用,即都有一定的功能。
11 同2。
12 张立天.从神到人——奥运会仪式的变迁:[硕士学位论文].济南:山东师范大学,2006
13 李春霞,彭兆荣.奥运会与大众传媒关系的仪式性分析.体育学刊,2006,13(6):21-24
14 Bulletin du Comit(?) International Olympique,1948,(11):30,http://www.aafla.org
15 按照时间顺序,倒序从2003年到1883年排列,显示搜索结果为2679篇,但倒序逐篇参考时候,到1000篇时显示结果即到达1883年,结束。
16 任海.奥林匹克运动百科全书.北京:中国大百科全书出版社,2000
17 奥林匹克运动会的开幕式与闭幕式.中国翻译,2004,25(5):96
18 邵慧芳.后现代主义设计理念对现代大型团体操设计的影响——试论2008年北京奥运会开幕式设计.体育与科学,2006,27(6):27-30
19 杨宾,陈晶晶.创编设计2008年奥运会开幕式表演应考虑因素的研究.湖北体育科技,2006,25(5):511-513
20 门志平.北京奥运会开幕式表演背景大屏幕数字化刍议.西安体育学院学报,2006,23(4):35-36
21 吴声光.雅典归来问北京——关于2008年奥运会开幕式的畅想.辽宁体育科技,2006,28(2):17-18
22 Rappaport.R.A.Ecology,Meaning and religion,Richmond,Calif:North Atlantic Books,1977,p174.转引自彭兆荣.人类学仪式研究述评.民族研究,2002,(2):89
23 Staal,F.The Meaning of Titual,Numen 26,No.1.1975:p9转引自彭兆荣.人类学仪式研究述评.民族研究,2002,(2):89
24 Geertz,C..The Interpretation of Culture,New York:Basic Books,1973:112转引自彭兆荣.人类学仪式研究述评.民族研究,2002,(2):89
25 参考格兰姆斯在《仪式研究的起点》(Beginnings in Ritual Studies)中根据仪式的用途分为的六种仪式类型,转引自[129]薛艺兵.神圣的娱乐:中国民间祭祀仪式及其音乐的人类学研究.北京:宗教文化出版社,2003,p12-14
26 Smith,G.Elliot,李申,储光明、陈茅、郭方译.人类史.北京:社会科学文献出版社,2002,P2
27 根据薛艺兵《神圣的娱乐》p132文化时间结构模式图改编
28 转引自任海 顾拜旦与奥林匹克仪式.中国体育科技,2001.37(3):8
29 不过闭幕式颁奖典礼上,所有获奖运动员在马拉松冠军斯皮里宗·鲁伊斯的带领下绕场。
30 1904 St.Louis(Spalding Almanac)Official Olympic Reports.http://www.aafla.com,p17
32 转引熊斗寅 顾拜旦体育思想研究系列之三 顾拜旦与奥林匹克理想 体育与科学.2003.24(5):45
33 Slowinowski,1991a,1993:De Moragas et al.,1996
34 corteges
35 Kairos
36 Pierre de Coubertin.Does Cosmopolitan Life Lead to International Fridenliness? American Review of Reviews,1894,4,17.In John A.Lucas.Future of the Olympic Games,Human Kinetics,1992
45 时任德国科隆体育学院院长。
46 历史证明这一决定的正确性——墨尔本奥运会结束不到一个月。萨尔地区就经过全民公决回归了德国。
47 1952年冬,组委会主席在国际奥委会和组委会委员的陪伴下讲话。1952年,组委会主席直接邀请元首宣布开幕。47之后,组委会主席讲话……(讲话是背对运动员,面向贵宾席),没有国际奥委会主席讲话。1956年冬,也只是只有组委会主席讲话,然后开幕。1956年,运动员入场后组委会主席讲话。国际奥委会主席讲话,元首宣布开幕,1960年冬,开幕式由副总统理查德德·尼克松宣布开幕,1964年,组委会主席讲话后,播放顾拜旦讲话录音,国际奥委会主席讲话。
48 Borgers.1996:Buschma and Lennartz,1996:Cahill.1998,1999a.b
49[美]丹尼尔·贝尔.赵一凡等译,资本主义的文化矛盾,上海:三联书店,1989,p154
50 Bell,C.Ritual Theory.Ritual Practice.New York & Oxford:Oxford Press.1992,P221
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