近50年西双版纳人象关系演变研究
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摘要
在过去的50年里,对云南南部西双版纳野生亚洲象的分布和数量、肇事的原因、危害和缓解对策都有了较多研究,但缺乏人象关系演变过程和成因的系统研究。本研究应用参与性乡村评估法、野外实地调查、3S技术,于2009年7月至2011年3月,在西双版纳国家级自然保护区的勐养、勐腊和尚勇子保护区内及其周边的39个村寨中开展野外调查,结合文献研究,得出近50年来西双版纳野生亚洲象与人的关系由和谐到激烈冲突的阶段性演变过程。主要结论如下。
(1)1959-1971年间人象互不侵犯。亚洲象主要分布在澜沧江以东的大面积原始森林中,世居民族遵循传统的农作和生活方式,人象在生活空间上相互隔离,传统生态文化对亚洲象及其生境起到了重要的保护作用。因此,包括“森林优先”、“龙山圣境”和“象文化”的传统生态文化这一社会文化因素是维持该时期人象关系的基础,当人类的发展违背传统时,人象关系则发生演变。
(2)1972-1990年间人象频繁接触。为解决人口增长带来的人地矛盾,人类活动区逐渐向亚洲象的自然生境扩张,自然生境逐渐转变为人类用地,人类用地中的粮食种植用地又转变为经济作物和林木的种植用地,自然生境的丧失导致亚洲象在景洪和勐腊间迁移的路线被阻断；再加上以当地居民为主力的亚洲象偷猎,迫使亚洲象逐渐逼近村寨,形成有交叉的生活空间,导致人象频繁接触。因此,传统生态文化向谋求经济发展的利己意识转变、自然土地利用类型向人工土地利用类型转变是该阶段人象关系演变的驱动力；当这两个转变持续发展时,人象关系也继续发生演变。
(3)1991-1995年间人象冲突加剧。谋求经济利益的利己意识掩盖传统生态文化后,在保护区发生了最严重的亚洲象偷猎事件,迫使亚洲象走向人类居住区。同时,保护区内外人工种植用地的扩张,使亚洲象的食物在保护区内外出现差异,迫使亚洲象走出保护区觅食。人象生存空间相互重叠,形成人象冲突日益加剧的关系。因此,传统生态文化淡化和人象生存空间重叠是人象冲突加剧的驱动力,当空间重叠的其中一方改变其活动强度和方式时,人象关系又演变到新的阶段。
(4)1996-2005年间亚洲象得到严格保护却严重肇事。强制性的保护措施使亚洲象得到了有效保护,种群数量增长,但适宜生境缩小和食物匮乏迫使亚洲象频繁地游走于保护区和村寨,特别是在勐养子保护区北侧和尚勇子保护区西侧的村寨中频繁活动,采食、踩踏和损毁经济林木和农作物、攻击人类,对人类活动进行了报复性攻击,形成人类保护亚洲象而亚洲象严重肇事的局面。因此,人象活动强度和方式的变化是该阶段的驱动力,当两者的活动再次发生变化时,人象关系又将随之演变。
(5)2006-2012年间人象关系进入拉锯式对抗状态。社会经济的发展和亚洲象肇事的赔偿,增强了社区居民在亚洲象肇事区居住的信心和对土地的依赖。亚洲象的正常迁移路线被阻,村寨丰富的食物吸引亚洲象在各村寨间滞留或移动,在西双版纳州勐养镇和勐腊县的150余个村寨及其周围、以及普洱市的澜沧县、思茅区、宁洱县和江城县都有亚洲象活动,形成有人为活动时亚洲象隐蔽于森林、有亚洲象活动时人类躲避的拉锯式对抗关系。因此,社区居民对土地的依赖以及亚洲象对食物和村寨的依赖成为这一关系的驱动力；只有当依赖土地的双方或其中一方发生变化时,人象关系才会演变到新的阶段。
因此,作者认为,在人象关系演变初期,传统生态文化被利己意识掩盖、人口增长和土地利用方式转变所导致的人象生存空间和资源重叠是人象关系演变的重要因素,即人类是驱动演变的主导因素；演变至今,人类已处于明显的被动受损的困境。这说明,在人象关系的演变中,社会文化因素与生境因素同样具有重要的驱动作用。要改善当前人象拉锯式对抗的关系,关键在于缩小人象生存空间和资源的重叠程度,这就需要改变社区居民对土地的农业依赖或改变亚洲象对村寨和农作物的依赖,即：从认知上引导社区居民从亚洲象扰动区逐渐撤出农业生产、从政策上帮助社区居民寻找替代生计、从采食习性和生境条件上逐渐改变亚洲象对村寨的依赖。
Research has been lacking on the development of human-elephant relations in the last50years in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan Province, although many researches have been done on distribution and population of elephants, and causes, results and mitigation methods of Asian elephant-related problems. To research the progression of human-elephant relations in the last50years, from harmony to serious conflict, a Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), field survey,3S technology, and literature research were used in the investigation of39villages from Mengyang, Mengla and Shangyong in Xishuangbanna from July2009to March2011. The results were as fellows.
(1) Little interference (1959-1971). Asian elephants distributed to the east of the Lancang River. There was a large forest area. The native minorities abided by traditional way of farming and live. Therefore, living space of human and elephant remained separate. The traditional ecological culture protected the Asian elephants and their habitat. As a social factor, the traditional ecological culture, including Forest Priority, Holy Hill and Elephant Culture, maintained this human-elephant relation. The relation would change if the development of human violated tradition.
(2) Frequent encounters (1972-1990). The cultivated zone expanded into the natural habitat gradually, resulting in transformation of the habitat from natural to artificial, and from crop cultivation to cash forests and crops. The habitat fragmentation blocked the elephant's migration route between Jinghong and Mengla. Poaching of local communities made the elephants closer to villages, forming a mixed living space and leading to frequent encounters. Therefore, traditional ecological culture transformed into selfish consciousness and natural habitat transformed into artificial land-use brought a change in human-elephant relations in this stage.
(3) Conflicts becoming serious (1991-1995). Traditional ecological culture had yielded to human self-interest, and then the most serious illegal poaching occurred in the nature reserve. As a result, the elephant left the nature reserve and got into the human settlement. At the same time, there was a discrepancy in food quality between the inside and outside of the nature reserve, due to the expansion of cultivated land both in and out of the nature reserve. The elephants came out of the reserve, causing the overlapping living space for human and elephant and creating serious conflict. So, the neglect of traditional ecological culture and coincident living space were the driving factors of the serious conflict between human and elephant. When human or elephant changed their intensity or method of living, the relation of human and elephant would change into another stage.
(4) Protection and serious elephant-related problems (1996-2005). Illegal poaching and other damage to elephants were put down by the strengthened policies, but wild elephants moved among the fragmented landscapes, causing serious damage to local people. Especially, many elephants moved in and around villages, located outside north of the Mengyang nature reserve and west of the Shangyong nature reserve. The elephants foraged agricultural crops, destroyed property and injured people, severely interfering with human activities. The interrelation developed: humans protected elephants, but elephants attacked humans. Change both of human and elephants' population and lifestyle altered the interrelation. When human or elephant changed their activities again, the relation would enter a new stage.
(5) Sawing confrontation (2006-2010). On the one hand, the communities' confidence in settling in elephant-related area and dependence on the land had increased due to the development of society and economy. On the other hand, obstacle to the elephants' migration route and the dependence of the elephant on food and villages made the elephant move and roam in more than150villages in Mengyang, Mengla and Shangyong, and even moved into Lancang, Simao, Ning' er and Jiangcheng in Puer Prefecture. Therefore, the relation of human-elephant became sawing confrontation, which meant the elephant hid in the forest when humans moved, and humans hid when the elephant moved. Therefore, communities' dependence on the land and the elephants' dependence on food and villages were driving factors. The relation would improve to another stage, if humans or elephants changed their behavior.
Therefore, the author believes that, at the initial stage, humans were mainly influenced the change of human-elephant relations, as traditional ecological culture yielded to human self-interest, population increased and land-use transformed; but more recently, humans have been passive losers. It illustrates that social and cultural factors were very important factors in the change of the human-elephant relations. To change the sawing confrontation, how to decrease the overlap of living space and resources between human and elephant was critical. It is necessary to change the communities' dependence on land and the elephants' dependence on villages and crops, guiding communities to remove agricultural production from Asian elephant disturbance zone, helping communities find other livelihoods, and changing elephants' dependence on villages, both in behavior and in habitat factors.
(1)1959-1971年间人象互不侵犯。亚洲象主要分布在澜沧江以东的大面积原始森林中,世居民族遵循传统的农作和生活方式,人象在生活空间上相互隔离,传统生态文化对亚洲象及其生境起到了重要的保护作用。因此,包括“森林优先”、“龙山圣境”和“象文化”的传统生态文化这一社会文化因素是维持该时期人象关系的基础,当人类的发展违背传统时,人象关系则发生演变。
(2)1972-1990年间人象频繁接触。为解决人口增长带来的人地矛盾,人类活动区逐渐向亚洲象的自然生境扩张,自然生境逐渐转变为人类用地,人类用地中的粮食种植用地又转变为经济作物和林木的种植用地,自然生境的丧失导致亚洲象在景洪和勐腊间迁移的路线被阻断；再加上以当地居民为主力的亚洲象偷猎,迫使亚洲象逐渐逼近村寨,形成有交叉的生活空间,导致人象频繁接触。因此,传统生态文化向谋求经济发展的利己意识转变、自然土地利用类型向人工土地利用类型转变是该阶段人象关系演变的驱动力；当这两个转变持续发展时,人象关系也继续发生演变。
(3)1991-1995年间人象冲突加剧。谋求经济利益的利己意识掩盖传统生态文化后,在保护区发生了最严重的亚洲象偷猎事件,迫使亚洲象走向人类居住区。同时,保护区内外人工种植用地的扩张,使亚洲象的食物在保护区内外出现差异,迫使亚洲象走出保护区觅食。人象生存空间相互重叠,形成人象冲突日益加剧的关系。因此,传统生态文化淡化和人象生存空间重叠是人象冲突加剧的驱动力,当空间重叠的其中一方改变其活动强度和方式时,人象关系又演变到新的阶段。
(4)1996-2005年间亚洲象得到严格保护却严重肇事。强制性的保护措施使亚洲象得到了有效保护,种群数量增长,但适宜生境缩小和食物匮乏迫使亚洲象频繁地游走于保护区和村寨,特别是在勐养子保护区北侧和尚勇子保护区西侧的村寨中频繁活动,采食、踩踏和损毁经济林木和农作物、攻击人类,对人类活动进行了报复性攻击,形成人类保护亚洲象而亚洲象严重肇事的局面。因此,人象活动强度和方式的变化是该阶段的驱动力,当两者的活动再次发生变化时,人象关系又将随之演变。
(5)2006-2012年间人象关系进入拉锯式对抗状态。社会经济的发展和亚洲象肇事的赔偿,增强了社区居民在亚洲象肇事区居住的信心和对土地的依赖。亚洲象的正常迁移路线被阻,村寨丰富的食物吸引亚洲象在各村寨间滞留或移动,在西双版纳州勐养镇和勐腊县的150余个村寨及其周围、以及普洱市的澜沧县、思茅区、宁洱县和江城县都有亚洲象活动,形成有人为活动时亚洲象隐蔽于森林、有亚洲象活动时人类躲避的拉锯式对抗关系。因此,社区居民对土地的依赖以及亚洲象对食物和村寨的依赖成为这一关系的驱动力；只有当依赖土地的双方或其中一方发生变化时,人象关系才会演变到新的阶段。
因此,作者认为,在人象关系演变初期,传统生态文化被利己意识掩盖、人口增长和土地利用方式转变所导致的人象生存空间和资源重叠是人象关系演变的重要因素,即人类是驱动演变的主导因素；演变至今,人类已处于明显的被动受损的困境。这说明,在人象关系的演变中,社会文化因素与生境因素同样具有重要的驱动作用。要改善当前人象拉锯式对抗的关系,关键在于缩小人象生存空间和资源的重叠程度,这就需要改变社区居民对土地的农业依赖或改变亚洲象对村寨和农作物的依赖,即：从认知上引导社区居民从亚洲象扰动区逐渐撤出农业生产、从政策上帮助社区居民寻找替代生计、从采食习性和生境条件上逐渐改变亚洲象对村寨的依赖。
Research has been lacking on the development of human-elephant relations in the last50years in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan Province, although many researches have been done on distribution and population of elephants, and causes, results and mitigation methods of Asian elephant-related problems. To research the progression of human-elephant relations in the last50years, from harmony to serious conflict, a Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), field survey,3S technology, and literature research were used in the investigation of39villages from Mengyang, Mengla and Shangyong in Xishuangbanna from July2009to March2011. The results were as fellows.
(1) Little interference (1959-1971). Asian elephants distributed to the east of the Lancang River. There was a large forest area. The native minorities abided by traditional way of farming and live. Therefore, living space of human and elephant remained separate. The traditional ecological culture protected the Asian elephants and their habitat. As a social factor, the traditional ecological culture, including Forest Priority, Holy Hill and Elephant Culture, maintained this human-elephant relation. The relation would change if the development of human violated tradition.
(2) Frequent encounters (1972-1990). The cultivated zone expanded into the natural habitat gradually, resulting in transformation of the habitat from natural to artificial, and from crop cultivation to cash forests and crops. The habitat fragmentation blocked the elephant's migration route between Jinghong and Mengla. Poaching of local communities made the elephants closer to villages, forming a mixed living space and leading to frequent encounters. Therefore, traditional ecological culture transformed into selfish consciousness and natural habitat transformed into artificial land-use brought a change in human-elephant relations in this stage.
(3) Conflicts becoming serious (1991-1995). Traditional ecological culture had yielded to human self-interest, and then the most serious illegal poaching occurred in the nature reserve. As a result, the elephant left the nature reserve and got into the human settlement. At the same time, there was a discrepancy in food quality between the inside and outside of the nature reserve, due to the expansion of cultivated land both in and out of the nature reserve. The elephants came out of the reserve, causing the overlapping living space for human and elephant and creating serious conflict. So, the neglect of traditional ecological culture and coincident living space were the driving factors of the serious conflict between human and elephant. When human or elephant changed their intensity or method of living, the relation of human and elephant would change into another stage.
(4) Protection and serious elephant-related problems (1996-2005). Illegal poaching and other damage to elephants were put down by the strengthened policies, but wild elephants moved among the fragmented landscapes, causing serious damage to local people. Especially, many elephants moved in and around villages, located outside north of the Mengyang nature reserve and west of the Shangyong nature reserve. The elephants foraged agricultural crops, destroyed property and injured people, severely interfering with human activities. The interrelation developed: humans protected elephants, but elephants attacked humans. Change both of human and elephants' population and lifestyle altered the interrelation. When human or elephant changed their activities again, the relation would enter a new stage.
(5) Sawing confrontation (2006-2010). On the one hand, the communities' confidence in settling in elephant-related area and dependence on the land had increased due to the development of society and economy. On the other hand, obstacle to the elephants' migration route and the dependence of the elephant on food and villages made the elephant move and roam in more than150villages in Mengyang, Mengla and Shangyong, and even moved into Lancang, Simao, Ning' er and Jiangcheng in Puer Prefecture. Therefore, the relation of human-elephant became sawing confrontation, which meant the elephant hid in the forest when humans moved, and humans hid when the elephant moved. Therefore, communities' dependence on the land and the elephants' dependence on food and villages were driving factors. The relation would improve to another stage, if humans or elephants changed their behavior.
Therefore, the author believes that, at the initial stage, humans were mainly influenced the change of human-elephant relations, as traditional ecological culture yielded to human self-interest, population increased and land-use transformed; but more recently, humans have been passive losers. It illustrates that social and cultural factors were very important factors in the change of the human-elephant relations. To change the sawing confrontation, how to decrease the overlap of living space and resources between human and elephant was critical. It is necessary to change the communities' dependence on land and the elephants' dependence on villages and crops, guiding communities to remove agricultural production from Asian elephant disturbance zone, helping communities find other livelihoods, and changing elephants' dependence on villages, both in behavior and in habitat factors.
引文
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