基于化学史教学的理论与实践研究
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摘要
作为化学史的价值,很重要的一个方面就是在学科教学中的体现。它能够解决以逻辑方法为主的传统教育中的一些固有问题,如忽视科学知识形成过程、缺少对科学方法的重视等。然而,与近年来“探究教学”、“教学联系生活”等理科教育教学理念的大力提倡和积极实践相比,化学史在教学中应用的研究,大多停留在教师个人经验总结、泛泛的价值论述阶段。许多时候,表现为教学研究成果相似或重复,对化学历史真实发生过程的分析难以深入,甚至存在片面或错误的理解。所以,这里既需要对相关教育教学理论基础的理性认识,也需要实践者对化学历史本身的深入了解。
·国际科学史教育的发展沿革显示了科学史教育的目的演化历程,即从激发学生成为科学家的兴趣——理解科学活动——掌握科学研究方法——理解知识背景和科学本质,这有助于充分理解化学史在化学教学中可能起到的多重作用。
·近年来,学科教学中融入学科历史的尝试呈上升趋势,其研究多数集中于教学作用述评、教学模式开发和教材中相关内容的分析等。上述各方面的文献分析,可以作为本研究意义的深入阐述。
·现时期科学史及其教学意义的复兴,源于20世纪中叶开始的现代科学哲学对科学教育领域的涉足。科学史为科学进步提供了真实的分析案例,也可以回答诸如“什么是科学”、“如何理解科学的真理性”等问题。对化学教师而言,通过本学科历史的深入了解,有利于理解学生学习中可能遇到的障碍和科学地进行教学设计。这2方面的认识构成了本研究的理论基础。在选取科学哲学和学习心理学相关研究领域有代表性的观点加以诠释后,提供了化学动力学理论发展的历史性分析,作为对科学哲学知识观的具体说明；构建了化学微观概念形成的历史和学生概念发展之比较,作为学习心理和历史发生联系的实证研究。
·为避免仅仅从提高学生学习兴趣的角度使用化学史,论文的第5章以问题提出——分析问题——解决问题的形式,重点论述了化学史在学生科学素养形成中可以起到的3个方面作用。它们从具体到概括的顺序依次为：作为阐明科学研究方法的学科知识意义,作为理解科学本质的科学认识作用,作为昭显科学人文价值、促进学生科学观培养方面的作用。这一部分研究,尽量从化学历史发生的本来面貌中归纳出具有借鉴意义的教学启发。
在建立了化学史教学理论基础和全面理解它的教育价值后,第6章解决的是如何在教学中落实相关理念的问题。本部分首先构建了一个用于指导化学史融入课堂教学设计或分析教学的框架,从中概括出利用化学史实施教学必然涉及的6个要素,即历史情境、研究性问题、历史材料、交流／对话、知识与认知、科学与人文。其次,通过对比关于历史内容在教学中使用时可能存在优点和不足的各种论述,总结出有针对性的4个教学原则：历史与逻辑相结合、客观性与简约性相结合、知识性与方法性相结合、历史性与现实性相结合。最后,作为具体的说明,给出了3个各有侧重的教学案例,分别说明学科历史在教学中的使用,如何体现历史发展促进学生认知发展、形成学生正确的学科认识和一定的科学哲学观念。
Teaching the history of chemistry helps a lot to address the lingering issues in logic-centric education system, i.e., the absence of attention to the formation of scientific knowledge or the acquisition of scientific methodology. While the industry is today preaching science education concepts including exploratory teaching and real life-oriented teaching, the teaching of chemistry is so far more around the teacher's personal experience and non-systematic view of the history. That explains the similarity in teaching research conclusions, the lack of depth in the analysis of the history of chemistry and sometimes even misunderstandings. Therefore, the knowledge about the history of chemistry is as important as teaching skills.
In the evolution of teaching the history of science, the purposes have expanded from merely inspiring the student to be a scientist to encouraging the student to understand scientific activities, learn the right methodology and the background knowledge and to understand the nature of science, which are exactly the targets of teaching the history of chemistry.
The efforts in the industry in recent years around embedding history into teaching, and the researches on teaching results, new teaching model and content design have been very valuable to this study.
The renewed attention to the history of science and its significance to teaching can date back to mid-20th century when philosophy of science had its impact on science education. The history of science offers real life case studies and answers questions like "what is science" and "what is truth" etc. Proper knowledge about the history of chemistry can assist the teacher to anticipate the challenges faced by the students and design teaching accordingly.
Based on above theories, this study comments on the mainstream opinions on the philosophy of science and the psychology of learning. It also discusses the evolution of the chemistry dynamic theory as a case study on the philosophy of science, and compares the evolution of chemistry micro concepts and the development of students'cognition to build a practical bridge between the two.
Chapter 5 illustrates the potential three benefits of the history of chemistry for students'science literacy, i.e., mastering scientific methodologies, understanding the nature of science and forming the proper view of science, which go beyond merely creating interest in the students. The analysis draws upon the facts in the history of chemistry to inspire teaching.
After elaborating on the theory of teaching the history of chemistry and its significance, this essay addresses the implementation in real life teaching in Chapter 6. This chapter offers a framework for embedding the history of chemistry into the design of classroom teaching, and discusses the six major elements in chemistry teaching, i.e., history context, motivation, historical facts, interaction, knowledge and cognition, and science and humanity. After listing the cons and pros of history teaching, this chapter summarizes four teaching principles, i.e., combination of history and logic, that of objectivity and simplicity, knowledge and methodology, and history and reality. Lastly, this chapter provides three case studies to highlight the value of history in chemistry teaching in helping students develop cognition, the right view of chemistry and the philosophy of science.
·国际科学史教育的发展沿革显示了科学史教育的目的演化历程,即从激发学生成为科学家的兴趣——理解科学活动——掌握科学研究方法——理解知识背景和科学本质,这有助于充分理解化学史在化学教学中可能起到的多重作用。
·近年来,学科教学中融入学科历史的尝试呈上升趋势,其研究多数集中于教学作用述评、教学模式开发和教材中相关内容的分析等。上述各方面的文献分析,可以作为本研究意义的深入阐述。
·现时期科学史及其教学意义的复兴,源于20世纪中叶开始的现代科学哲学对科学教育领域的涉足。科学史为科学进步提供了真实的分析案例,也可以回答诸如“什么是科学”、“如何理解科学的真理性”等问题。对化学教师而言,通过本学科历史的深入了解,有利于理解学生学习中可能遇到的障碍和科学地进行教学设计。这2方面的认识构成了本研究的理论基础。在选取科学哲学和学习心理学相关研究领域有代表性的观点加以诠释后,提供了化学动力学理论发展的历史性分析,作为对科学哲学知识观的具体说明；构建了化学微观概念形成的历史和学生概念发展之比较,作为学习心理和历史发生联系的实证研究。
·为避免仅仅从提高学生学习兴趣的角度使用化学史,论文的第5章以问题提出——分析问题——解决问题的形式,重点论述了化学史在学生科学素养形成中可以起到的3个方面作用。它们从具体到概括的顺序依次为：作为阐明科学研究方法的学科知识意义,作为理解科学本质的科学认识作用,作为昭显科学人文价值、促进学生科学观培养方面的作用。这一部分研究,尽量从化学历史发生的本来面貌中归纳出具有借鉴意义的教学启发。
在建立了化学史教学理论基础和全面理解它的教育价值后,第6章解决的是如何在教学中落实相关理念的问题。本部分首先构建了一个用于指导化学史融入课堂教学设计或分析教学的框架,从中概括出利用化学史实施教学必然涉及的6个要素,即历史情境、研究性问题、历史材料、交流／对话、知识与认知、科学与人文。其次,通过对比关于历史内容在教学中使用时可能存在优点和不足的各种论述,总结出有针对性的4个教学原则：历史与逻辑相结合、客观性与简约性相结合、知识性与方法性相结合、历史性与现实性相结合。最后,作为具体的说明,给出了3个各有侧重的教学案例,分别说明学科历史在教学中的使用,如何体现历史发展促进学生认知发展、形成学生正确的学科认识和一定的科学哲学观念。
Teaching the history of chemistry helps a lot to address the lingering issues in logic-centric education system, i.e., the absence of attention to the formation of scientific knowledge or the acquisition of scientific methodology. While the industry is today preaching science education concepts including exploratory teaching and real life-oriented teaching, the teaching of chemistry is so far more around the teacher's personal experience and non-systematic view of the history. That explains the similarity in teaching research conclusions, the lack of depth in the analysis of the history of chemistry and sometimes even misunderstandings. Therefore, the knowledge about the history of chemistry is as important as teaching skills.
In the evolution of teaching the history of science, the purposes have expanded from merely inspiring the student to be a scientist to encouraging the student to understand scientific activities, learn the right methodology and the background knowledge and to understand the nature of science, which are exactly the targets of teaching the history of chemistry.
The efforts in the industry in recent years around embedding history into teaching, and the researches on teaching results, new teaching model and content design have been very valuable to this study.
The renewed attention to the history of science and its significance to teaching can date back to mid-20th century when philosophy of science had its impact on science education. The history of science offers real life case studies and answers questions like "what is science" and "what is truth" etc. Proper knowledge about the history of chemistry can assist the teacher to anticipate the challenges faced by the students and design teaching accordingly.
Based on above theories, this study comments on the mainstream opinions on the philosophy of science and the psychology of learning. It also discusses the evolution of the chemistry dynamic theory as a case study on the philosophy of science, and compares the evolution of chemistry micro concepts and the development of students'cognition to build a practical bridge between the two.
Chapter 5 illustrates the potential three benefits of the history of chemistry for students'science literacy, i.e., mastering scientific methodologies, understanding the nature of science and forming the proper view of science, which go beyond merely creating interest in the students. The analysis draws upon the facts in the history of chemistry to inspire teaching.
After elaborating on the theory of teaching the history of chemistry and its significance, this essay addresses the implementation in real life teaching in Chapter 6. This chapter offers a framework for embedding the history of chemistry into the design of classroom teaching, and discusses the six major elements in chemistry teaching, i.e., history context, motivation, historical facts, interaction, knowledge and cognition, and science and humanity. After listing the cons and pros of history teaching, this chapter summarizes four teaching principles, i.e., combination of history and logic, that of objectivity and simplicity, knowledge and methodology, and history and reality. Lastly, this chapter provides three case studies to highlight the value of history in chemistry teaching in helping students develop cognition, the right view of chemistry and the philosophy of science.
引文
1最初的HPS英文缩写系指“科学史和科学哲学”(History and Philosophy of Science),近年来有些科学教育专家把社会科学也纳入其中,于是HPS就成了“科学史、科学哲学和社会学”(History, Philosophy and Sociology of Science)。将科学史、科学哲学和科学社会学的有关内容纳入中小学理科课程成为科学教育改革历久弥新的课程与教学问题。
2爱德华·卡尔.吴柱存译.历史是什么?北京：商务印书馆,1981：5
1美国科学促进协会.中国科学技术协会译.面向全体美国人的科学.北京：科学普及出版社,2001：78
1秦蔷云.《质量守恒定律》教学片段回放与评析.化学教学,2004(7-8)：49
2转引自罗尔德.霍夫曼.金丽莉等译.想象中的化学.上海：上海科技教育出版社,2003：14
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3国外的化学史教育与物理、生物等同属理科中的科学史教育,科学史教育强调的是历史能够提供一种综合的视角理解科学,国内的研究也出现了这样一种趋势。
4刘兵,江洋.科学史与科学教育.上海：上海交通大学出版社,2008：16-21
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2孟献华,李广洲.中学化学教师结合化学史进行教学的调查与分析.化学教育,2005(2)：48
1当代科学教育者往往强调文艺复兴时代科学产生的伟大作用与它在正式教育中所取得的附属性质地位之间的不和谐,实际上仅仅对“哥白尼革命”本身的存在而言,许多科学家与科学史家就持怀疑态度：当时哥白尼的著作并没有在已经被普遍承认的天文学理论基本体系中造成任何直接的影响,仅仅被认为是一种竞争性学说存在,作为一门艰辛发展的早期科学,天文学上哥白尼的影响直到他的著作《天体运行论》发表(1543年)半世纪到四分之三世纪之后才由于伽利略、笛卡尔和牛顿等人工作得到承认。(科恩.鲁旭东等译.科学中的革命.北京：商务印书馆，1999：133-157)
2如19世纪初期近代化学的发展使得越来越多的大学开始讲授化学课程,为了满足学生升学及将来在大学里学习和研究的需要,1825年美国在中学阶段开始设置化学课程。我国的化学课程始于1864年。
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2同上：113
3同上：114-115
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1转引自Mellado, V. Contributions from the Philosophy of Science to the Education of Science Teachers. Science & Education,2006(3):419～445
1 Westmeyer, P. The Nature of Disciplines. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,1983(3):267
1 Smith, E. F."Observations on Teaching the History of Chemistry" Journal of Chemical Education.1925(2):553～555
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3 Solbes, J.& Traver. M Against a Negative Image of Science:History of Science and the Teaching of Physics and Chemistry. Science & Education,2003(6):703～717
1 Wang, H.A.& Marsh,D.D. Science Instruction with a Humanistic Twist:Teachers' Perception and Practice in Using the History of Science in Their Classrooms. Science & Education,2002(2):169～189
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5该剧以巧妙的、通俗易懂的方式提出并解释了一些科学术语,如科学发现和发现权问题、什么是科学证据和科学家的研究道德等,并将问题留给观众思考。《氧——关于“追认诺贝尔奖”的二幕话剧》由上海科技教育出版社2003年翻译出版。
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Kipnis, N. The"Historical-Investigative"Approach to Teaching Science. Science & Education,1996(2):277～292
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1 Irwing, A. Theories of Burning. A Case Study Using a Historical Perspective. School Science Review,1997(1):31-38
2 Frank, J.O.& Lester, L. Historical Material in High-School Chemistry Texts. Journal of Chemical Education, 1935(5):367～369
3 Solbes, J.& Traver, M. Against a Negative Image of Science:History of Science and the Teaching of Physics and Chemistry. Science & Education,2003(6):703～717
4 Niaz, M. "The Oil Drop Experiment:A Rational Reconstruction of the Millikan-Ehrenhaft Controversy and its Implications for Chemistry Textbooks". Journal of Research in Science Teaching,2000(4):480～508
1 Laurinda, L. History of Science in Science Education:Development and Validation of a Checklist for Analysing the Historical Content of ScienceTextbooks. Science & Education,2002(3):333～359
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1 Masson, S.& Vazquez-Abad, J. History of Science in Science Education Through Historical Microworlds to Promote Conceptual Change. Journal of Science Education and Technology,2006(3-4):257～268
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6丁绪贤,化学史通考.上海：商务印书馆,1936：5-8
1统计这一段时期涉及到中学有关化学史与化学史教育的文章共105篇,其中介绍化学史的87篇,关于化学史教育的18篇。
2陈耀亭,梁慧姝.论化学史教育.化学教育,1982(6)：27-30
3廖正衡.略论化学史在化学教学中的作用.化学教学,1983(2)：11-14
1课程教材研究所.20世纪中国中小学课程标准.教学大纲汇编(化学卷).北京：人民教育出版社,2001：11
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1通常教师的成长初期(5年以内)更多关注与学生成绩、本人的课堂表现和他人评价等外在内容,而无法考虑到学生和教师本人的更高层次发展。(付道春.教师的成长与发展.北京：教育科学出版社.2001)
2 Leinhard, G. Capturing Craft Knowledge in Teaching. Educational Researcher,1990(2):18～25
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1 Moallem, M.& Earle, R. S. Instructional Design Models and Teacher Thinking:Toward a New Conceptual Model for Research and Development. Educational Technology,1998(2):5～22
1舒炜广,邱仁宗.当代西方科学哲学述评.北京,人民出版社,1987：5
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1拉卡托斯.兰征译科学研究纲领方法论.上海：上海译文出版社,1986：44
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1 Holton,G. Thematic Origins of Scientific Thoutht:Kepler to Einstein (Rev ed.). Cambridge, Massachustees Harvard University Press.1988:403
1 Holloun, I. Modeling Theory in Science Education. Kluwer Academic Publishers.2004:28.
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1 Justi, R. History and Philosophy of Science Through Models:The Case of Chemical Kinetics. Science & Education, 1999(2):287～307
2 Schubring, G. Confiicts between Generalization, Rigor, and Intuition:Number Concepts underlying the Development of Analysis in 17-19th Century France and Germany. Sources and Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences. New York:Springer,2005
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2转引自萧文强.数学发展史给我们的启发.抖擞,1976(17)：46
3皮亚杰,R.加西亚.姜志辉.心理发生和科学史.上海.华东师范大学出版社,2005：16
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1刘放桐.新编现代西方哲学.北京：人民出版社,2000：5-12
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1B.M.凯德洛夫.陈益升等译.化学元素概念的演变.北京：科学出版社,1985：245-246
2此处的“观念”作广义的理解,即是指学生对于一类事物或现象的总体性认识。因此,不应被理解成仅仅涉及了严格意义上的科学概念,而是同时包括了理论性假设与模型等多种成分。
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2 Fauvel, J.& Maanen, J. History in Mathematics Education:the ICMI Study. Springer Netherlands.2000.
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1 Johnstone, A.H. Why is Science Difficult to Learn? Things are Seldom What Thev Seem. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning.1991(1):75～83
1 Lee, O., Eichinger, D. C., Anderson, D. W.,& Blakeslee, T. D. Changing Middle School Students' Conceptions of Matter and Molecules. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,1993(3):249～270.
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1 Butts, B.& Smith, R. HSC Chemistry Students' Understanding of the Structure and Properties of Molecular and Ionic Compounds. Research in Science Education,1987(2):192～201
2 Mas, C. J. et al. Parallels Between Adolescents' Conception of Gases and the History of Chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education,1987(7):616～618
3 Griffith, A. K. Grade-12 Student's Misconceptions Relating to Fundamental Characteristics of Atoms and Molecules. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,1992(6):611～628
4 Butts, B.& Smith, R. HSC Chemistry Students' Understanding of the Structure and Properties of Molecular and Ionic Compounds. Research in Science Education,1987(2):192～201
5 Barker, V. Beyond Appearances. Students' Misconception about Basic Chemical Ideas. A Report Prepared for the Royal Society of Chemistry.2004:58. Retrieved 2010/8/28 from www.chemsoc.org/pdf/learnnet/rsc/miscon.pdf
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2 Schmidt, H. Harte Nusse im Chemieunterricht Tough Nuts in Chemistry Classroom. Frankfurt a. M. Diesterweg.1992
1 Peterson, R. F.& Garnett, P. Development and Application of a Diagnostic Instrument to Evaluate Grade-11 and Grade-12 Students' Conceptions of Covalent Bonding and Structure Following a Course of Instruction. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,1989(4):301～314
1同上
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1卡尔·波普尔.傅季重,纪树立等译.猜想与反驳：科学知识的增长.上海：上海译文出版社.1986：317
2拉瑞·劳丹.刘新民译.进步及其问题.北京：华夏出版社,1999：15
1瑞典皇家科学院院长E-W-达尔格伦在1911年诺贝尔化学奖的颁奖词,精要地说明了居里夫妇在化学研究中是如何发现问题、提出假设以及后续的工作。转引自《诺贝尔奖讲演全集》编译委员会编译.诺贝尔奖讲演全集(化学第I卷).福州：福建人民出版社,2003：195-196
2玛丽·居里.胡圣荣等译.居里夫人文选.北京：北京大学出版社,2010：9-12
1 Robert, L. Marie Curie's Doctoral Thesis:Prelude to a Nobel Prize. Journal of Chemical Education,1988(6):561～573 可能有若干分子已经离解成原子。
1 Carmen, J. Using History To Teach Scientific Method-The Case of Argon. Journal of Chemical Education, 1998(11):1322～1325
1 McMullin, E. Scientific Controversy and Its Termination. In Engelhardt, H. T.&. Caplan, A. (eds.) Scientific Controversies. Cambridge, London.1985:49-51
1 Hegla Nowotny. "Controversies in Science:Remarks on the Different Modes of Production of Knowledge and Their Use." Zeitschrift fur Sociologie,1975(1):37
2 Scientific Controversies. Engelhardt, H. T.& Caplan, A. (eds.) Cambridge, London.1985:51～60
1 Priestly, J. The History and Present State of Electricity. London.1775转引自赫尔奇·克拉夫.任定成等译.科学史学导论.北京：北京大学出版社,2005：4
2 Whewell, W. History of the Induction Sciences. London.1837:197
3中共中央马克思恩格斯列宁斯大林著作编译局.马克思恩格斯全集(第4卷).北京：人民出版社,1985：478
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1 Curtis, R.& Jones, J. Robert Robinson and Penicillin:an Unnoticed Document in the Saga of its Structure. Journal of Peptide Science,2007(5):769～775
2 Kauffman. Sophus Mads Jorgensen. Journal of Chemical Education,1959(6):521
3 Bentley. R. The Molecular Structure of Penicillin. Journal of Chemical Education,2004(10):1462～1470
4 Scientific Controversies. Engelhardt, H. T.& Caplan, A. (eds.) Cambridge, London.1985:5～6
1美国国家研究理事会.戢守志等译.美国国家科学教育标准.北京：科学技术文献出版社,1999
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1 The Center of Unified Science Education at Ohio State University.1974
2美国科学促进协会.中国科学技术协会译.面向全体美国人的科学.北京：科学普及出版社,2001：25-30
1节选自McComas, W. Seeking Historical Examples to Illustrate Key Aspects of The Nature of Science. Science & Education,2008(2):249-263
1《诺贝尔奖讲演全集》编译委员会编译.诺贝尔奖讲演全集(化学·第I卷).福州：福建人民出版社,2005：48-49
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1 Berg, D. The Development of the Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation:A Case Study of a Scientific Controversy and the Changing Nature of Chemistry, Science & Education,2003(3):397～419
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1陈耀亭等.化学史教育的基础化学.北京：科学出版社,1992：172
2 Herroun,E.F.Letters to the Editor.Nature,1896(1):152.
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1北京师范大学等.无机化学(第四版.上册).北京：高等教育出版社.2008：306
2此处的科学方法不再是指具体科学研究的操作等性质,而是更多蕴含了科学求真精神在研究中的体现
1 Armstrong, H.E. Letters to the Editor. Nature,1896(1):78
2 Kuhn, D. Science as Argument:Implications for Teaching and Learning Scientific Thinking. Science Education, 1993(3):319～337
1转引自周春阳.现代反科学思潮与科学精神.湖南师范大学社会科学学报,1995(2)：18-22
21935年—1965年,李森科在前苏联科学界掀起的“科学独裁”混淆了科学与哲学、政治的界限,以政治标准加诸于科学研究,使前苏联的分子生物学和遗传学置十政治的强权统治而不是以科学事实为标准。
1张红霞.科学究竟是什么.北京：教育科学出版社，2003：150
1吴星等.化学新课程中的科学探究北京：高等教育出版社,2003：4
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1事实上早于斯诺1956年发表的《两种文化》演讲之前将近半个世纪,萨顿就已经多次提出科学家和人文学家作为浪漫主义和悲观主义两大阵营的对立和相互漠视的景象。
2乔治·萨顿.陈恒六等译.科学史与新人文主义.上海：上海交通大学出版社,2007：15
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[79]Wandersee, J. Can the History of Science Help Science Educators Anticipate Students Misconceptions. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,1985(7):581～597
[80]Wandersee, J. Short Story Science:Using Historical Vignettes. The Science Teacher, 1994(8):18～21
[81]Wang, H. A.& Marsh, D. D. Science Instruction with a Humanistic Twist:Teachers' Perception and Practice in Using the History of Science in Their Classrooms. Science & Education,2002(2):169～189
[82]Welch, W. Review of the Research and Evaluation Program of Harvard Project Physics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,1973(2):365～378
[83]Westmeyer, P. The Nature of Disciplines. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 1983(3):267
[84]Windschitl, M., Thompson, J.& Braaten, M. Beyond the Scientific Method:Model-based Inquiry as a New Paradigm of Preference for School Science Investigations. Science Education, 2008(6):941～967
[85]Wong, L.& Hodson, D. From the Horse's Mouth:What Scientists Say about Scientific Investigation and Scientific Knowledge. Science Education,2009(1):109～132
[86]Wood. G. Make Chemistry Live with Historical Anecdotes. Journal of Chemical Education, 1975(3):179～180
2爱德华·卡尔.吴柱存译.历史是什么?北京：商务印书馆,1981：5
1美国科学促进协会.中国科学技术协会译.面向全体美国人的科学.北京：科学普及出版社,2001：78
1秦蔷云.《质量守恒定律》教学片段回放与评析.化学教学,2004(7-8)：49
2转引自罗尔德.霍夫曼.金丽莉等译.想象中的化学.上海：上海科技教育出版社,2003：14
3亨利.M.莱斯特.吴忠译化学的历史背景.北京：商务出版社，1982：1
1 Koballa, T. R. Attitude and Related Concepts in Science Education. Science Education,1988(2):115～126
2罗尔德.霍夫曼.金丽莉等译.想象中的化学.上海：上海科技教育出版社,2003：55
3国外的化学史教育与物理、生物等同属理科中的科学史教育,科学史教育强调的是历史能够提供一种综合的视角理解科学,国内的研究也出现了这样一种趋势。
4刘兵,江洋.科学史与科学教育.上海：上海交通大学出版社,2008：16-21
1乔治·萨顿.陈恒六等译.科学史与新人文主义.上海：上海交通大学出版社,2007：38
1 McComas, W. F. The Nature of Science in Science Education:Rationales and Strategies.M.A. Kluwer.1998:50
2A.P弗伦奇.把历史引进物理教学的乐趣和危险.大学物理,1985(1)：3645
1乔治·萨顿.陈恒六等译.科学史与新人文主义.上海：上海交通大学出版社.2007：26
2孟献华,李广洲.中学化学教师结合化学史进行教学的调查与分析.化学教育,2005(2)：48
1当代科学教育者往往强调文艺复兴时代科学产生的伟大作用与它在正式教育中所取得的附属性质地位之间的不和谐,实际上仅仅对“哥白尼革命”本身的存在而言,许多科学家与科学史家就持怀疑态度：当时哥白尼的著作并没有在已经被普遍承认的天文学理论基本体系中造成任何直接的影响,仅仅被认为是一种竞争性学说存在,作为一门艰辛发展的早期科学,天文学上哥白尼的影响直到他的著作《天体运行论》发表(1543年)半世纪到四分之三世纪之后才由于伽利略、笛卡尔和牛顿等人工作得到承认。(科恩.鲁旭东等译.科学中的革命.北京：商务印书馆，1999：133-157)
2如19世纪初期近代化学的发展使得越来越多的大学开始讲授化学课程,为了满足学生升学及将来在大学里学习和研究的需要,1825年美国在中学阶段开始设置化学课程。我国的化学课程始于1864年。
3赫·斯宾塞.胡毅,王承绪译.斯宾塞教育论著选.北京：人民教育出版社,2005：41
4 HMSO:Report of the Committee Appointed by the Prime Minister to Inquiry into the Position of Natural Science in the Educational System of Great Britain(Thomson Report)Reports from Commissioners-5-Education, Governmental Publications. London.1918.
5 Sherratt, W. "History of Science in the Science Curriculum:An History Perspective Part Ⅰ". School Science Review, 1982(2):225
1 Mach, E.On Instruction in the Classics and the Science. In E. Mach's Popular Scientific Lecture (1886/1943)转引自Matthews, M. R. The Nature of Science and Science Teaching. Fraser, B.J.& Tobin, K.G.(eds.) International Handbook of Science Education. Kluwer Academic Publishers.1998:986.
2 Armstrong, H. E. The Teaching of Scientific Method, Macmillan, London. Quoted in Matthews. M. R. Science Teaching:The Role of History and Philosophy of Science. London, Routledge.1994:23
3 Quoted in Jenkins, E. W. History of Science in School:Retrospect and Prospect in the U.K. International Journal of Science Education,1990(3):275
4 BAAS. Report on Science Teaching in Secondary School. London.1917:12
1 Bradley, J. A. Scheme for the Teaching of Chemistry by the Historical Method. School Science Review,1964(5): 366～387
2 Matthews, M. R. Science Teaching:The Role of History and Philosophy of Science. London, Routledge.1994:22
3约翰·杜威.王承绪.民主主义与教育.北京：人民教育出版社,2005：246
1 Harvard Committee. General Education in a Free Society. Combridge. MA:Harvard University Press.1945:52
2同上：155
3 From Hurd, P. D. Biological Education in American Secondary Schools 1800-1960.Washington,DC:American Institute of Biological Science.1961:38
1 Conant, J. B. Harvard Case Studies in Experimental Science. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. Massachusetts, 1957:1
Mellado, V.& Ruiz, C. Contributions from the Philosophy of Science to the Education of Science Teachers. Science & Education,2006(4):419～445
1 Klopfer, N.& Cooley, W. The History of Science Cases for High School in the Development of Student Understanding of Science and Scientists. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,1963(1):33-47.
2 Schwab, J. J. Biology Teacher's Handbook. New York:Wiley:41-42
3 Conant, J. B. Harvard Case Histories in Experimental Science. Cambridge, Massachusetts:Harvard University Press, 1957,Volume I:ix
4 Hlton, C张大卫等译.物理科学的概念和理论导论(上).北京：人民教育出版社,1982：ix
5 Welch, W. Review of the Research and Evaluation Program of Harvard Project Physics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,1973(4):365～378.
1 Gagne, R. The Learning Requirements for Inquiry. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,1963(2):147
2 Gagne, R. The Learning Requirements for Inquiry. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,1963(2):152
3 Kipnis, N. The "Historical-Investigative" Approach to Teaching Science. Science & Education,1996(2):277～292
4 Fisher, A. "Science+Math=F."Popular Science,1992(2):59
5 National Commission on Excellence in Education. A Nation at Risk:The Imperative for Educational Reform. Washington, DC:U.S. Government Printing Office.1983:25
1 National Science Teachers Association (NSTA):Science-Technology-Society:Science Education for the 1980s, NSTA,Washington, DC.1982:33
2 Association for Science Education (ASE):Alternative for Science Education, Hatfield, Herts, UK.1979:32
3 Association for Science Education (ASE):Education through Science, Hatfield, Herts, UK.1981:126
1 Pumfrey, S. History of Science in the National Curriculum:A Critical Review of Resources and Their Aims. British Journal for the History of Science,1991(1):61～78
2同上：113
3同上：114-115
1美国科学促进协会.中国科学技术协会译.面向全体美国人的科学.北京：科学普及出版社，2001：123-136
1转引自Mellado, V. Contributions from the Philosophy of Science to the Education of Science Teachers. Science & Education,2006(3):419～445
1 Westmeyer, P. The Nature of Disciplines. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,1983(3):267
1 Smith, E. F."Observations on Teaching the History of Chemistry" Journal of Chemical Education.1925(2):553～555
2 Bent, H. A. Uses of History in Teaching Chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education,1977(7):462～466
3 Solbes, J.& Traver. M Against a Negative Image of Science:History of Science and the Teaching of Physics and Chemistry. Science & Education,2003(6):703～717
1 Wang, H.A.& Marsh,D.D. Science Instruction with a Humanistic Twist:Teachers' Perception and Practice in Using the History of Science in Their Classrooms. Science & Education,2002(2):169～189
1 Kauffman, G. B. "Teaching in the History of Science:A Biographical Approach". Journal of Coil Science Teaching. 1971(1):26
Hirschhorn, I. Demonstration of the Burning of a Candle. Journal of Chemical Education,1941(2):107
3 Reeves, W. "Storytelling in Chemistry". Reacts. Volume 4. Uniu of Md, Ross.1973
4 Wood. G. Make Chemistry Live with Historical Anecdotes. Journal of Chemical Education,1975(3):179～180
5该剧以巧妙的、通俗易懂的方式提出并解释了一些科学术语,如科学发现和发现权问题、什么是科学证据和科学家的研究道德等,并将问题留给观众思考。《氧——关于“追认诺贝尔奖”的二幕话剧》由上海科技教育出版社2003年翻译出版。
6 Stinner, A & Williams, H. History and Philosophy of Science in the Science Curriculum. In Fraser, B. J.& K. G. Tobin(eds.).International Handbook of Science Education. Academic Publishers.1998:1030～1038
1 Wandersee, J. H.& Griffard, P. B. The History of Chemistry:Potential and Actual Contributions to Chemical Education. In Gilbert, J.K. etal. (eds.), Chemical Education:Towards Research-based Practice, Kluwer Academic Publishers. Netherlands.2002:29～46
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1 Monk, M.& Osboren, J. Placing the History and Philosophy of Science on the Curriculum:A Model for the Development of Pedagogy. Science Education,1997(3):405～424
1 Osborn, R.& Freyberg, P. Learning in Science:The Implications of Children's Science, Heinemann, London, England: 1985
1 Irwing, A. Theories of Burning. A Case Study Using a Historical Perspective. School Science Review,1997(1):31-38
2 Frank, J.O.& Lester, L. Historical Material in High-School Chemistry Texts. Journal of Chemical Education, 1935(5):367～369
3 Solbes, J.& Traver, M. Against a Negative Image of Science:History of Science and the Teaching of Physics and Chemistry. Science & Education,2003(6):703～717
4 Niaz, M. "The Oil Drop Experiment:A Rational Reconstruction of the Millikan-Ehrenhaft Controversy and its Implications for Chemistry Textbooks". Journal of Research in Science Teaching,2000(4):480～508
1 Laurinda, L. History of Science in Science Education:Development and Validation of a Checklist for Analysing the Historical Content of ScienceTextbooks. Science & Education,2002(3):333～359
2 Mas, C. J. Parallels Between Adolescents' Conception of Gases and the History of Chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education,198(7):616～618
1 Masson, S.& Vazquez-Abad, J. History of Science in Science Education Through Historical Microworlds to Promote Conceptual Change. Journal of Science Education and Technology,2006(3-4):257～268
2 Sanmarti, N,& Izquierdo, M. The Substantialisation of Properties in Pupils' Thinking and in the History of Chemistry Science & Education,1995(4):349～369 3 Fensham, P. J. Beginning to Teach Chemistry. In Fensham, P & White, R. (Eds.) The Content of Science:A Constructivist Approach to Its Teaching and Learning. London, Falmer Press.1994:14～28
4B.M.凯德洛夫.陈益升等译.化学元素概念的演变.北京：科学出版社,1985：245-246
5 Lin, H. S. The Effectiveness of Teaching Chemistry Through the History of Science. Journal of Chemical Education, 1998(10):1326
6丁绪贤,化学史通考.上海：商务印书馆,1936：5-8
1统计这一段时期涉及到中学有关化学史与化学史教育的文章共105篇,其中介绍化学史的87篇,关于化学史教育的18篇。
2陈耀亭,梁慧姝.论化学史教育.化学教育,1982(6)：27-30
3廖正衡.略论化学史在化学教学中的作用.化学教学,1983(2)：11-14
1课程教材研究所.20世纪中国中小学课程标准.教学大纲汇编(化学卷).北京：人民教育出版社,2001：11
1 Anderson, R. D.& Druva,C.A. Science Teacher Characteristics by Teacher Behavior and by Student Outcomes:A Meta-analysis of Research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,1983(5):467～479
2 Niaz, M. Progressive Transitions in Chemistry Teachers Understanding of Nature of Science Based on Historical Controversies. Science & Education,2009(1):43～65
1通常教师的成长初期(5年以内)更多关注与学生成绩、本人的课堂表现和他人评价等外在内容,而无法考虑到学生和教师本人的更高层次发展。(付道春.教师的成长与发展.北京：教育科学出版社.2001)
2 Leinhard, G. Capturing Craft Knowledge in Teaching. Educational Researcher,1990(2):18～25
3 Moallem, M. An Expert Teacher's Thinking and Teaching and Instructional Design Models and Principles:an Ethnographic Study. Educational Teaching Research,1998(2):37～64
1 Niels, J. H. "The Historical Dimension of Mathematical Understanding:Objectifying the Subjective", Proceedings of the 18th International Conference for the Psychology of Mathematics Education volume. I. Lisbon:University of Lisbon.1994:152
1 Moallem, M.& Earle, R. S. Instructional Design Models and Teacher Thinking:Toward a New Conceptual Model for Research and Development. Educational Technology,1998(2):5～22
1舒炜广,邱仁宗.当代西方科学哲学述评.北京,人民出版社,1987：5
2 Duschl, R A. Science Education and Philosophy of Science:Twenty-Five Years of Mutually Exclusive Development. School Science and Mathematic,1985(7):541-555
3 Duschl, R A. Science Education and Philosophy of Science:Twenty-Five Years of Mutually Exclusive Development. School Science and Mathematics,1985(7):543
1 Ruse, M创世纪并非科学Science, Technology, and Human.1982转引自任定成.科学人文读本(大学卷).北京：北京大学出版社,2004：21-27
1怀特劳,G.J.爱因斯坦对我的科学观的影响——波普尔访问记.自然哲学问题译丛,1980(3)：16
1拉卡托斯.兰征译科学研究纲领方法论.上海：上海译文出版社,1986：44
2转引自王巍.科学哲学问题研究.北京：清华大学出版社,2004：139
1安德鲁·皮克林.柯文,伊梅译.作为实践和文化的科学.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2006：2
2 Norman, D. A. Some Observations on Mental Models. In D. Gentner& A. L. Stevens (Eds.) Mental Models. Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum.1983:7～14
3吴国麟.认知教学心理学.上海：上海科学技术出版社,2000：13
1 Justi, R. A Cause of Ahistorical Science Teaching:Use of Hybrid Models. Science Education,1999(2):163～177
1恩格斯.于光远译.自然辩证法.北京：人民出版社，1971：218
2列宁.唯物主义与经验批判主义.北京：人民出版社,1960：127
1魏冰.让科学史走进课堂——介绍一种科学史教学模式.化学教育,2002(2)：38
1 Windschitl, M., Thompson, J.& Braaten, M. Beyond the Scientific Method:Model-based Inquiry as a New Paradigm of Preference for School Science Investigations. Science Education,2008(6):941～967
1 Holton,G. Thematic Origins of Scientific Thoutht:Kepler to Einstein (Rev ed.). Cambridge, Massachustees Harvard University Press.1988:403
1 Holloun, I. Modeling Theory in Science Education. Kluwer Academic Publishers.2004:28.
2 Justi, R. A Cause of Ahistorical Science Teaching:Use of Hybrid Models. Science Education,1999(2):163～177
1 Justi, R. History and Philosophy of Science Through Models:The Case of Chemical Kinetics. Science & Education, 1999(2):287～307
2 Schubring, G. Confiicts between Generalization, Rigor, and Intuition:Number Concepts underlying the Development of Analysis in 17-19th Century France and Germany. Sources and Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences. New York:Springer,2005
3 Fauvel, J. History in Mathematics Education. Kluwer Academic Publishers:, New York:2002:143
1转引自范广辉.“数学史—探索”教学模式的理论构建及其实施策略研究.西北大学博士论文.2010：76
2转引自萧文强.数学发展史给我们的启发.抖擞,1976(17)：46
3皮亚杰,R.加西亚.姜志辉.心理发生和科学史.上海.华东师范大学出版社,2005：16
4皮亚杰,R.加西亚.姜志辉.心理发生和科学史.上海.华东师范大学出版社,2005：1
1皮亚杰.王宪钿等译.发生认识论原理.北京：商务印书馆,1997：13
1刘放桐.新编现代西方哲学.北京：人民出版社,2000：5-12
2赫·斯宾塞.胡毅等译.斯宾塞教育论著选.北京：人民教育出版社,2005：60～65
3恩格斯.于光远译.自然辩证法.北京：人民出版社，1984：13
1孔丘.论语·为政篇.论语正义
2 Egan, K. Educational Development.. Oxford University Press. New York:1979.
1B.M.凯德洛夫.陈益升等译.化学元素概念的演变.北京：科学出版社,1985：245-246
2此处的“观念”作广义的理解,即是指学生对于一类事物或现象的总体性认识。因此,不应被理解成仅仅涉及了严格意义上的科学概念,而是同时包括了理论性假设与模型等多种成分。
1明茨基,万达西,诺瓦克.段晓琳等译促进理解之科学教学.台北：台湾心理出版社,1998：65-66
2 Gault, C. History of Science, Individual Development and Science Teaching. Research in Science Education, 1991(1):133～140
3 Van Driel, J. H. De Vos, W.& Verloop, N. Relating Students' Reasoning to the History of Science. The Case of Chemical Equilibrium. Research in Science Education,1998(2):187～198.
4 Mas, C. J. Parallels Between Adolescents' Conception of Gases and the History of Chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education,1987(7):616～618
5 Pfundt, H. Ursprungliche Erklarungen der Schuler fur Chemische Vorgange [Students' Preconceptions of Chemical Processes]. Der Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Unterricht,28(3):157～162.
1 Wandersee, J. Can the History of Science Help Science Educators Anticipate Students Misconceptions. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,1985(7):581～597
2 Fauvel, J.& Maanen, J. History in Mathematics Education:the ICMI Study. Springer Netherlands.2000.
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2 Posner, G. Strike, K., Hewson, P.& Gertzog, W. Accommodation of a Scientific Conception:Towards a Theory of Conceptual Change. Science Education,1982(2):211～227
1 Johnstone, A.H. Why is Science Difficult to Learn? Things are Seldom What Thev Seem. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning.1991(1):75～83
1 Lee, O., Eichinger, D. C., Anderson, D. W.,& Blakeslee, T. D. Changing Middle School Students' Conceptions of Matter and Molecules. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,1993(3):249～270.
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1 Butts, B.& Smith, R. HSC Chemistry Students' Understanding of the Structure and Properties of Molecular and Ionic Compounds. Research in Science Education,1987(2):192～201
2 Mas, C. J. et al. Parallels Between Adolescents' Conception of Gases and the History of Chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education,1987(7):616～618
3 Griffith, A. K. Grade-12 Student's Misconceptions Relating to Fundamental Characteristics of Atoms and Molecules. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,1992(6):611～628
4 Butts, B.& Smith, R. HSC Chemistry Students' Understanding of the Structure and Properties of Molecular and Ionic Compounds. Research in Science Education,1987(2):192～201
5 Barker, V. Beyond Appearances. Students' Misconception about Basic Chemical Ideas. A Report Prepared for the Royal Society of Chemistry.2004:58. Retrieved 2010/8/28 from www.chemsoc.org/pdf/learnnet/rsc/miscon.pdf
1 Peterson, R. F., Treagust, D.,& Garnett, P. Development and Application of a Diagnostic Instrument to Evaluate Grade-11 and Grade-12 Students' Conceptions of Covalent Bonding and Structure Following a Course of Instruction. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,1989(4):301～314
2 Schmidt, H. Harte Nusse im Chemieunterricht Tough Nuts in Chemistry Classroom. Frankfurt a. M. Diesterweg.1992
1 Peterson, R. F.& Garnett, P. Development and Application of a Diagnostic Instrument to Evaluate Grade-11 and Grade-12 Students' Conceptions of Covalent Bonding and Structure Following a Course of Instruction. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,1989(4):301～314
1同上
3 Gilbert, J. K. Multiple Representations in Chemical Education. Curtin University of Technology, Science & Mathematics Education Centre, Australia.2009:215-251
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2 Gilbert, J. K. Multiple Representations in Chemical Education. Curtin University of Technology, Science & Mathematics Education Centre, Australia.2009:227
1施良方.课程理论.北京：教育科学出版社,1996：156
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2赫德,加拉赫.刘默耕译.小学科学教育的新方向.北京：文化教育出版社,1980：88
3J·D·贝尔纳.陈体方译.科学的社会功能.桂林：广西师范大学出版社,2003：36
1 Schwartz, R.,& Lederman, N. G. Exploring Contextually-based views of NOS and Scientific Inquiry:What Scientists Say. Paper presented at the National Association for Research in Science Teaching (NARST) Annual Conference.(2006, April) San Francisco, CA:National Association for Research in Science Teaching.
2 Elby, A.& Hammer, D. On the Substance of a Sophisticated Epistemology. Science Education,2000(5): 554～567
3 Rudolph, J. L. Reconsidering the "Nature of Science" as a Curriculum Component. Journal of Curriculum Studies,2000(3):403～419
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