复合刺激潜意识知觉及其年龄特征的研究
|
摘要
潜意识知觉是指在刺激出现而个体没有觉察到的情况下，由后续行为、思想、情感的变化推知的一种无意识知觉过程。作为刺激影响人的心理及行为的途径之一，潜意识知觉心理机制的解释存在整体加工为主和部分加工为主的理论争议。复合刺激潜意识知觉的研究将有助于对两种理论的适用性加以判别。而不同年龄阶段潜意识知觉特征的揭示，对丰富心理发展理论和教育实践具有重要的理论和实践意义。
本论文由四项研究共8个实验组成：
研究一包括3个实验。以8名大学一年级学生为被试，以经典的潜意识知觉研究程式为方法，通过考察掩蔽效果的变化过程，探索掩蔽物与刺激之间关系对掩蔽效果的作用，进而提出一种有效诱发无意识觉察状态的掩蔽策略。
研究二包括1个实验。以18名大学一年级学生为被试，通过比较阶段迫选任务的控制，考察复合刺激属性分离的可能性。在检验潜意识知觉加工机制的同时，尝试构建一种复合刺激潜意识知觉研究的属性分离模式。并通过四种复合材料潜意识知觉结果的分析来加以验证。
研究三包括1个实验。以10名大学一年级学生为被试，以复杂程度较高的语法规则数字串为实验材料，在进一步完善复合刺激潜意识知觉属性分离模式的基础上，通过对不同阶段材料间的各种关系的分析与控制，检验影响潜意识知觉的多方面因素，并对该模型的操控性和有效性加以验证。
研究四包括3个实验。目的在于考察复合刺激潜意识知觉的年龄差异问题。以高中一年级、初中一年级和小学五年级各10学生为被试，以具有语法规则的数字串为实验材料，目的在于探索复合刺激隐含属性潜意识知觉的年龄特征。
研究结果表明：
1．随着刺激材料和掩蔽物之间相似程度的提高，迫选任务的选择错误率呈逐渐上升的趋势。表明掩蔽物对刺激的掩蔽效果越来越好。以各个刺激材料组成的图形为掩蔽物，各种刺激材料在迫选任务的选择错误率差异不明显，表现出较一致的掩蔽效果，这种选择掩蔽物的方法是诱发个体无意识觉察状态的一种有效策略。
2．复合刺激不同属性在迫选任务中的选择正确率不同，与选择的随机概率之间差异不同，表明在一些属性能够被潜意识知觉到的同时，另一些属性不能被潜意识知觉到。建立在分离逻辑基础上的迫选任务实现了复合刺激潜意识知觉的属性分离。基于不同阶段实验材料之间关系分析所建立的分离模型在复合刺激潜意识知觉属性分离的实验结果中得到验证。
3．不同年龄阶段学生对复合刺激材料表面属性和隐含属性的潜意识知觉存在不同的特点，小学生以表面属性的潜意识知觉为主，经初中、高中阶段的过渡，到大学生阶段则表现为能够潜意识知觉到隐含属性。
The term subliminal perception was originally used to describe situations in which weak stimuli were perceived without awareness. Whenever stimuli presented below the threshold or limen for awareness is found to influence thoughts, feelings, or actions, subliminal perception has occurred. By using some special means, for example, task dissociation, qualitive difference analysis, priming under threshold, a great deal of studies showed that it was real and that there were many differences with the perception under the conscioueness.
As a precondition, the unconscious awareness was a key on studying the subliminal perception. It was a very important matter how to elicit the unconscious awareness. Msaking techeque was widely used on the study to visual material. However, there were some problemes on using it. Most researchers did not pay more attention to the relation between the stimulus and mask. The experiential use must be changed by experimental demonstration.
With the development on subliminal perception study, the study objects became more complicate. The compound stimulus with mulripe attributes became a study focus. The studies to the compound stimulus relied on corresponding model's foundation. The work would be helpful to open out the subliminal perception's mental machenism.
The difference between ages was also an important question. This kind of studies was rare, but its theorical value and practicable function on education was very strong. We must pay more attention to it.
Based on recognizing hereinbefore, the thesis consists of six experiments on three aspects on subliminal perception. The first focus was on masking techque. The second was the subliminal perception model. The last is the subliminal perception difference on ages.
The thesis consists of four studies.
In study 1, three experiments examined a masking stretagy effect on eliciting unconscious awareness. Experiment 1 aimed at detecting the difference between differtent stimuli and the same mask on masking effect. Experiment 2 payed more attentions to the relation between stimulus and mask. Experiment3 validated a masking strategy's effect.
In study2, the experimental goal was to found a model on subliminal perception study. A kind of material with two attributes was selected to apply to classical subliminal perceptual study procedure. The so-called attribute dissociation model was analysed in the study.
In study3, an artificial grammar task was selected to validate the model's applicability. By changing the relation between stimulus materials on presenting stimulus stage and on comparing stage, the model's function was perfected. An influencing factor to subliminal perception was found.
In study4, the attribute dissociation model was applied to the students in elementary school, middle school, high school. To explore the subliminal perception difference on ages was its goal.
The results were below:
1. The relaition between stimuli and mask is very important on masking effect. Closer the relation was, better masking effect was. If the mask was formed with all stimulus materials, masking effects would become almost equal among the stimuli. The strategy to form the mask is effective to elicit an unconscious awareness.
2. The atrribute dissociation model was able to implement attribute dissociation's function on subliminal perception to compound stimuli. It was practicable to different objects. By controlling different relations, it can open out some mental machenisms on subliminal perception and some influencable factors to subliminal perception.
3. Applying the attribute dissociation model to graduates and elementary school's students, a difference on subliminal perception was found. While the graduate perceived subliminally artificial grammar materical's surface attributes, they also perceived subliminally the materical's connotative attribute. The elementary students only perceived subliminally the materical's surface attributes.
本论文由四项研究共8个实验组成：
研究一包括3个实验。以8名大学一年级学生为被试，以经典的潜意识知觉研究程式为方法，通过考察掩蔽效果的变化过程，探索掩蔽物与刺激之间关系对掩蔽效果的作用，进而提出一种有效诱发无意识觉察状态的掩蔽策略。
研究二包括1个实验。以18名大学一年级学生为被试，通过比较阶段迫选任务的控制，考察复合刺激属性分离的可能性。在检验潜意识知觉加工机制的同时，尝试构建一种复合刺激潜意识知觉研究的属性分离模式。并通过四种复合材料潜意识知觉结果的分析来加以验证。
研究三包括1个实验。以10名大学一年级学生为被试，以复杂程度较高的语法规则数字串为实验材料，在进一步完善复合刺激潜意识知觉属性分离模式的基础上，通过对不同阶段材料间的各种关系的分析与控制，检验影响潜意识知觉的多方面因素，并对该模型的操控性和有效性加以验证。
研究四包括3个实验。目的在于考察复合刺激潜意识知觉的年龄差异问题。以高中一年级、初中一年级和小学五年级各10学生为被试，以具有语法规则的数字串为实验材料，目的在于探索复合刺激隐含属性潜意识知觉的年龄特征。
研究结果表明：
1．随着刺激材料和掩蔽物之间相似程度的提高，迫选任务的选择错误率呈逐渐上升的趋势。表明掩蔽物对刺激的掩蔽效果越来越好。以各个刺激材料组成的图形为掩蔽物，各种刺激材料在迫选任务的选择错误率差异不明显，表现出较一致的掩蔽效果，这种选择掩蔽物的方法是诱发个体无意识觉察状态的一种有效策略。
2．复合刺激不同属性在迫选任务中的选择正确率不同，与选择的随机概率之间差异不同，表明在一些属性能够被潜意识知觉到的同时，另一些属性不能被潜意识知觉到。建立在分离逻辑基础上的迫选任务实现了复合刺激潜意识知觉的属性分离。基于不同阶段实验材料之间关系分析所建立的分离模型在复合刺激潜意识知觉属性分离的实验结果中得到验证。
3．不同年龄阶段学生对复合刺激材料表面属性和隐含属性的潜意识知觉存在不同的特点，小学生以表面属性的潜意识知觉为主，经初中、高中阶段的过渡，到大学生阶段则表现为能够潜意识知觉到隐含属性。
The term subliminal perception was originally used to describe situations in which weak stimuli were perceived without awareness. Whenever stimuli presented below the threshold or limen for awareness is found to influence thoughts, feelings, or actions, subliminal perception has occurred. By using some special means, for example, task dissociation, qualitive difference analysis, priming under threshold, a great deal of studies showed that it was real and that there were many differences with the perception under the conscioueness.
As a precondition, the unconscious awareness was a key on studying the subliminal perception. It was a very important matter how to elicit the unconscious awareness. Msaking techeque was widely used on the study to visual material. However, there were some problemes on using it. Most researchers did not pay more attention to the relation between the stimulus and mask. The experiential use must be changed by experimental demonstration.
With the development on subliminal perception study, the study objects became more complicate. The compound stimulus with mulripe attributes became a study focus. The studies to the compound stimulus relied on corresponding model's foundation. The work would be helpful to open out the subliminal perception's mental machenism.
The difference between ages was also an important question. This kind of studies was rare, but its theorical value and practicable function on education was very strong. We must pay more attention to it.
Based on recognizing hereinbefore, the thesis consists of six experiments on three aspects on subliminal perception. The first focus was on masking techque. The second was the subliminal perception model. The last is the subliminal perception difference on ages.
The thesis consists of four studies.
In study 1, three experiments examined a masking stretagy effect on eliciting unconscious awareness. Experiment 1 aimed at detecting the difference between differtent stimuli and the same mask on masking effect. Experiment 2 payed more attentions to the relation between stimulus and mask. Experiment3 validated a masking strategy's effect.
In study2, the experimental goal was to found a model on subliminal perception study. A kind of material with two attributes was selected to apply to classical subliminal perceptual study procedure. The so-called attribute dissociation model was analysed in the study.
In study3, an artificial grammar task was selected to validate the model's applicability. By changing the relation between stimulus materials on presenting stimulus stage and on comparing stage, the model's function was perfected. An influencing factor to subliminal perception was found.
In study4, the attribute dissociation model was applied to the students in elementary school, middle school, high school. To explore the subliminal perception difference on ages was its goal.
The results were below:
1. The relaition between stimuli and mask is very important on masking effect. Closer the relation was, better masking effect was. If the mask was formed with all stimulus materials, masking effects would become almost equal among the stimuli. The strategy to form the mask is effective to elicit an unconscious awareness.
2. The atrribute dissociation model was able to implement attribute dissociation's function on subliminal perception to compound stimuli. It was practicable to different objects. By controlling different relations, it can open out some mental machenisms on subliminal perception and some influencable factors to subliminal perception.
3. Applying the attribute dissociation model to graduates and elementary school's students, a difference on subliminal perception was found. While the graduate perceived subliminally artificial grammar materical's surface attributes, they also perceived subliminally the materical's connotative attribute. The elementary students only perceived subliminally the materical's surface attributes.
引文
程九清，高湘萍．(2006)．阈下情绪启动效应的衰退和反应竞争模型．心理科学，29(2)，315-318
付秋芳，傅小兰．(2006)．内隐学习中表征与意识的关系．心理科学进展，14(1)，18-22．
柯学，隋南，沈德立．(2001)．脑的感知觉无意识加工及其研究进展．心理学报，33(1)，88-93．
郭秀艳．(2003)．内隐学习．上海：华东师范大学出版社．
郭秀艳，李林．(2006)．意识与无意识的关系——实证的视角．心理学探新，1，3-8．
高鑫，郑一筠，杨宝玲．(2007)．人工语法学习迁移研究进展．西北民族大学学报(自然科学版)，28(1)，52-57．
蒋重清，杨丽珠，刘颖．(2007)．阈下情绪Stroop效应发展特点．心理学报，39(2)，242-248
李祚，张开荆．(2007)．隐性知识的认知结构．湖南师范大学社会科学学报，4，38-41．
马立军，张积家．(2005)．阈下启动与记忆分类．心理学探新，1，46-48．
聂晶，郭秀艳．(2004)．内隐学习与无觉察知觉辨析．心理科学，27(1)，130-133．
任爱荣，水仁德．(2006)．长时语义记忆对阈下语义启动效应的影响．应用心理学，12(4)，326-332．
沈德立．(2006)．高效率学习的心理学研究．北京：教育科学出版社．
石文典，钟高峰，鲁直．(2005)．阈下知觉和隐性广．告的作用及启动效应研究．心理科学，28(3)，683-685．
水仁德，丁海杰，沈模卫．(2003)．阈下语义启动的任务分离研究模式及其理论模型．心理科学进展，11(1)，28-34．
水仁德，丁海杰，沈模卫．(2003)．汉语阈下语义启动无意识机制研究，心理科学，26(6)，1025-1029
吴国来．(2004)．内隐序列学习的发展研究．博士学位论文．
王沛，鲁春晓．(2005)．阈下启动的心理机制初探．心理科学，28(6)，344-346．
周仁来，杨莹．(2004)．阈上与阈下知觉启动之间的差异：来自Stroop效应的证据．心理科学进展，27(3)，567-570．
周仁来，许杰．(2001)．知觉启动效应及其脑机制的研究进展．心理科学，24(1)，81-84．
周仁来．(2004)．阈下知觉研究中觉知状态测量方法的发展与启示．心理科学进展，12(3)，321-329．
Abrams，R．L．，Klinger，M．R．，& Greenwald，A．G．(2002)．Subliminal words activate semantic categories (not automanted motor responses)．Psyehonimic Bulletin & Review，9，100-106．
Abrams，R．L．，& Greenwald，A．G．(2000)．Parts outweigh the whole (word) in unconscious analysis of meaning．Psychological Seienee，11，118-124．
Atkinson，A．P．，Thomas，M．S．C．，& Cleeremans，A．(2000)．Consciousness： Mapping the theoretical landscape．Trends in Cognitive Sciences，4(10)，372-382．
Auty，S．，& Lewis，C．(2004)．Exploring children's choice： The reminder effect of product placement．Psychology & Marketing，21(9)，699-716．
Avant，L．L．，& Thieman，A．A．(1985)．On visual access to letter case and lexical/semantic infoemation．Memory & Cognition，13，393-404．
Bar，M．，& Biederman，T．(1998)．Subliminal visual priming．Psychological Science，9(6)，464-469．
Berry，C．J．，Shanks，D．R．，& Henson，R．N．A．(2006)．On the status of unconscious memory： Merikle and Reingold (1991) Revisited．Journal of Experimental Psychology：Learning，Memory，and Cognition．32，4，925-934．
Bornstein，R．F．(2004)．Subliminality，consciousness，and temporal shifts in awareness：Implications within and beyond the laboratory．Consciousness and Cognition，13，613-618．
Bornstein，R．F．，& D'Agostino，P．R．(1992)．Stimulus recognition and the mere exposure effect．Journal of Personality and Social Psychology，63(4)，545-552．
Brannon，L．A．，Tagler，M．J．，&Eagly，A．H．(2007)．The moderating role of attitude strength in selective exposure to information．Journal of Experimental Social Psychology，43，611-617．
Brin，P．，Petty，R．E．，& Tormala，Z．L．(2006)．The malleable meaning of subjective ease．Psychological Science，17，3，200-206．
Buchner，A．，& Brandt，M．(2003)．Further evidence for systematic reliability differences between explicit and implicit memory tests．The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology，56(2)，193-209．
Cheesman，J．，& Merikle，P．M．(1984)．Priming with and without awareness．Perception and Psychophysics，36，387-395．
Cheesman，J．，& Merikle，P．M．(1986)．Distinguishing conscious from unconscious perceptual processes．Canadian Journal of Psychology，40，343-367．
Cohen，A．，& Curran，T．(1993)．On tasks，knowledge，correlations，and dissociations：Comment on Perruchet and Amorim (1992)．Journal of Experimental Psychology：Learning，Memory and Cognition，19，1431-1437．
Collins，A．M．，Loftus，E．F．(1975)．A spreading activation theory of semantic processing．Psychologieal Review，82，407-428．
Costen，N．P．，Shepherd，J．，Ellis，H．，& Craw，I．(1994)．Masking of faces by facial and non-facial stimuli．Visual Cognition，1，227-251．
Crabb，B．T．，& Dark，V．J．(2003)．Perceptual implicit memory relies on intentional，load-sensitive processing at encoding．Memory & Cognition，31，997-1008．
Dagenbach，D．，Carr，T．H．，& Wihelmsen，A．(1989)．Task-induced strategies and near-threshold priming： conscious influences on unconscious perception．Journal of Memory and Language，28，412-443．
Dmaian，M．F．(2001)．Congruity effets evoked by subliminally presented primes：Automanticity rather than semantie proeessing．Journal of Experimental Psychology：Human Perception & Performance，27，154-165．
Dasgupta，N．，Greenwald，A．G．，& Banaji，M．R．(2003)．The first ontological challenge to the IAT： Attitude or mere familiarity?．Psychological Inquiry，14(3)，238-243．
Debner，J．A．，& Jacoby，L．L．(1994)．Unconscious perception： attention，awareness，and control．Journal of Experimental Psychology： Learning，Memory，and Cognition，20，304-317．
Dehaene，S．，Naccache，L．，Cohen，L．，Le Bihan，D．，et al．(2001)．Cerebral mechanisms of word masking and unconscious repetition priming．Nature Neuroscience，4(7)，752-758．
Brown & Co．Dennett，D．C．(2001)．Are we explaining consciousness yet? Cognition，79，221-237．
Dehaene，S．，et al．(1998)．Imaging unconscious semantic priming．Nature，395，597-600．
Dienes，Z．，Altmann，G．T．M．，Kwan，L．，& Goode，A．(1995)．Unconscious knowledge of artificial grammars is applied strategically．Journal of Experimental Psychology：Learning，Memory and Cognition，21，1322-1338．
Dienes，Z．，Perner，J．(1999)．A theory of implicit and explicit knowledge．Behavioral and Brain Science，22，735-808．
Dijksterhuis，A．，Smith，P．K．(2002)．Affective habituation： Subliminal exposure to extreme stimuli decreases their extremity．Emotion，2(3)，203-214．
Dixon，M．J．，Smike，D．，& Merikle，P．M．(2004)．Not all synaesthetes are created equal： Projectorversusassociatorsynaesthetes．Cognitive，Affective，&Behavioral Neuroscience，4(3)，335-343．
Domangue，T．J．(2002)．The effects of implicit，explicit，and synergistic training on learning an artificial grammar．A Thesis for degree of master of arts．
Duncan，J．(1985)．Two techniques for investigating perception without awareness．Perception & Psychophysics，38，296-298．
Eastwood，J．D．(2003)．Negative facial expression captures attention and disrupts performance．Perception & Psychophysics，65(3)，352-358．
Eastwood，J．D．，Smilek，D．，& Merikle，P．M．(2001)．Differential attentional guidance by unattended faces expressing positive and negative emotion．Perception & Psychophysics，63(6)，1004-1013．
Eastwood，J．D．，Smilek，D．，& Merikle，P．M．(2003)．Negative facial expression captures attention and disrupts performance．Perception & Psychophysics，65(3)，352-358．
Eddie, H. J., Allen, J. B. (2001). The role of affect in the mere exposure effect: Evidence from psychophysiological and individual differences approaches. PNAS, 27(7), 889-898.
Eimer, M., Schlaghecken, F. (2003). Response facilitation and inhibition in subliminal priming. Biological Psychology, 64, 7-26.
Erdelyi, M. H. (1970). Subliminal perception and its cognates: Theory, indeterminacy, and time. Consciousness and Cognition, 13, 73-91.
Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1980). Verbal reports as data. Psychological Review, 87, 215-251.
Eriksen, C. W. (1980). The use of a visual mask may seriously confound your experiment. Perception & Psychophysics, 28, 89-92.
Esteves, F., & Ohman, A. (1993). Masking the face: Recognition of emotional facial expressions as a function of the parameters of backward masking. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 34, 1-18.
Esteves, F., Dimberg, U., &Ohman, A. (1994). Automatically elicited fear: conditioned skin conductance responses to masked facial expressions. Cognition and Emotion, 8, 393-413.
Fang, X., Singh, S., & Ahluwalia, H. R. (2007). An examination of different explanations for the mere exposure effect. Journal of Consumer Research, 34, June.
Fowler, C. A., Wolford, G., Slade, R., & Tassinary, L. (1981). Lexical access with and without awareness. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 110, 341-362.
Frensch, P. A., Buchner, A., & Lin, J. (1994). Implicit learning of unique and ambiguous serial transitions in the presence and absence of a distractor task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 20, 567-584.
Gordon, P. C, & Holyyoak, K. J.(1983). Implicit learning and generalization of the mere exposure effect. Journal of Personality and social Psychology, 45, 492-500.
Gray, H. M., Gray, K., & Wegner, D. M. (2007). Dimensions of mind perception. Science, 315, 2 February.
Greenberg, D. L. (2007). Comment on "Detecting Awareness in the Vegetative State". Science, 315, 2 MARCH
Greenwald，A．G．，Abrams，R．L．，& Dehaene，S．(2003)．Lionel Naccache long-term semantic memory versus contextual memory in unconscious number processing．Journal of Experimental Psychology： Learning，Memory，and Cognition，29(2)，235-247．
Greenwald，A．G．，Draine，S．C．，& Abrams，R．L．(1996)．Three cognitive markers of unconscious semantic activation．Science，273，1699-1702．
Greenwald，A．G．，Pickrell，J．E．，& Farnham，S．D．(2002)．Implicit partisanship： Taking sides for no reason．Journal of Personality and Social Psychology，83(2)，367-379．
Groeger，J．A．(1984)．Evidence of unconscious semantic processing from a forced-error situation．British Journal of Psychology，75，305-314．
Groeger，J．A．(1988)．Qualitatively different effects of undetected and unidentified auditory primes．Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology，40，323-339．
Haase，S．J．，Theios，J．，& Jenison，R．(1999)．A signal detection theory analysis of an unconscious perception effect．Perception & Psychophysics，61，986-992．
Haber，R．N．and Erdelyi，M．H．(1967)．Emergence and recovery of initially unavailable perceptual material．Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior，6，618-628．
Herbart，J．F．，(1816/1881)．A textbook in psychology： An attempt to found the science of psychology on experience，metaphysics and mathematics．New York： Appleton．
Holden，S．J．S，Vanhuele，M．(1999)．Know the name，forget the exposure： Brand familiarity versus memory of exposure context．Psychology & Marketing，16(6)，479-496．
Holender，D．(1986)．Semanticactivationwithoutconsciousidentificationin dichotic-listening，parafoveal vision，and visual masking： A survey and appraisal．Behavioral and Brain Sciences，9，1-23．
Howard，D．V．，& Howard，J．H．(1989)．Age difference in learing serial patterns： Direct versus indirect measures．Psychology and Aging，4，357-364．
Hurling，B．R．，Stocks，J．(2005)．Acquisition of liking for spinach products．Food Quality and Preference，16，461-469．
Kim，C．Y．，& Blake，R．(2005)．Psychophysical majic： Rendering the visible 'invisible'．Trends in Cognitive Science，9，381-388．
Jacoby，L．L．，& Whitehouse，K．(1989)．An illusion of memory： false recognition influenced by unconscious perception．Journal of Experimental Psychology： General，118，126-135．
John，P．W．T．(2001)．Mind at ease puts a smile on the face psychophysiological evidence that processing facilitation elicits positive affect．Journal of Personality and Social P'sychology，81(6)，989-1000．
Jones，J．T．，Pelham，B．W．，& Mirenberg，M．C．(2002)．Name letter preferences are not merely mere exposure： Implicit egotism as self-regulation．Journal of Experimental Social Psychology，38，170-177．
Kant，I．，(1798/1978)．Anthropology from a pragmatic point of view．Carbondale，IL：Southern Illinois University Press．
Karremans，J．C．，Stroebe，W．，& Claus，J．(2006)．Beyond Vicary's fantasies： The impact of subliminal priming and brand choice．Journal of Experimental Social Psychology，23，4，1-7．
Kemp-Wheeler，S．M．，& Hill，A．B．(1988)．Semantic priming without awareness： Some methodological considerations and replications．Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology，40，671-692．
Kunimoto，C．，Miller，J．，& Pashler，H．(2001)．Confidence and accuracy of near-threshold discrimination responses．Consciousness and Cognition，10，294-340．
Kunst-Wilson，W．R．and Zajonc，R．B．(1980)，．Affective discrimination of stimuli that cannot be recognized．Science，207，557-558．
Lamme，V．A．F．(2003)．Why visual attention and awareness are different．Trends in Cognitive Sciences，7，12-18．
Lawson，A．R．(2004)．Depth rotation and mirror-image reflection reduce affective preference as well as recognition memory for pictures of novel objects．Memory & Cognition，32(7)，1170-1181．
Leibniz，G．W．，(1704/1981)．New essays on human understanding．Cambridge，UK：Cambridge University Press．
Leonard，D．，Sensiper，S．(1998)．The role of tacit knowledge in group innovation．California Management Review，40，112-132．
Levinson，B．W．(1965)，．States of awareness during general anaesthesia．BritishJournal ofAnaesthesia，37，544-546．
Levy，C．M．，MacRae，A．，Koster，E．P．(2006)．Perceived stimulus complexity and food preference development．Acta Psychological，23，394-413．
Luka，B．J．，Barsalou，L．W．(2005)．Structural facilitation： Mere exposure effects for grammatical acceptability as evidence for syntactic priming in comprehension．Journal of Memory and Language，52，444-467．
Macmillan，N．A．，& Creelman，C．D．(1990)．Response bias： Characteristics of detection theory，threshold theory，and nonparametric indexes．Psychological Bulletin，107，401-413．
Mandler，J．M．(2004)．Thought before language．Trends in Cognitive Sciences，8，11，508-513．
Manza，L．，& Bornstein，R．(1995)．Affective discrimination and the implicit learning process．Conscioueness and Cognition，4，399-409．
Martinez，A．(1998)．The Unconscious mere exposure effect for positive and negative valence emotional facial stimuli．The Berkeley McNair Research Journal，4，85-98．
Marcel，A．J．(1980)．Conscious and preconscious recognition of polysemous words： locating the selective effects of prior verbal context．In R．S．Nickerson，Attention and performance (Vol．VIII，435-457)．Hillsdale，NJ： Erlbaum．
Marcel，A．J．(1983)．Conscious and unconscious perception： experiments on visual masking and word recognition．Cognitive Psychology，15，197-237．
Marcel，A．J．(2003)．Introspective report： Trust，self-knowledge and science．Journal of Consciousness studies，10(9)，167-186．
Maxfield，L．(1997)．Attention and semantic priming： A review of prime task effects．Conscious and Cognition，6，204-218．
Maxwell，J．S．，& Davidson，R．J．(2004)．Unequally masked： Indexing differences in the perceptual salience of “unseen” facial expressions．Cognition & Emotion，18，1009-1026．
Maybery，M．，Taylor，M．，& O'Brien-Malone．(1995)．Impicit learing： Sensiteve to age but not IQ．Journal of Psychology，47(1)，8-17．
Merikle，P．M．(1998)．Psychological investigations of unconscious perception．Journal of Consciousness Studies，5(1)，5-18．
Merikle，P．M．，Joordens，S．& Stolz，J．A．(1995)．Measuring the relative magnitude of unconscious influences，Consciousness and Cognition，4，422-439．
Merikle，P．M．，& Joordens，S．(1997)．Parallels between perception without attention and perception without awareness．Conciousness and Cognition，6，219-236．
Merikle，P．M．，(2000) Kazdin，A．E．(Ed)，Encyclopedia of Psychology (7)．，New York： Oxford Univ Press，497-499．
Merikle，P．M．，Daneman，M．(1996)．Memory for unconsciously perceived events： Evidence from anesthetized patients．Consciousness and Cognition，5，525-541．
Merikle，P．M．，Reingold，E．M．(1998)．On demonstrating unconscious perception： Comment on Draine and Greenwald (1998)．Journal of Experimental Psychology，127(3)，304-310．
Merikle，P．M．，Smilek，D．Eastwood，J．D．，(2001)．Perception without awareness：perspectives from cognitive psychology．Cognition，79，115-134．
Merikle，P．M．and Daneman，M．(1996)，．Memory for unconsciously perceived events：Evidence from anesthetized patients．Consciousness and Cognition，5，525-541．
Meyer，D．E．，& Schvaneveldt，R．W．(1976)．Meaning，memory structure and mental processes．Science，192，27-33．
Moore，C．M．，& Egeth，H．(1997)．Perception without attention： evidence of grouping under conditions of inattention．Journal of Experimental Psychology： Human Perception and Performance，23，339-352．
Moorthy，S．，Hawkins，S．A．(2005)．Advertising repetition and quality perception．Journal of Business Research，58 354-360．
Murphy，S．T．，& Zajonc，R．B．(1993)．Affect，cognition，and awareness： affective priming with optimal and suboptimal stimulus exposures．Journal of Personality and Social Psychology，64，723-739．
Naccache，L．，Gaillard，R．，& Adam，C．，et al．(2005)．A direct intracranial record of emotions evoked by subliminal words．PNAS，102，21，7713-7717．
Newell，B．R．(2002)．Evidence against hyperspecificity in implicit invariant learning．The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology，55(4)，1109-1126．
Newell，B．R．(2007)．Challenging the role of implicit processes in probabilistic category learning．Psychonomic Bulletin & Review，14 (3)，505-511．
Newell，B．R．，& Andrews，S．(2004)．Levels of processing effects on implicit and explicit memory tasks： Using question position to investigate the Lexical-Processing Hypothesis Experimental Psychology，51(2)，1-13．
Newell，B．R．，& Bright，J．E．H．(2001)．The relationship between the structural mere exposure effect and the implicit learning process．The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology，51(2)，132-143．
Newell，B．R．，& Bright，J．E．H．(2002)．Well past midnight： Calling time on implicit invariant learning?．The Eurpoean Journal of Cognitive Psychology，14(2)，185-205．
Newell，B．R．，(2005)．Re-visions of rationality? Trends in Cognitive Sciences，9(1)，11-15．
Newell，B．R．，Bright，J．E．H．(2002)．Evidence against hyperspecificity in implicit invariant learning．The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology，55(4)，1109-1126．
Newell，B．R．，Bright，J．H．(2003)．The subliminal mere exposure effect does not generalize to structurally related stimuli．Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology，57(1)，61-68．
Newell，B．R．，Shanks，D．R．(2006)．Recognising what you like： Examining the relation between the mere-exposure effect and recognition．The European and Journal of Cognitive Psychology，4，1-16．
Nisbett，R．E．，& Wilson，T．D．(1977)．Telling more than we can do： Verbal reports on mental processes．Psychological Review，84，231-259．
Nordhielm，C．L．(2002)．The influence of level of processing on advertising repetition effects．Journal of Consumer Research，29，371-382
Nordhielm，C．L．(2003)．A levels-of-processing model of advertising repetition effects．In：Scott L M，Batra R ed．Persuasive imagery： a consumer response perspective．Mahwah，NJ：Lawrence Erlbaum Associates，91-104．
Overgaard，M．，& Soeresen，T．A．(2004)．Introspection distinct from first-order experiences．Journal of Consciousness studies，11(7-8)，77-95．
Peirce，C．S．and Jastrow，J．(1884)，．On small differences in sensation．Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences，3，73-83．
Perruchet，P．，& Vinter，A．，& Gallego，J．O．(1997)．Implicit learning shapes new conscious percepts and representations．Psychonomic Bulletin & Review，4(1)，43-48．
Perruchet，P．，Gallego，J．，& Savy，I．(1990)．A critical reappraisal of the evidence for unconscious abstraction of deterministic rules in complex experimental situations．Cognitive Psychology，22，493-516．
Pessoa，L．，Japee，S．，Sturman，D．，& Ungerleider．(2006)．Target visibility and visual awareness modulate amygdala responses to fearful faces．Cerebral Cortex，16，366-375．
Poezl，O．(1960)，．The relationships between experimentally induced dream images and indirect vision．Psychological Issues，2，46-106 (originally published 1917)．
Polanyi，M．(1958)．Personal knowledge．London： Routledge and Kegan Paul．
Pothos，E．M．(2005)．Expectations about stimulus structure in implicit learning．Memory & Cognition，33(1)，171-181．
Raticliff，R．，McKoon，G．(1988)．A retrieval theory of priming in memoy．Psychological Review，95，385-408．
Reber，A．S．(1967)．Implicit learning of artificial grammars．Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior，5，855-863．
Reber，A．S．(1993)．Implicit learning and tacit knowledge： An essay on the cognitive unconscious．London： Oxford University Press．
Reber，R．(2004)．Processing fluency and aesthetic pleasure： Is beauty in the perceiver's processing experience?．Personality and Social Psychology Review，8(4)，364-382．
Reingold，E．M．，& Merikle，P．M．(1988)．Using direct and indirect measures to study perception without awareness．Perception & Psychophysics，44，563-575．
Reingold，E．M．，&Merikle，P．M．(1990)．On the inter-relatedness of theory and measurement in the study of unconscious processes．Mind & Language，5，9-28．
Reingold，E．M．and Merikle，P．M．(1988)，．Using direct and indirect measures to study perception without awareness．Perception & Psych ophysics，44，563-575．
Sadler, P. (2006). Alcohol advertising and youth drinking in Australia - what are the available complaints mechanisms, legal and otherwise?. Media and Arts Law Review, 11, 120-160.
Schooler, J. W., & Schreiber, C. A. (2004). Experience, meta-consciousness, and the paradox of introspection. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 11, 17-39.
Seamon, J. G., & Delgado, M. R. (1999). Recognition memory and affective preference for depth-rotated solid objects: Part-based structural descriptions may underlie the mere exposure effect. Visual Cognition, 6(2), 145-164.
Seamon, J. G., McKenna, P. A. & Binder, N., (1998). The mere exposure effect is differentially sensitive to different judgment tasks. Consciousness and Cognition, 1, 85-102.
Shanks, D. R., & Johnstone, T. (1998). Implicit knowledge in sequential learning tasks. In M. A. Stadler & P. A. Frensch (Eds.), Handbook of implicit learning (pp. 533-572). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Shanks, D. R., & Johnstone, T. (1999). Evaluating the relationship between explicit and implicit knowledge in a serial reaction time task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition.
Searle, J.R. (1992). The Rediscovery of the Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).
Shevrin, H. & Dickman, S. (1980), .The psychological unconscious: A necessary assumption for all psychological theory?. American Psychologist, 35,421-434.
Shevrin, H. and Luborsky, L. (1958), .The measurement of preconscious perception in dreams and images: An investigation of the Poetzl phenomenon. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 56, 285-294.
Sidis, B. (1898). The psychology of suggestion. New York: D. Appleton.
Silvera, D. H., Josephs, R. A., & Giesler, R. B. (2002). Bigger is better: The influence of physical size on aesthetic preference judgments. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 15, 189-202.
Smilek, D., Eastwood, J. D., & Merikle, P. M. (2000). Does unattended information facilitate change detection?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and erformance, 26(2), 480-487.
Smith, E. R., Miller, D. A., & Maitner, A. T., et al. (2006). Familiarity can increase stereotyping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42,471-478.
Smith, P. K., Dijksterhuis, A., Chaiken, S. (2007). Subliminal exposure to faces and racial attitudes: Exposure to Whites makes Whites like Blacks less. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 23, 25-32.
Smith, S. D., & Barbara, M. (2004). A hemispheric asymmetry for the unconscious perception of emotion. Brain and Cognition, 55, 452-457.
Snodgrass, M., Shevrin, H., & Kopka, M. (1993). The mediation of intentional judgments by unconscious perception: the influence of task preference, word meaning, and motivation. Consciousness and Cognition, 2, 169-193.
Stone, M., Ladd, S. L., & Vaidya, C. J., et al. (1998). Word-identification priming for ignored and attended words. Consciousness and Cogition, 7, 238-258.
Scroop, J. R. (1935), .Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643-662.
Tunney, R. J., & Shanks, D. (2003). Subjective measures of awareness and implicit cognition. Memory and Cognition, 31 (7), 1060-1071.
Unkelbach, C, Fiedler, K., & Freytag, P. (2007). Information repetition in evaluative judgments: Easy to monitor, hard to control. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 103, 37-52.
Visser, T. A. W., & Merikle, P. M. (1999). Conscious and unconscious processes: The effects of motivation. Consciousness and Cognition, 8, 94-113.
Vorberg, D., Mattler, U., & Heinecke, A., et al. (2003). Different time courses for visual perception and action priming. PNAS, 100, 10, 6275-6280.
Weaver, K., Garcia, S. M., & Schwarz, N., et al. (2007). Inferring the popularity of an opinion from its familiarity: A repetitive voice can sound like a chorus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 5, 821-833.
Wiens, S. (2006). Theoretical note: Current concerns in visual masking. Emotion, 6(4), 675-680.
Wiens，S．，& Ohman，A．(2002)．Unawareness is more than a chance event： Comment on Lovibond and Shanks (2002)．Journal of Experimental Psychology： Animal Behavior Processes，28，27-31．
Wiens，S．，Fransson，P．，Dietrich，T．，& Lohmann，P．，et al．(2004)．Keeping it short： A comparison of methods for brief picture presentation．Psychological Science，15，282-285．
Willems，S．，Linden，M．V．(2006)．Mere exposure effect： A consequence of direct and indirect fluency-preference links．Consciousness and Cognition，15，323-341．
Willingham，D．B．，Nissen，M．J．，& Bullemer，P．(1989)．On the development of procedural knowledge．Journal of Experimental Psychology： Learning，Memory and Cognition，15，1047-1060．
Winkielman，P．，Halberstadt，J．，& Fazendeiro，T．，et al．(2006)．Prototypes are attractive because they are easy on the mind．Psychological Science，17，9，799-806．
Ye，G．，Fred，W．R．(1997)．What inhibits the mere-exposure effect： Recollection or familiarity?．Journal of Economic Psychology，18，629-648．
Ziori，E．，& Dienes，Z．(2006)．Subjective measures of unconscious knowledge of concepts．Mind and Society，5(1)，105-122．
Zizak，D．M．，& Reber，A．S．(2002)．Implicit preferences： The role(s) of familiarity in the structural mere exposure effect．Consciousness & Cognition，13，336-362．
Zizak，D．M．，& Reber，A．S．(2004)．Implicit preferences： The role(s) of familiarity in the structural mere exposure effect．Consciousness and Cognition，13，336-362．
付秋芳，傅小兰．(2006)．内隐学习中表征与意识的关系．心理科学进展，14(1)，18-22．
柯学，隋南，沈德立．(2001)．脑的感知觉无意识加工及其研究进展．心理学报，33(1)，88-93．
郭秀艳．(2003)．内隐学习．上海：华东师范大学出版社．
郭秀艳，李林．(2006)．意识与无意识的关系——实证的视角．心理学探新，1，3-8．
高鑫，郑一筠，杨宝玲．(2007)．人工语法学习迁移研究进展．西北民族大学学报(自然科学版)，28(1)，52-57．
蒋重清，杨丽珠，刘颖．(2007)．阈下情绪Stroop效应发展特点．心理学报，39(2)，242-248
李祚，张开荆．(2007)．隐性知识的认知结构．湖南师范大学社会科学学报，4，38-41．
马立军，张积家．(2005)．阈下启动与记忆分类．心理学探新，1，46-48．
聂晶，郭秀艳．(2004)．内隐学习与无觉察知觉辨析．心理科学，27(1)，130-133．
任爱荣，水仁德．(2006)．长时语义记忆对阈下语义启动效应的影响．应用心理学，12(4)，326-332．
沈德立．(2006)．高效率学习的心理学研究．北京：教育科学出版社．
石文典，钟高峰，鲁直．(2005)．阈下知觉和隐性广．告的作用及启动效应研究．心理科学，28(3)，683-685．
水仁德，丁海杰，沈模卫．(2003)．阈下语义启动的任务分离研究模式及其理论模型．心理科学进展，11(1)，28-34．
水仁德，丁海杰，沈模卫．(2003)．汉语阈下语义启动无意识机制研究，心理科学，26(6)，1025-1029
吴国来．(2004)．内隐序列学习的发展研究．博士学位论文．
王沛，鲁春晓．(2005)．阈下启动的心理机制初探．心理科学，28(6)，344-346．
周仁来，杨莹．(2004)．阈上与阈下知觉启动之间的差异：来自Stroop效应的证据．心理科学进展，27(3)，567-570．
周仁来，许杰．(2001)．知觉启动效应及其脑机制的研究进展．心理科学，24(1)，81-84．
周仁来．(2004)．阈下知觉研究中觉知状态测量方法的发展与启示．心理科学进展，12(3)，321-329．
Abrams，R．L．，Klinger，M．R．，& Greenwald，A．G．(2002)．Subliminal words activate semantic categories (not automanted motor responses)．Psyehonimic Bulletin & Review，9，100-106．
Abrams，R．L．，& Greenwald，A．G．(2000)．Parts outweigh the whole (word) in unconscious analysis of meaning．Psychological Seienee，11，118-124．
Atkinson，A．P．，Thomas，M．S．C．，& Cleeremans，A．(2000)．Consciousness： Mapping the theoretical landscape．Trends in Cognitive Sciences，4(10)，372-382．
Auty，S．，& Lewis，C．(2004)．Exploring children's choice： The reminder effect of product placement．Psychology & Marketing，21(9)，699-716．
Avant，L．L．，& Thieman，A．A．(1985)．On visual access to letter case and lexical/semantic infoemation．Memory & Cognition，13，393-404．
Bar，M．，& Biederman，T．(1998)．Subliminal visual priming．Psychological Science，9(6)，464-469．
Berry，C．J．，Shanks，D．R．，& Henson，R．N．A．(2006)．On the status of unconscious memory： Merikle and Reingold (1991) Revisited．Journal of Experimental Psychology：Learning，Memory，and Cognition．32，4，925-934．
Bornstein，R．F．(2004)．Subliminality，consciousness，and temporal shifts in awareness：Implications within and beyond the laboratory．Consciousness and Cognition，13，613-618．
Bornstein，R．F．，& D'Agostino，P．R．(1992)．Stimulus recognition and the mere exposure effect．Journal of Personality and Social Psychology，63(4)，545-552．
Brannon，L．A．，Tagler，M．J．，&Eagly，A．H．(2007)．The moderating role of attitude strength in selective exposure to information．Journal of Experimental Social Psychology，43，611-617．
Brin，P．，Petty，R．E．，& Tormala，Z．L．(2006)．The malleable meaning of subjective ease．Psychological Science，17，3，200-206．
Buchner，A．，& Brandt，M．(2003)．Further evidence for systematic reliability differences between explicit and implicit memory tests．The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology，56(2)，193-209．
Cheesman，J．，& Merikle，P．M．(1984)．Priming with and without awareness．Perception and Psychophysics，36，387-395．
Cheesman，J．，& Merikle，P．M．(1986)．Distinguishing conscious from unconscious perceptual processes．Canadian Journal of Psychology，40，343-367．
Cohen，A．，& Curran，T．(1993)．On tasks，knowledge，correlations，and dissociations：Comment on Perruchet and Amorim (1992)．Journal of Experimental Psychology：Learning，Memory and Cognition，19，1431-1437．
Collins，A．M．，Loftus，E．F．(1975)．A spreading activation theory of semantic processing．Psychologieal Review，82，407-428．
Costen，N．P．，Shepherd，J．，Ellis，H．，& Craw，I．(1994)．Masking of faces by facial and non-facial stimuli．Visual Cognition，1，227-251．
Crabb，B．T．，& Dark，V．J．(2003)．Perceptual implicit memory relies on intentional，load-sensitive processing at encoding．Memory & Cognition，31，997-1008．
Dagenbach，D．，Carr，T．H．，& Wihelmsen，A．(1989)．Task-induced strategies and near-threshold priming： conscious influences on unconscious perception．Journal of Memory and Language，28，412-443．
Dmaian，M．F．(2001)．Congruity effets evoked by subliminally presented primes：Automanticity rather than semantie proeessing．Journal of Experimental Psychology：Human Perception & Performance，27，154-165．
Dasgupta，N．，Greenwald，A．G．，& Banaji，M．R．(2003)．The first ontological challenge to the IAT： Attitude or mere familiarity?．Psychological Inquiry，14(3)，238-243．
Debner，J．A．，& Jacoby，L．L．(1994)．Unconscious perception： attention，awareness，and control．Journal of Experimental Psychology： Learning，Memory，and Cognition，20，304-317．
Dehaene，S．，Naccache，L．，Cohen，L．，Le Bihan，D．，et al．(2001)．Cerebral mechanisms of word masking and unconscious repetition priming．Nature Neuroscience，4(7)，752-758．
Brown & Co．Dennett，D．C．(2001)．Are we explaining consciousness yet? Cognition，79，221-237．
Dehaene，S．，et al．(1998)．Imaging unconscious semantic priming．Nature，395，597-600．
Dienes，Z．，Altmann，G．T．M．，Kwan，L．，& Goode，A．(1995)．Unconscious knowledge of artificial grammars is applied strategically．Journal of Experimental Psychology：Learning，Memory and Cognition，21，1322-1338．
Dienes，Z．，Perner，J．(1999)．A theory of implicit and explicit knowledge．Behavioral and Brain Science，22，735-808．
Dijksterhuis，A．，Smith，P．K．(2002)．Affective habituation： Subliminal exposure to extreme stimuli decreases their extremity．Emotion，2(3)，203-214．
Dixon，M．J．，Smike，D．，& Merikle，P．M．(2004)．Not all synaesthetes are created equal： Projectorversusassociatorsynaesthetes．Cognitive，Affective，&Behavioral Neuroscience，4(3)，335-343．
Domangue，T．J．(2002)．The effects of implicit，explicit，and synergistic training on learning an artificial grammar．A Thesis for degree of master of arts．
Duncan，J．(1985)．Two techniques for investigating perception without awareness．Perception & Psychophysics，38，296-298．
Eastwood，J．D．(2003)．Negative facial expression captures attention and disrupts performance．Perception & Psychophysics，65(3)，352-358．
Eastwood，J．D．，Smilek，D．，& Merikle，P．M．(2001)．Differential attentional guidance by unattended faces expressing positive and negative emotion．Perception & Psychophysics，63(6)，1004-1013．
Eastwood，J．D．，Smilek，D．，& Merikle，P．M．(2003)．Negative facial expression captures attention and disrupts performance．Perception & Psychophysics，65(3)，352-358．
Eddie, H. J., Allen, J. B. (2001). The role of affect in the mere exposure effect: Evidence from psychophysiological and individual differences approaches. PNAS, 27(7), 889-898.
Eimer, M., Schlaghecken, F. (2003). Response facilitation and inhibition in subliminal priming. Biological Psychology, 64, 7-26.
Erdelyi, M. H. (1970). Subliminal perception and its cognates: Theory, indeterminacy, and time. Consciousness and Cognition, 13, 73-91.
Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1980). Verbal reports as data. Psychological Review, 87, 215-251.
Eriksen, C. W. (1980). The use of a visual mask may seriously confound your experiment. Perception & Psychophysics, 28, 89-92.
Esteves, F., & Ohman, A. (1993). Masking the face: Recognition of emotional facial expressions as a function of the parameters of backward masking. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 34, 1-18.
Esteves, F., Dimberg, U., &Ohman, A. (1994). Automatically elicited fear: conditioned skin conductance responses to masked facial expressions. Cognition and Emotion, 8, 393-413.
Fang, X., Singh, S., & Ahluwalia, H. R. (2007). An examination of different explanations for the mere exposure effect. Journal of Consumer Research, 34, June.
Fowler, C. A., Wolford, G., Slade, R., & Tassinary, L. (1981). Lexical access with and without awareness. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 110, 341-362.
Frensch, P. A., Buchner, A., & Lin, J. (1994). Implicit learning of unique and ambiguous serial transitions in the presence and absence of a distractor task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 20, 567-584.
Gordon, P. C, & Holyyoak, K. J.(1983). Implicit learning and generalization of the mere exposure effect. Journal of Personality and social Psychology, 45, 492-500.
Gray, H. M., Gray, K., & Wegner, D. M. (2007). Dimensions of mind perception. Science, 315, 2 February.
Greenberg, D. L. (2007). Comment on "Detecting Awareness in the Vegetative State". Science, 315, 2 MARCH
Greenwald，A．G．，Abrams，R．L．，& Dehaene，S．(2003)．Lionel Naccache long-term semantic memory versus contextual memory in unconscious number processing．Journal of Experimental Psychology： Learning，Memory，and Cognition，29(2)，235-247．
Greenwald，A．G．，Draine，S．C．，& Abrams，R．L．(1996)．Three cognitive markers of unconscious semantic activation．Science，273，1699-1702．
Greenwald，A．G．，Pickrell，J．E．，& Farnham，S．D．(2002)．Implicit partisanship： Taking sides for no reason．Journal of Personality and Social Psychology，83(2)，367-379．
Groeger，J．A．(1984)．Evidence of unconscious semantic processing from a forced-error situation．British Journal of Psychology，75，305-314．
Groeger，J．A．(1988)．Qualitatively different effects of undetected and unidentified auditory primes．Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology，40，323-339．
Haase，S．J．，Theios，J．，& Jenison，R．(1999)．A signal detection theory analysis of an unconscious perception effect．Perception & Psychophysics，61，986-992．
Haber，R．N．and Erdelyi，M．H．(1967)．Emergence and recovery of initially unavailable perceptual material．Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior，6，618-628．
Herbart，J．F．，(1816/1881)．A textbook in psychology： An attempt to found the science of psychology on experience，metaphysics and mathematics．New York： Appleton．
Holden，S．J．S，Vanhuele，M．(1999)．Know the name，forget the exposure： Brand familiarity versus memory of exposure context．Psychology & Marketing，16(6)，479-496．
Holender，D．(1986)．Semanticactivationwithoutconsciousidentificationin dichotic-listening，parafoveal vision，and visual masking： A survey and appraisal．Behavioral and Brain Sciences，9，1-23．
Howard，D．V．，& Howard，J．H．(1989)．Age difference in learing serial patterns： Direct versus indirect measures．Psychology and Aging，4，357-364．
Hurling，B．R．，Stocks，J．(2005)．Acquisition of liking for spinach products．Food Quality and Preference，16，461-469．
Kim，C．Y．，& Blake，R．(2005)．Psychophysical majic： Rendering the visible 'invisible'．Trends in Cognitive Science，9，381-388．
Jacoby，L．L．，& Whitehouse，K．(1989)．An illusion of memory： false recognition influenced by unconscious perception．Journal of Experimental Psychology： General，118，126-135．
John，P．W．T．(2001)．Mind at ease puts a smile on the face psychophysiological evidence that processing facilitation elicits positive affect．Journal of Personality and Social P'sychology，81(6)，989-1000．
Jones，J．T．，Pelham，B．W．，& Mirenberg，M．C．(2002)．Name letter preferences are not merely mere exposure： Implicit egotism as self-regulation．Journal of Experimental Social Psychology，38，170-177．
Kant，I．，(1798/1978)．Anthropology from a pragmatic point of view．Carbondale，IL：Southern Illinois University Press．
Karremans，J．C．，Stroebe，W．，& Claus，J．(2006)．Beyond Vicary's fantasies： The impact of subliminal priming and brand choice．Journal of Experimental Social Psychology，23，4，1-7．
Kemp-Wheeler，S．M．，& Hill，A．B．(1988)．Semantic priming without awareness： Some methodological considerations and replications．Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology，40，671-692．
Kunimoto，C．，Miller，J．，& Pashler，H．(2001)．Confidence and accuracy of near-threshold discrimination responses．Consciousness and Cognition，10，294-340．
Kunst-Wilson，W．R．and Zajonc，R．B．(1980)，．Affective discrimination of stimuli that cannot be recognized．Science，207，557-558．
Lamme，V．A．F．(2003)．Why visual attention and awareness are different．Trends in Cognitive Sciences，7，12-18．
Lawson，A．R．(2004)．Depth rotation and mirror-image reflection reduce affective preference as well as recognition memory for pictures of novel objects．Memory & Cognition，32(7)，1170-1181．
Leibniz，G．W．，(1704/1981)．New essays on human understanding．Cambridge，UK：Cambridge University Press．
Leonard，D．，Sensiper，S．(1998)．The role of tacit knowledge in group innovation．California Management Review，40，112-132．
Levinson，B．W．(1965)，．States of awareness during general anaesthesia．BritishJournal ofAnaesthesia，37，544-546．
Levy，C．M．，MacRae，A．，Koster，E．P．(2006)．Perceived stimulus complexity and food preference development．Acta Psychological，23，394-413．
Luka，B．J．，Barsalou，L．W．(2005)．Structural facilitation： Mere exposure effects for grammatical acceptability as evidence for syntactic priming in comprehension．Journal of Memory and Language，52，444-467．
Macmillan，N．A．，& Creelman，C．D．(1990)．Response bias： Characteristics of detection theory，threshold theory，and nonparametric indexes．Psychological Bulletin，107，401-413．
Mandler，J．M．(2004)．Thought before language．Trends in Cognitive Sciences，8，11，508-513．
Manza，L．，& Bornstein，R．(1995)．Affective discrimination and the implicit learning process．Conscioueness and Cognition，4，399-409．
Martinez，A．(1998)．The Unconscious mere exposure effect for positive and negative valence emotional facial stimuli．The Berkeley McNair Research Journal，4，85-98．
Marcel，A．J．(1980)．Conscious and preconscious recognition of polysemous words： locating the selective effects of prior verbal context．In R．S．Nickerson，Attention and performance (Vol．VIII，435-457)．Hillsdale，NJ： Erlbaum．
Marcel，A．J．(1983)．Conscious and unconscious perception： experiments on visual masking and word recognition．Cognitive Psychology，15，197-237．
Marcel，A．J．(2003)．Introspective report： Trust，self-knowledge and science．Journal of Consciousness studies，10(9)，167-186．
Maxfield，L．(1997)．Attention and semantic priming： A review of prime task effects．Conscious and Cognition，6，204-218．
Maxwell，J．S．，& Davidson，R．J．(2004)．Unequally masked： Indexing differences in the perceptual salience of “unseen” facial expressions．Cognition & Emotion，18，1009-1026．
Maybery，M．，Taylor，M．，& O'Brien-Malone．(1995)．Impicit learing： Sensiteve to age but not IQ．Journal of Psychology，47(1)，8-17．
Merikle，P．M．(1998)．Psychological investigations of unconscious perception．Journal of Consciousness Studies，5(1)，5-18．
Merikle，P．M．，Joordens，S．& Stolz，J．A．(1995)．Measuring the relative magnitude of unconscious influences，Consciousness and Cognition，4，422-439．
Merikle，P．M．，& Joordens，S．(1997)．Parallels between perception without attention and perception without awareness．Conciousness and Cognition，6，219-236．
Merikle，P．M．，(2000) Kazdin，A．E．(Ed)，Encyclopedia of Psychology (7)．，New York： Oxford Univ Press，497-499．
Merikle，P．M．，Daneman，M．(1996)．Memory for unconsciously perceived events： Evidence from anesthetized patients．Consciousness and Cognition，5，525-541．
Merikle，P．M．，Reingold，E．M．(1998)．On demonstrating unconscious perception： Comment on Draine and Greenwald (1998)．Journal of Experimental Psychology，127(3)，304-310．
Merikle，P．M．，Smilek，D．Eastwood，J．D．，(2001)．Perception without awareness：perspectives from cognitive psychology．Cognition，79，115-134．
Merikle，P．M．and Daneman，M．(1996)，．Memory for unconsciously perceived events：Evidence from anesthetized patients．Consciousness and Cognition，5，525-541．
Meyer，D．E．，& Schvaneveldt，R．W．(1976)．Meaning，memory structure and mental processes．Science，192，27-33．
Moore，C．M．，& Egeth，H．(1997)．Perception without attention： evidence of grouping under conditions of inattention．Journal of Experimental Psychology： Human Perception and Performance，23，339-352．
Moorthy，S．，Hawkins，S．A．(2005)．Advertising repetition and quality perception．Journal of Business Research，58 354-360．
Murphy，S．T．，& Zajonc，R．B．(1993)．Affect，cognition，and awareness： affective priming with optimal and suboptimal stimulus exposures．Journal of Personality and Social Psychology，64，723-739．
Naccache，L．，Gaillard，R．，& Adam，C．，et al．(2005)．A direct intracranial record of emotions evoked by subliminal words．PNAS，102，21，7713-7717．
Newell，B．R．(2002)．Evidence against hyperspecificity in implicit invariant learning．The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology，55(4)，1109-1126．
Newell，B．R．(2007)．Challenging the role of implicit processes in probabilistic category learning．Psychonomic Bulletin & Review，14 (3)，505-511．
Newell，B．R．，& Andrews，S．(2004)．Levels of processing effects on implicit and explicit memory tasks： Using question position to investigate the Lexical-Processing Hypothesis Experimental Psychology，51(2)，1-13．
Newell，B．R．，& Bright，J．E．H．(2001)．The relationship between the structural mere exposure effect and the implicit learning process．The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology，51(2)，132-143．
Newell，B．R．，& Bright，J．E．H．(2002)．Well past midnight： Calling time on implicit invariant learning?．The Eurpoean Journal of Cognitive Psychology，14(2)，185-205．
Newell，B．R．，(2005)．Re-visions of rationality? Trends in Cognitive Sciences，9(1)，11-15．
Newell，B．R．，Bright，J．E．H．(2002)．Evidence against hyperspecificity in implicit invariant learning．The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology，55(4)，1109-1126．
Newell，B．R．，Bright，J．H．(2003)．The subliminal mere exposure effect does not generalize to structurally related stimuli．Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology，57(1)，61-68．
Newell，B．R．，Shanks，D．R．(2006)．Recognising what you like： Examining the relation between the mere-exposure effect and recognition．The European and Journal of Cognitive Psychology，4，1-16．
Nisbett，R．E．，& Wilson，T．D．(1977)．Telling more than we can do： Verbal reports on mental processes．Psychological Review，84，231-259．
Nordhielm，C．L．(2002)．The influence of level of processing on advertising repetition effects．Journal of Consumer Research，29，371-382
Nordhielm，C．L．(2003)．A levels-of-processing model of advertising repetition effects．In：Scott L M，Batra R ed．Persuasive imagery： a consumer response perspective．Mahwah，NJ：Lawrence Erlbaum Associates，91-104．
Overgaard，M．，& Soeresen，T．A．(2004)．Introspection distinct from first-order experiences．Journal of Consciousness studies，11(7-8)，77-95．
Peirce，C．S．and Jastrow，J．(1884)，．On small differences in sensation．Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences，3，73-83．
Perruchet，P．，& Vinter，A．，& Gallego，J．O．(1997)．Implicit learning shapes new conscious percepts and representations．Psychonomic Bulletin & Review，4(1)，43-48．
Perruchet，P．，Gallego，J．，& Savy，I．(1990)．A critical reappraisal of the evidence for unconscious abstraction of deterministic rules in complex experimental situations．Cognitive Psychology，22，493-516．
Pessoa，L．，Japee，S．，Sturman，D．，& Ungerleider．(2006)．Target visibility and visual awareness modulate amygdala responses to fearful faces．Cerebral Cortex，16，366-375．
Poezl，O．(1960)，．The relationships between experimentally induced dream images and indirect vision．Psychological Issues，2，46-106 (originally published 1917)．
Polanyi，M．(1958)．Personal knowledge．London： Routledge and Kegan Paul．
Pothos，E．M．(2005)．Expectations about stimulus structure in implicit learning．Memory & Cognition，33(1)，171-181．
Raticliff，R．，McKoon，G．(1988)．A retrieval theory of priming in memoy．Psychological Review，95，385-408．
Reber，A．S．(1967)．Implicit learning of artificial grammars．Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior，5，855-863．
Reber，A．S．(1993)．Implicit learning and tacit knowledge： An essay on the cognitive unconscious．London： Oxford University Press．
Reber，R．(2004)．Processing fluency and aesthetic pleasure： Is beauty in the perceiver's processing experience?．Personality and Social Psychology Review，8(4)，364-382．
Reingold，E．M．，& Merikle，P．M．(1988)．Using direct and indirect measures to study perception without awareness．Perception & Psychophysics，44，563-575．
Reingold，E．M．，&Merikle，P．M．(1990)．On the inter-relatedness of theory and measurement in the study of unconscious processes．Mind & Language，5，9-28．
Reingold，E．M．and Merikle，P．M．(1988)，．Using direct and indirect measures to study perception without awareness．Perception & Psych ophysics，44，563-575．
Sadler, P. (2006). Alcohol advertising and youth drinking in Australia - what are the available complaints mechanisms, legal and otherwise?. Media and Arts Law Review, 11, 120-160.
Schooler, J. W., & Schreiber, C. A. (2004). Experience, meta-consciousness, and the paradox of introspection. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 11, 17-39.
Seamon, J. G., & Delgado, M. R. (1999). Recognition memory and affective preference for depth-rotated solid objects: Part-based structural descriptions may underlie the mere exposure effect. Visual Cognition, 6(2), 145-164.
Seamon, J. G., McKenna, P. A. & Binder, N., (1998). The mere exposure effect is differentially sensitive to different judgment tasks. Consciousness and Cognition, 1, 85-102.
Shanks, D. R., & Johnstone, T. (1998). Implicit knowledge in sequential learning tasks. In M. A. Stadler & P. A. Frensch (Eds.), Handbook of implicit learning (pp. 533-572). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Shanks, D. R., & Johnstone, T. (1999). Evaluating the relationship between explicit and implicit knowledge in a serial reaction time task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition.
Searle, J.R. (1992). The Rediscovery of the Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).
Shevrin, H. & Dickman, S. (1980), .The psychological unconscious: A necessary assumption for all psychological theory?. American Psychologist, 35,421-434.
Shevrin, H. and Luborsky, L. (1958), .The measurement of preconscious perception in dreams and images: An investigation of the Poetzl phenomenon. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 56, 285-294.
Sidis, B. (1898). The psychology of suggestion. New York: D. Appleton.
Silvera, D. H., Josephs, R. A., & Giesler, R. B. (2002). Bigger is better: The influence of physical size on aesthetic preference judgments. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 15, 189-202.
Smilek, D., Eastwood, J. D., & Merikle, P. M. (2000). Does unattended information facilitate change detection?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and erformance, 26(2), 480-487.
Smith, E. R., Miller, D. A., & Maitner, A. T., et al. (2006). Familiarity can increase stereotyping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42,471-478.
Smith, P. K., Dijksterhuis, A., Chaiken, S. (2007). Subliminal exposure to faces and racial attitudes: Exposure to Whites makes Whites like Blacks less. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 23, 25-32.
Smith, S. D., & Barbara, M. (2004). A hemispheric asymmetry for the unconscious perception of emotion. Brain and Cognition, 55, 452-457.
Snodgrass, M., Shevrin, H., & Kopka, M. (1993). The mediation of intentional judgments by unconscious perception: the influence of task preference, word meaning, and motivation. Consciousness and Cognition, 2, 169-193.
Stone, M., Ladd, S. L., & Vaidya, C. J., et al. (1998). Word-identification priming for ignored and attended words. Consciousness and Cogition, 7, 238-258.
Scroop, J. R. (1935), .Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643-662.
Tunney, R. J., & Shanks, D. (2003). Subjective measures of awareness and implicit cognition. Memory and Cognition, 31 (7), 1060-1071.
Unkelbach, C, Fiedler, K., & Freytag, P. (2007). Information repetition in evaluative judgments: Easy to monitor, hard to control. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 103, 37-52.
Visser, T. A. W., & Merikle, P. M. (1999). Conscious and unconscious processes: The effects of motivation. Consciousness and Cognition, 8, 94-113.
Vorberg, D., Mattler, U., & Heinecke, A., et al. (2003). Different time courses for visual perception and action priming. PNAS, 100, 10, 6275-6280.
Weaver, K., Garcia, S. M., & Schwarz, N., et al. (2007). Inferring the popularity of an opinion from its familiarity: A repetitive voice can sound like a chorus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 5, 821-833.
Wiens, S. (2006). Theoretical note: Current concerns in visual masking. Emotion, 6(4), 675-680.
Wiens，S．，& Ohman，A．(2002)．Unawareness is more than a chance event： Comment on Lovibond and Shanks (2002)．Journal of Experimental Psychology： Animal Behavior Processes，28，27-31．
Wiens，S．，Fransson，P．，Dietrich，T．，& Lohmann，P．，et al．(2004)．Keeping it short： A comparison of methods for brief picture presentation．Psychological Science，15，282-285．
Willems，S．，Linden，M．V．(2006)．Mere exposure effect： A consequence of direct and indirect fluency-preference links．Consciousness and Cognition，15，323-341．
Willingham，D．B．，Nissen，M．J．，& Bullemer，P．(1989)．On the development of procedural knowledge．Journal of Experimental Psychology： Learning，Memory and Cognition，15，1047-1060．
Winkielman，P．，Halberstadt，J．，& Fazendeiro，T．，et al．(2006)．Prototypes are attractive because they are easy on the mind．Psychological Science，17，9，799-806．
Ye，G．，Fred，W．R．(1997)．What inhibits the mere-exposure effect： Recollection or familiarity?．Journal of Economic Psychology，18，629-648．
Ziori，E．，& Dienes，Z．(2006)．Subjective measures of unconscious knowledge of concepts．Mind and Society，5(1)，105-122．
Zizak，D．M．，& Reber，A．S．(2002)．Implicit preferences： The role(s) of familiarity in the structural mere exposure effect．Consciousness & Cognition，13，336-362．
Zizak，D．M．，& Reber，A．S．(2004)．Implicit preferences： The role(s) of familiarity in the structural mere exposure effect．Consciousness and Cognition，13，336-362．