葡萄牙帝国与早期近代世界贸易体系
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摘要
葡萄牙是地理大发现的先驱,并通过海上探险和扩张建立起地跨欧洲、美洲、非洲、亚洲的庞大商业帝国。作为早期近代第一批全球扩张的欧洲国家,葡萄牙商业帝国建立的过程就是全球性多边贸易联系建立过程的一部分;葡萄牙帝国组织贸易的方式也必然成为早期近代世界贸易联系机制的一部分。本文通过考察葡萄牙帝国建立、鼎盛和衰落的过程来考察葡萄牙进行航路探索,建立贸易联系的动力和条件;通过考察葡萄牙与不同文明互动的过程来考察其贸易运行方式;通过考察葡萄牙帝国的衰落过程来理解葡萄牙帝国对早期近代世界贸易体系的影响。
14世纪中期以后,葡萄牙民族国家逐渐形成,在经济和宗教因素的共同作用下产生了海外探险和扩张的强烈愿望。随着葡萄牙人地理知识的积累、航海和造船技术发展,逐渐具备了跨越地理屏障,向未知海域探险的条件。而民族国家的形成和社会政治条件也对其海上探险和扩张起到推动作用。
在探索非洲沿岸的过程中,葡萄牙建立了联系欧洲、非洲和美洲的大西洋贸易体系,创立并发展了以奴隶贸易为基础的新大陆殖民地种植园经济。葡萄牙还经过探险开辟了好望角航线,闯入印度洋贸易体系,通过武装和垄断贸易参与并改变了印度洋贸易体系的运行方式。此后葡萄牙人继续航行至南中国海,直接沟通了东西方贸易,并占领澳门开展多边国际贸易,延伸和丰富了太平洋西部贸易网络,以商业贸易冲击了南中国海贸易圈的朝贡贸易体系。至此葡萄牙建立了地跨欧洲、美洲、非洲、亚洲的庞大帝国,并将贸易触角延伸到帝国之外的西班牙殖民地,沟通了地中海贸易圈、大西洋贸易圈、印度洋贸易圈、南中国海贸易圈和太平洋贸易圈,成为第一个编织早期近代世界多边贸易的国家。
葡萄牙帝国在经营全球贸易的过程中所采用的手段深刻影响了早期近代世界贸易体系。首先,葡萄牙帝国海上探险和扩张增进欧洲人的地理知识,推动绘图、航海、造船技术的发展,使知识积累和技术进步日趋成为发展多边全球贸易关系的条件。其次,葡萄牙帝国在印度洋地区采用的武装和垄断贸易模式被其后继者继承并强化,范围从印度洋地区扩展到全球。最后,葡萄牙帝国在马德拉确立,在巴西得到显著发展的奴隶贸易为基础的新大陆殖民地种植园经济模式被西班牙、荷兰、英国和法国殖民者采用而扩展到整个新大陆地区,深刻影响了新大陆殖民地经济发展模式。
Portugal was the pioneer of the Discovery.It established a vast commercial empire through Europe, America,Africa and Asia by exploration and expanding at seas. As one of the global expanding European countries in the early modern time, the process that Portugal established the commercial empire was right the process that multilateral global trade connection formed, the trade method of Portugal empire inevitably became the one of the ingredient of ealy modern world trade system. This dissertation will examine the establisment, zenith and decline of Portugal empire; the motives and conditions of exploration of the route to India; the method of trade between Portugal and other civilizations; and lastly the impact of Portugal empire on the early modern world trade system.
Portugal national state gradually shaped after the mid-fourteenth century, material lust and religious fever brought about the wish to explorate overseas. Leading Geographical knowledge and navigation technology,and the formation of national state provided the conditions of overcoming geographical obstacles and explorating unknown seas for the Portugueses.
In the precess of explorating African coasts, Portugal founded the Atlantic trade system connecting Europe, Africa, and America, on the basis of slave trade erected and developed plantation economy in the New World. Portugal also discovered the sea route to India, entered the established Indian trade circle, engaged and changed the operation ways of Indian ocean trade system by forced and monopoly trade. Then Portugal reached South Chinese Sea, occupied Macao, operate multilateral trade, extended west Pacific trade net, impacted chinese tribute-trade system in south Chinese Sea, opened directly the West--East trade. Thus Portugal built a vast empire which spaned from Europe, America, Africa to Asia, and extended its tentacles into Spanish colonies, connected Mediterranean trade circle, Atlantic trade circle with Indian Ocean trade circle, South Chinese Sea trade circle and Pacific trade circle, became the first country which knited early modern world trade net.
The ways which Portugal pursued global trade influenced deeply on early modern world trade system. First, Portugal exploration and overseas trade riched European georgraphic knowledge, imporved cartography, shipbuilding and sailing technology, facilitated the development of early modern world trade. Secondly, the ways of forced and monopoly trade which Portugal empire used in Indian Ocean were succeeded and aggrandized by the later European colonists, and these ways thus spreaded over the world. Lastly, the plantation economy mode which Portugal empire first built at Madras Islands and developed in Braizil was also succeeded by Spanish, Dutch, England and France, impacted the New World economic development mode deeply.
14世纪中期以后,葡萄牙民族国家逐渐形成,在经济和宗教因素的共同作用下产生了海外探险和扩张的强烈愿望。随着葡萄牙人地理知识的积累、航海和造船技术发展,逐渐具备了跨越地理屏障,向未知海域探险的条件。而民族国家的形成和社会政治条件也对其海上探险和扩张起到推动作用。
在探索非洲沿岸的过程中,葡萄牙建立了联系欧洲、非洲和美洲的大西洋贸易体系,创立并发展了以奴隶贸易为基础的新大陆殖民地种植园经济。葡萄牙还经过探险开辟了好望角航线,闯入印度洋贸易体系,通过武装和垄断贸易参与并改变了印度洋贸易体系的运行方式。此后葡萄牙人继续航行至南中国海,直接沟通了东西方贸易,并占领澳门开展多边国际贸易,延伸和丰富了太平洋西部贸易网络,以商业贸易冲击了南中国海贸易圈的朝贡贸易体系。至此葡萄牙建立了地跨欧洲、美洲、非洲、亚洲的庞大帝国,并将贸易触角延伸到帝国之外的西班牙殖民地,沟通了地中海贸易圈、大西洋贸易圈、印度洋贸易圈、南中国海贸易圈和太平洋贸易圈,成为第一个编织早期近代世界多边贸易的国家。
葡萄牙帝国在经营全球贸易的过程中所采用的手段深刻影响了早期近代世界贸易体系。首先,葡萄牙帝国海上探险和扩张增进欧洲人的地理知识,推动绘图、航海、造船技术的发展,使知识积累和技术进步日趋成为发展多边全球贸易关系的条件。其次,葡萄牙帝国在印度洋地区采用的武装和垄断贸易模式被其后继者继承并强化,范围从印度洋地区扩展到全球。最后,葡萄牙帝国在马德拉确立,在巴西得到显著发展的奴隶贸易为基础的新大陆殖民地种植园经济模式被西班牙、荷兰、英国和法国殖民者采用而扩展到整个新大陆地区,深刻影响了新大陆殖民地经济发展模式。
Portugal was the pioneer of the Discovery.It established a vast commercial empire through Europe, America,Africa and Asia by exploration and expanding at seas. As one of the global expanding European countries in the early modern time, the process that Portugal established the commercial empire was right the process that multilateral global trade connection formed, the trade method of Portugal empire inevitably became the one of the ingredient of ealy modern world trade system. This dissertation will examine the establisment, zenith and decline of Portugal empire; the motives and conditions of exploration of the route to India; the method of trade between Portugal and other civilizations; and lastly the impact of Portugal empire on the early modern world trade system.
Portugal national state gradually shaped after the mid-fourteenth century, material lust and religious fever brought about the wish to explorate overseas. Leading Geographical knowledge and navigation technology,and the formation of national state provided the conditions of overcoming geographical obstacles and explorating unknown seas for the Portugueses.
In the precess of explorating African coasts, Portugal founded the Atlantic trade system connecting Europe, Africa, and America, on the basis of slave trade erected and developed plantation economy in the New World. Portugal also discovered the sea route to India, entered the established Indian trade circle, engaged and changed the operation ways of Indian ocean trade system by forced and monopoly trade. Then Portugal reached South Chinese Sea, occupied Macao, operate multilateral trade, extended west Pacific trade net, impacted chinese tribute-trade system in south Chinese Sea, opened directly the West--East trade. Thus Portugal built a vast empire which spaned from Europe, America, Africa to Asia, and extended its tentacles into Spanish colonies, connected Mediterranean trade circle, Atlantic trade circle with Indian Ocean trade circle, South Chinese Sea trade circle and Pacific trade circle, became the first country which knited early modern world trade net.
The ways which Portugal pursued global trade influenced deeply on early modern world trade system. First, Portugal exploration and overseas trade riched European georgraphic knowledge, imporved cartography, shipbuilding and sailing technology, facilitated the development of early modern world trade. Secondly, the ways of forced and monopoly trade which Portugal empire used in Indian Ocean were succeeded and aggrandized by the later European colonists, and these ways thus spreaded over the world. Lastly, the plantation economy mode which Portugal empire first built at Madras Islands and developed in Braizil was also succeeded by Spanish, Dutch, England and France, impacted the New World economic development mode deeply.
引文
①杰里·本特利:《新全球史》,北京大学出版社,2007年版,第IX页。见刘新成教授编写的中文版序言。
①Francisco Bethencourt,Portuguese Oceanic Expansion 1400-1800, Cambridge University Press,2006,p23.
②1薄式耳等于8加仑。
③Francisco Bethencourt,Portuguese Oceanic Expansion 1400-1800, p23.
④J.H.萨拉依瓦:《葡萄牙简史》,中国展望出版社,1988年版,第126页。
⑤T. Bentley Duncan, Atlantic Islands; Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in Seventeenth-century Commerce and Navigation, University of Chicago Press, 1972, p10-11.阿罗巴(arroba)为西班牙旧重量单位,用于墨西哥及南美某些国家,合25.36磅。
①莱斯利·贝瑟尔著:《剑桥拉丁美洲史(第1卷)》,经济管理出版社,1995年,第244页。
②15世纪初欧洲人所画地图只到博哈多尔角以北为止。博哈多尔角以南海域终年暴风雨,海流汹涌,被称为“黑暗之海”。自古欧洲人就传说这里海水滚烫,太阳能把人的皮肤烤黑。
③M.M.波斯坦主编:《剑桥欧洲经济史——16世纪、17世纪不断扩张的欧洲经济》,经济科学出版社,2003年版,第261页。
④James D. Tracy,The Rise of Merchant Empires,Long Distance Trade in the Early Modern World 1350–1750,Cambridge University Press,1990, P60.
⑤Malny Newitt, A History of Portuguese Oversea Expansion 1400-1668, Routledge, 2005,p124.
①Francisco Bethencourt, Portuguese Oceanic Expansion 1400-1800, p144.
②Malny Newitt, A History of Portuguese Oversea Expansion 1400-1668, p124.
③西班牙旧重量单位,用于墨西哥及南美某些国家,合25.36磅。
④C.R.Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire: 1415-1825, Hutchinson, 1968,p89.
⑤埃里克·吉尔伯特、乔纳森·T.雷诺兹著:《非洲史》,海南出版社,2007年,第148页。
⑥埃里克·吉尔伯特、乔纳森·T.雷诺兹著:《非洲史》,第148页。
①莱斯利·贝瑟尔著:《剑桥拉丁美洲史(第1卷)》,第247页。
②莱斯利·贝瑟尔著:《剑桥拉丁美洲史(第1卷)》,第250页。
③Malny Newitt, A History of Portuguese Oversea Expansion 1400-1668,p94.
①M.M.波斯坦主编:《剑桥欧洲经济史——16世纪、17世纪不断扩张的欧洲经济》,第282页。
②Malny Newitt, A History of Portuguese Oversea Expansion 1400-1668,p128.
③M.M.波斯坦主编:《剑桥欧洲经济史——16世纪、17世纪不断扩张的欧洲经济》,第282页。
④C.R.Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire: 1415-1825, p103.
⑤M.M.波斯坦主编:《剑桥欧洲经济史——16世纪、17世纪不断扩张的欧洲经济》,第283页。
⑥Francisco Bethencourt, Portuguese Oceanic Expansion 1400-1800, p26.
⑦埃里克·吉尔伯特、乔纳森·T.雷诺兹著:《非洲史》,第149页。
⑧J.H.萨拉依瓦:《葡萄牙简史》,第150页。
①Clive Ponting, World History,A New Perspective, London, 2000, p.507.
②James D. Tracy,The Rise of Merchant Empires,Long Distance Trade in the Early Modern World 1350–1750,p60.关于表格中的单位:阿罗巴为西班牙计量单位,每16盎司为25磅,或11.5公斤。箱(caixa)是葡萄牙装蔗糖的工具,相当于箱子,在巴西等于30阿罗巴。
①A.J.R.Russell-Wood, The Portuguese Empire:1415-1808,The Johns Hopkins University Press,Baltimore and London, 1998,p139.
①王加丰:《西班牙、葡萄牙帝国的兴衰》,三秦出版社,2005年版,第41页。
①Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asina,1500-1700: Apolitical and Economic History, Longman Publishing, 1993, p141.
②Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asina,1500-1700: Apolitical and Economic History, p63.
①Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asina,1500-1700: Apolitical and Economic History, p.61.
②王加丰:《西班牙、葡萄牙帝国的兴衰》,第47页。
③K.N.Cuaudhari, Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750, Cambridge University Press, 1985, p68.
④Malny Newitt, A History of Portuguese Oversea Expansion 1400-1668,pp76-77.
⑤王加丰:《西班牙、葡萄牙帝国的兴衰》,第45页。
①Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asina,1500-1700: Apolitical and Economic History, p62.
②王加丰:《西班牙、葡萄牙帝国的兴衰》,第49页。
③C.R.Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire: 1415-1825, Hutchinson, 1968,p48.
④J.H.萨拉依瓦:《葡萄牙简史》,第133页。
①Francisco Bethencourt, Portuguese Oceanic Expansion 1400-1800, p.24.
②1507年阿尔布魁克占领霍尔木兹后由于兵力不足而被迫放弃。
③James D. Tracy,The Rise of Merchant Empires,Long Distance Trade in the Early Modern World 1350–1750, P51.
④James D. Tracy,The Rise of Merchant Empires,Long Distance Trade in the Early Modern World 1350–1750,P51.
⑤Stanley G. Payne, A Hisotry of Spain and Portugal, The University of Wisconsin Press,1973, p.232.
⑥指葡萄牙在东方的海外领土,包括莫桑比克和霍尔木兹到澳门和香料群岛之间的所有据点。
①Earl J. Hamilton,The Role of Monopoly in the Overseas Expansion and Colonial Trade of Europe Before 1800,http://www.jstor.org/stable/1910481.
②Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asina,1500-1700: Apolitical and Economic History, p94.
③Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asina,1500-1700: Apolitical and Economic History, p94.
④R.D.Cremer, Macao: City of Commerce and Culture, UEA Press Ltd., Hong Kong, 1987, pp29-30.
①李国祥等主编:《明实录类纂(经济史料卷)》,武汉出版社,1993年版,第1090页。
②李国祥等主编:《明实录类纂(经济史料卷)》,第1090页。
③万明:《中葡早期关系史》,社会科学文献出版社,2001年版,第52页。
①龙思泰著:《早期澳门史》,东方出版社,1997年版,第4页。
②万明:《中葡早期关系史》,第53-54页。
③龙思泰著:《早期澳门史》,第5页。
④龙思泰著:《早期澳门史》,第5-6页。
⑤何芳川著:《澳门与葡萄牙大商船——葡萄牙与早期近代太平洋贸易网的形成》,北京大学出版社,1996年版,第29页。
⑥《明史·佛朗机传》。
①J. M. Braga,The Western Pioneers and Their Discovery of Macao , Imprensa Nacional, 1949, p203.
②《明史?佛朗机传》。
③Ashin Das Gupta and M. N. Pearson, India and the Indian Ocean 1500-1800, Oxford University Press, 1987,p246.
④龙思泰:《早期澳门史》,东方出版社,1997年版,第100页。
⑤C. A. Montalto de Jesus, Historic Macao.转引自万明:《中葡早期关系史》,社会科学文献出版社,2001年版,第153页。
⑥C. R. Boxer,Fidogos in the Far East, 1550-1770, Martinus Nijhoff,1948, p15.
⑦何芳川著:《澳门与葡萄牙大商船——葡萄牙与早期近代太平洋贸易网的形成》,第35页。
⑧C.R.Boxer: The Great Ship from Amacon, Lisbon, 1963, p181.
①C.R.Boxer: The Great Ship from Amacon, Lisbon, p181.
②何芳川著:《澳门与葡萄牙大商船——葡萄牙与早期近代太平洋贸易网的形成》,第40页。
③郑若曾:《郑开阳杂著》卷四,《四库全书》本。转引自;万明:《中葡早期关系史》,第154-5页。
④全汉昇:《明中叶后澳门的海外贸易》,转引自《中葡早期关系史》,第155-6页
⑤R.D.Cremer,Macao: City of Commerce and Culture, p33.
①黄鸿钊:《澳门史》,福建人民出版社,1999年,第175页。
②黄鸿钊:《澳门史》,第175页。
③J.H.萨拉依瓦:《葡萄牙简史》,第224页。
①T. Bentley Duncan, Atlantic Islands; Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in Seventeenth-century Commerce and Navigation, p49.
①罗伯特·B.马克斯:《现代世界的起源——全球的、生态的述说》,商务印书馆,2006年,第46-47页。
②A.J.R.Russell-wood, The Portuguese Empire,1415-1808:A World on the Move, pxxxii.
①A.J.R.Russell-wood, The Portuguese Empire,1415-1808:A World on the Move, pxxxii.
①桑贾依·苏拉马尼亚姆:《葡萄牙帝国在亚洲:1500-1700政治和经济史》,第127-128页。
①Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asina,1500-1700: Apolitical and Economic History, p120.
②C.R.Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire: 1415-1825, p114.
③C.R.Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire: 1415-1825, p115.
④C.R.Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire: 1415-1825, p116.
①Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asina,1500-1700: Apolitical and Economic History, p136.
②Nicholas Mirkovich, Ragusa and the Portuguese Spice Trade, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3020140.
③M.M.波斯坦主编:《剑桥欧洲经济史——16世纪、17世纪不断扩张的欧洲经济》,第206页。
④齐世荣主编:《15世纪以来世界九强的历史演变》,广东人民出版社,2005年版,第52页。
⑤T. Bentley Duncan, Atlantic Islands; Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in Seventeenth-century Commerce and Navigation, p31
①T. Bentley Duncan, Atlantic Islands; Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in Seventeenth-century Commerce and Navigation, p39.
②T. Bentley Duncan, Atlantic Islands; Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in Seventeenth-century Commerce and Navigation, p48.圣港位于马德拉岛东北45公里处。
③王加丰著:《西班牙葡萄牙帝国的兴衰》,第160页
④齐世荣主编:《15世纪以来世界九强的历史演变》,第53页。
⑤M.M.波斯坦主编:《剑桥欧洲经济史——16世纪、17世纪不断扩张的欧洲经济》,第262页。
①James D. Tracy,The Rise of Merchant Empires,Long Distance Trade in the Early Modern World 1350–1750, P62.
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10.纪宗安:《十六世纪以来澳门在太平洋大帆船贸易网中的作用与地位》,《暨南学报(哲学社会科学)》,1999年第六期,50-61。
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24.王赓武:《没有帝国的商人》,《海交史研究》,1993年,第一期。
25.王花蕾:《澳门近代早期世界贸易体系的中心》。
26.王花蕾:《近代早期白银流入对中国经济的影响》,《山西财经大学学报》,2005年10月第五期,6-9页。
27.熊思远,徐罗卿:《澳门在中西文化交流中的历史地位》,《玉溪师范高等专科学校学报》,2000年第2期,26-27页。
28.张海鹏:《澳门史研究:前进与困难——中国大陆澳门史研究动向》,澳门《文化杂志》,1996年,第27、28期。
29.张铠:《晚明中国市场与世界市场》,《中国史研究》,1988年第3期。
30.张廷茂:《16—17世纪澳门与葡萄牙远东保教权关系的若干问题》,《杭州师范学院学报(社会科学版)》,2005年第4期,30-36。
31.张泽洪:《澳门族群与多元文化:16-18世纪澳门天主教与中国传统宗教》,《中华文化论坛》,2004年3月,129-132页。
32.张增信:《16世纪前期葡萄牙人在中国沿海的贸易据点》,《中国海洋发展史论文集》第
2辑,“中央研究院”三民主义研究所,1986年。
33.朱亚非,刘文涛:《东西方经济文化交流的枢纽与门户——论16—18世纪澳门的历史地位》,《世界历史》,1999年第六期,9-18页。
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①Francisco Bethencourt,Portuguese Oceanic Expansion 1400-1800, Cambridge University Press,2006,p23.
②1薄式耳等于8加仑。
③Francisco Bethencourt,Portuguese Oceanic Expansion 1400-1800, p23.
④J.H.萨拉依瓦:《葡萄牙简史》,中国展望出版社,1988年版,第126页。
⑤T. Bentley Duncan, Atlantic Islands; Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in Seventeenth-century Commerce and Navigation, University of Chicago Press, 1972, p10-11.阿罗巴(arroba)为西班牙旧重量单位,用于墨西哥及南美某些国家,合25.36磅。
①莱斯利·贝瑟尔著:《剑桥拉丁美洲史(第1卷)》,经济管理出版社,1995年,第244页。
②15世纪初欧洲人所画地图只到博哈多尔角以北为止。博哈多尔角以南海域终年暴风雨,海流汹涌,被称为“黑暗之海”。自古欧洲人就传说这里海水滚烫,太阳能把人的皮肤烤黑。
③M.M.波斯坦主编:《剑桥欧洲经济史——16世纪、17世纪不断扩张的欧洲经济》,经济科学出版社,2003年版,第261页。
④James D. Tracy,The Rise of Merchant Empires,Long Distance Trade in the Early Modern World 1350–1750,Cambridge University Press,1990, P60.
⑤Malny Newitt, A History of Portuguese Oversea Expansion 1400-1668, Routledge, 2005,p124.
①Francisco Bethencourt, Portuguese Oceanic Expansion 1400-1800, p144.
②Malny Newitt, A History of Portuguese Oversea Expansion 1400-1668, p124.
③西班牙旧重量单位,用于墨西哥及南美某些国家,合25.36磅。
④C.R.Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire: 1415-1825, Hutchinson, 1968,p89.
⑤埃里克·吉尔伯特、乔纳森·T.雷诺兹著:《非洲史》,海南出版社,2007年,第148页。
⑥埃里克·吉尔伯特、乔纳森·T.雷诺兹著:《非洲史》,第148页。
①莱斯利·贝瑟尔著:《剑桥拉丁美洲史(第1卷)》,第247页。
②莱斯利·贝瑟尔著:《剑桥拉丁美洲史(第1卷)》,第250页。
③Malny Newitt, A History of Portuguese Oversea Expansion 1400-1668,p94.
①M.M.波斯坦主编:《剑桥欧洲经济史——16世纪、17世纪不断扩张的欧洲经济》,第282页。
②Malny Newitt, A History of Portuguese Oversea Expansion 1400-1668,p128.
③M.M.波斯坦主编:《剑桥欧洲经济史——16世纪、17世纪不断扩张的欧洲经济》,第282页。
④C.R.Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire: 1415-1825, p103.
⑤M.M.波斯坦主编:《剑桥欧洲经济史——16世纪、17世纪不断扩张的欧洲经济》,第283页。
⑥Francisco Bethencourt, Portuguese Oceanic Expansion 1400-1800, p26.
⑦埃里克·吉尔伯特、乔纳森·T.雷诺兹著:《非洲史》,第149页。
⑧J.H.萨拉依瓦:《葡萄牙简史》,第150页。
①Clive Ponting, World History,A New Perspective, London, 2000, p.507.
②James D. Tracy,The Rise of Merchant Empires,Long Distance Trade in the Early Modern World 1350–1750,p60.关于表格中的单位:阿罗巴为西班牙计量单位,每16盎司为25磅,或11.5公斤。箱(caixa)是葡萄牙装蔗糖的工具,相当于箱子,在巴西等于30阿罗巴。
①A.J.R.Russell-Wood, The Portuguese Empire:1415-1808,The Johns Hopkins University Press,Baltimore and London, 1998,p139.
①王加丰:《西班牙、葡萄牙帝国的兴衰》,三秦出版社,2005年版,第41页。
①Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asina,1500-1700: Apolitical and Economic History, Longman Publishing, 1993, p141.
②Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asina,1500-1700: Apolitical and Economic History, p63.
①Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asina,1500-1700: Apolitical and Economic History, p.61.
②王加丰:《西班牙、葡萄牙帝国的兴衰》,第47页。
③K.N.Cuaudhari, Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750, Cambridge University Press, 1985, p68.
④Malny Newitt, A History of Portuguese Oversea Expansion 1400-1668,pp76-77.
⑤王加丰:《西班牙、葡萄牙帝国的兴衰》,第45页。
①Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asina,1500-1700: Apolitical and Economic History, p62.
②王加丰:《西班牙、葡萄牙帝国的兴衰》,第49页。
③C.R.Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire: 1415-1825, Hutchinson, 1968,p48.
④J.H.萨拉依瓦:《葡萄牙简史》,第133页。
①Francisco Bethencourt, Portuguese Oceanic Expansion 1400-1800, p.24.
②1507年阿尔布魁克占领霍尔木兹后由于兵力不足而被迫放弃。
③James D. Tracy,The Rise of Merchant Empires,Long Distance Trade in the Early Modern World 1350–1750, P51.
④James D. Tracy,The Rise of Merchant Empires,Long Distance Trade in the Early Modern World 1350–1750,P51.
⑤Stanley G. Payne, A Hisotry of Spain and Portugal, The University of Wisconsin Press,1973, p.232.
⑥指葡萄牙在东方的海外领土,包括莫桑比克和霍尔木兹到澳门和香料群岛之间的所有据点。
①Earl J. Hamilton,The Role of Monopoly in the Overseas Expansion and Colonial Trade of Europe Before 1800,http://www.jstor.org/stable/1910481.
②Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asina,1500-1700: Apolitical and Economic History, p94.
③Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asina,1500-1700: Apolitical and Economic History, p94.
④R.D.Cremer, Macao: City of Commerce and Culture, UEA Press Ltd., Hong Kong, 1987, pp29-30.
①李国祥等主编:《明实录类纂(经济史料卷)》,武汉出版社,1993年版,第1090页。
②李国祥等主编:《明实录类纂(经济史料卷)》,第1090页。
③万明:《中葡早期关系史》,社会科学文献出版社,2001年版,第52页。
①龙思泰著:《早期澳门史》,东方出版社,1997年版,第4页。
②万明:《中葡早期关系史》,第53-54页。
③龙思泰著:《早期澳门史》,第5页。
④龙思泰著:《早期澳门史》,第5-6页。
⑤何芳川著:《澳门与葡萄牙大商船——葡萄牙与早期近代太平洋贸易网的形成》,北京大学出版社,1996年版,第29页。
⑥《明史·佛朗机传》。
①J. M. Braga,The Western Pioneers and Their Discovery of Macao , Imprensa Nacional, 1949, p203.
②《明史?佛朗机传》。
③Ashin Das Gupta and M. N. Pearson, India and the Indian Ocean 1500-1800, Oxford University Press, 1987,p246.
④龙思泰:《早期澳门史》,东方出版社,1997年版,第100页。
⑤C. A. Montalto de Jesus, Historic Macao.转引自万明:《中葡早期关系史》,社会科学文献出版社,2001年版,第153页。
⑥C. R. Boxer,Fidogos in the Far East, 1550-1770, Martinus Nijhoff,1948, p15.
⑦何芳川著:《澳门与葡萄牙大商船——葡萄牙与早期近代太平洋贸易网的形成》,第35页。
⑧C.R.Boxer: The Great Ship from Amacon, Lisbon, 1963, p181.
①C.R.Boxer: The Great Ship from Amacon, Lisbon, p181.
②何芳川著:《澳门与葡萄牙大商船——葡萄牙与早期近代太平洋贸易网的形成》,第40页。
③郑若曾:《郑开阳杂著》卷四,《四库全书》本。转引自;万明:《中葡早期关系史》,第154-5页。
④全汉昇:《明中叶后澳门的海外贸易》,转引自《中葡早期关系史》,第155-6页
⑤R.D.Cremer,Macao: City of Commerce and Culture, p33.
①黄鸿钊:《澳门史》,福建人民出版社,1999年,第175页。
②黄鸿钊:《澳门史》,第175页。
③J.H.萨拉依瓦:《葡萄牙简史》,第224页。
①T. Bentley Duncan, Atlantic Islands; Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in Seventeenth-century Commerce and Navigation, p49.
①罗伯特·B.马克斯:《现代世界的起源——全球的、生态的述说》,商务印书馆,2006年,第46-47页。
②A.J.R.Russell-wood, The Portuguese Empire,1415-1808:A World on the Move, pxxxii.
①A.J.R.Russell-wood, The Portuguese Empire,1415-1808:A World on the Move, pxxxii.
①桑贾依·苏拉马尼亚姆:《葡萄牙帝国在亚洲:1500-1700政治和经济史》,第127-128页。
①Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asina,1500-1700: Apolitical and Economic History, p120.
②C.R.Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire: 1415-1825, p114.
③C.R.Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire: 1415-1825, p115.
④C.R.Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire: 1415-1825, p116.
①Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asina,1500-1700: Apolitical and Economic History, p136.
②Nicholas Mirkovich, Ragusa and the Portuguese Spice Trade, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3020140.
③M.M.波斯坦主编:《剑桥欧洲经济史——16世纪、17世纪不断扩张的欧洲经济》,第206页。
④齐世荣主编:《15世纪以来世界九强的历史演变》,广东人民出版社,2005年版,第52页。
⑤T. Bentley Duncan, Atlantic Islands; Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in Seventeenth-century Commerce and Navigation, p31
①T. Bentley Duncan, Atlantic Islands; Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in Seventeenth-century Commerce and Navigation, p39.
②T. Bentley Duncan, Atlantic Islands; Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in Seventeenth-century Commerce and Navigation, p48.圣港位于马德拉岛东北45公里处。
③王加丰著:《西班牙葡萄牙帝国的兴衰》,第160页
④齐世荣主编:《15世纪以来世界九强的历史演变》,第53页。
⑤M.M.波斯坦主编:《剑桥欧洲经济史——16世纪、17世纪不断扩张的欧洲经济》,第262页。
①James D. Tracy,The Rise of Merchant Empires,Long Distance Trade in the Early Modern World 1350–1750, P62.
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1.《明史》,中华书局,1974年
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4.张燮:《东西洋考》,中华书局,1981年。
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