论英国警察权的变迁
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摘要
警察是现代国家维护社会秩序与预防、打击犯罪的主要力量。然而,如何在保障警察工作效率的同时又确保公民合法权益不受侵害,即警察权与公民权的平衡问题,对各个国家来说,都是一个难题。英国警察被认为是世界现代职业警察的开端,其权力内容和权力制约模式呈现出独特的风格。本文从四个角度对英国警察权发展的历史进行研究,以期在全面、深入地揭示英国警察权变迁过程的同时,为我国目前所面临的警察信任危机问题提供变革的新思路。
一、英国警察诞生的历史决定了英国警察权的基本特征。
1829年,伦敦大都市警察的建立,是英国现代警察诞生的标志。然而,当时的社会背景却同时存在着两股相反的力量：一方面是由社会变化产生的客观需求；另一方面则是传统惯性对新事务的强烈抵制。
历史上,自9世纪起,英国就确立了治安自治的原则。最基层的治安组织是由十户组成的“太兴”,预防、打击犯罪的方式则是全民参与的“鸣金捕贼”。12世纪以后,逐渐出现的由治安法官领导治安官负责地方治安的模式,由于两者都是地方乡绅、社区代表,而且都是兼职人员,因此仍然保留了地方性、非职业性的特征。
16世纪以后,随着英国资本主义农业和工业革命的发展,社会不同群体之间产生了明显的两极分化,关系紧张。在工业化和城市化发展到一定阶段后,各种社会矛盾最终都以犯罪、骚乱的形式爆发出来,并日益显现出跨地域的特征,传统的治安维护方式已经不能适应社会环境的变化。
在这种严峻的形势下,政府也尝试通过严厉刑法、奖励个体揭发犯罪人等方法加强打击犯罪的力度,但并不奏效,18世纪的伦敦成为犯罪天堂,居民普遍缺乏安全感,传统治安模式的变革是大势所趋。一些认识到变革必要性的治安法官、内阁大臣开始新的尝试。18世纪中后期,菲尔丁兄弟在弓街组织的以捕贼者为主体的职业治安力量、皮特政府对弓街治安法官和治安官职业化的改革、治安法官帕特里克·苛奎恩组建的泰晤士水上警察都为大都市警察的最终建立奠定了思想与实践基础。
然而,英国自大宪章以来确立的“自由”观念以及地方自治的传统,使得普通公众和地方政要对具有特殊权力的警察深怀恐惧与憎恨,对种种建立警察的尝试都予以坚决反对。《大都市警察法》是时任内政部长罗伯特·比尔运用政治手段,在适当的时候提出议案而侥幸得以通过的结果。
法律的通过、警察组织的建立,只是变革的开端。社会各界对警察的憎恨因其建立而加剧,警察面对的首要问题是生存。为此,罗伯特等改革先驱者采用了强调警察的平民性与警察政治中立的策略以消除公众的疑虑,这种定位最终取得了成效,而从另一个角度看,也决定了英国警察权的基本特征——警察权力源于公民权利、警察没有超出公民权利的特殊权力、警察要遵守法律。
总体上,英国警察建立初期表现出弱权的形象。
二、警察负责制是英国警察权制约的组织基础
英国警察权制约体系中的支柱是警察负责制,即由谁控制警察的问题。这也是警察建立后急需解决的、最重要的问题。《大都市警察法》以及之后各地方警察组织据以建立的法律,其关注点都是负责制。
英国警察建立初期,各地的负责制形式主要有三种：一是伦敦大都市警察之警察局对内政部负责的中央控制模式；二是由监督委员会控制的市警察组织模式；三是治安法官(后为常务联合委员会)控制但警察局长相对独立的郡警察组织模式。多元的负责制模式,是地方自治传统作用的结果。警察制度的推行,必须以确认地方权力对警察的控制权为前提。当然,1856年的《郡和市警察法》通过中央财政补贴这一手段,拉开了中央对地方警察进行控制的序幕。
自大都市警察建立至20世纪60年代之前的130余年中,警察逐渐发展为一个成熟的职业群体,各地警察局之间的合作、交流越来越多,渐渐形成一些共同的观念、文化,再加上内政部的支持,警察独立性地位日益突出。司法判决也支持警察独立、警察对法律负责的观念。但是,与此同时,有关警察滥用权力、收受贿赂的丑闻事件自50年代后不断被曝光,引起公众对警察控制问题的关注。由此,1960年,有关警察(事务)的皇家委员会成立,专门就警察负责制进行调查研究,该委员会报告成为,《1964年警察法》的立法基础。
1964年的立法所确立了现行的三角结构的警察负责制形式。其具体内容为：即内政部、警察局长和地方警察委员会对警察各负其责、相互制约；内政部行使所有最有助于推动警察效率的权力；警察局长指挥和控制警察局；地方警察委员会则负责保证维持人数足够、有效的地方警察组织,并实施为实现该目的而由法律所授予的权力。
《1964年警察法》总体上确认了在过去百年中中央权力扩张的事实,赋予内政部更多的干涉地方警务的权力,地方警察委员会的作用被大大削弱,警察局长对内具有绝对的决定权,其独立性得到进一步发展,而这又进一步为司法判决所巩固。此种变革的最大弊端是警察负责制中民主控制的衰落,这与英国警察的优良传统是不符的。
20世纪80年代,英国大城市如伦敦、曼彻斯特等市,相继发生大规模骚乱,引起社会震惊。对伦敦布里克斯顿骚乱进行调查的《斯卡曼报告》认为警察采取的强硬措施与社区公众的需求不相符,引起公众仇恨。由此,警察组织的民主控制问题成为社会焦点。社会各界提出不同的负责制改革方案,最终斯卡曼勋爵的建议被采纳,即在现有的负责制基础上建立、完善警察和地方社区之间的咨询机制。
对政府而言,打击新型严重犯罪,如网络犯罪、恐怖主义活动等,比满足公众的民主控制需求更为重要。《1996年警察法》扩大了内政部对警察组织的控制程度,同时设立由中央控制的国家专门警察机构,警察负责制的中央化趋势进一步巩固。20世纪末的英国警察显然已经不用担心生存问题,国家需要统一的、有效的警察组织以应对国际化的严重犯罪。
三、英国警察侦查权的发展
侦查权是警察拥有的一项重要权力。与我国相比,由于英国的犯罪概念比我国的要广,警察侦查的犯罪案件就不仅仅是我国所称的“刑事案件”,还包括“治安违法行为”。英国警察的侦查权相当于我国警察对刑事案件的侦查权加上对治安违法案件的调查权,范围更大。因此,侦查权集中地体现了英国警察权力内容。
英国警察在建立初期强调警察是对治安官的继承,警察就是公众,其主要职责是通过巡逻预防犯罪,从事犯罪侦查的警察因其“密探”形象而遭到反对。因此,大都市警察建立初期并没有设立侦查部门,直到1842年,大都市警察局才建立了只有8人的侦查部门。此后,该部门逐步发展。
与侦查部门发展缓慢相一致的是制定法对侦查权规范的漠视。警察就是公众,警察拥有的权力与公民的相同。此种观念决定了警察侦查权长期以来适用普通法。无论是警察的逮捕权、讯问权、起诉权,都是源于公民的权利,并由判例法进行调整。在20世纪80年代之前的150余年中,警察的侦查权事实上不断扩大,而这种趋势又大都为法官所认可。
《1984年警察与刑事证据法》是一部全面规范警察侦查权的法律。该法的颁布,改变了侦查权长期以来缺乏制定法依据的局面。其立法宗旨是希望在警察权力与公民权利(特别是犯罪嫌疑人的权利)之间保持平衡。该法将之前普通法发展的警察侦查权制定法化,也就是肯定了警察权扩张的事实。同时,在具体程序上予以细化,以实现制约警察权的目的。对于《警察与刑事证据法》的实际效果,警察和学者有不同观点。前者认为该法制约了警察打击犯罪的能力,后者则批评该法将警察实际中采用的不当做法合法化,扩大了警察权力。
80年代警察侦查权的另一个重大变化是,警察的起诉权因1985年《犯罪起诉法》的通过、1986年王室检察院的创建而被剥夺,这是1829年以来,警察首次丧失一项重要的权力。
四、英国警察权行使的救济
警察使用权力不当,行为相对人可以通过投诉或提起民事诉讼的方式获得救济,这种事后纠错也是控制警察权力的重要机制。
英国警察的投诉机制经历了四次变革：《1964年警察法》初步确立了警察投诉机制,那是一种警察自我调查的模式；《1976年警察法》规定了警察自我调查为主、警察投诉委员会有限介入的警察投诉机制；《1984年警察和刑事证据法》以警察投诉机构取代警察投诉委员会,同时规定了更为灵活的投诉处理方式以及完整的处理程序；《2002年警察改革法》设立了独立警察投诉委员会,确立了四种调查形式：地方警察委员会或警察局长进行调查；地方警察委员会或警察局长在独立警察投诉委员会监督下进行调查；地方警察委员会或警察局长在独立警察投诉委员会指挥下进行调查；独立警察投诉委员会独立进行调查。
从上述变革过程可以看出,警察投诉机制中专门委员会调查的独立性不断加强,这对于保证调查的客观、公正非常重要。这样的变化并不是警察主动改进的结果,而是在不同阶段,一系列有争议的事件引起公众对投诉机制效果的质疑后,政府不得不采取的应对措施。被动性使得警察投诉机制的改革缓慢前行并且难以摆脱在受质疑与改变之间循环往复的宿命。
公民在自身权益因警察行为受到侵害后,也可以通过民事诉讼获得救济。由于对警察投诉机制缺乏信心,很多公民选择状告警察局。通过这种方式,原告经常能够获得高额赔偿。但是,法官并不是简单地以保护公民权利、抑制警察权力为原则,而是努力平衡两者之间的关系。一方面,法官对警察的行为进行严格的审查,另一方面,又对警察承担民事责任的边界和赔偿金额进行控制。在法官看来：民事诉讼中的赔偿应当以弥补原告所遭受的痛苦为主,而不是惩罚警察；法律在保障公民权利、监督警察正当执法的同时,也要确保警察有充足的资源履行其维护社会秩序的职能。
综上所述,英国特有的历史、法律、文化传统造就了英国多维的警察权控制体系,其特征为：由自由观念决定的警察权力的公民权利属性、警察负责制是警察权界定与控制的核心、制定法是明确警察权力具体内容的主要依据、普通法在警察权力控制方面起着调节的作用、投诉机制和针对警察的民事诉讼是警察权不当行使的救济手段。这样一种模式是其他任何国家所不能复制的。但是,纵观英国警察权变迁的历史,其中一些重要的观念、基本制度仍然是值得我们借鉴的。
The police force is an important branch of government in charge of crime investigation, crime prevention and order maintenance. In most countries, the balance between police power and citizen's rights is a big issue. The Metropolitan Police created in 1829 is regarded as the first uniformed police force in modern society. Due to its history, culture and legal tradition, police power in England and Wales has its own characteristics. This thesis focuses on the change of police power in England and Wales. There are four chapters concerning the creation of new police, the change in police accountability, the police power in crime investigation and the police complaint system.
Chapter I The Creation of a Modern Police Force in England and Wales
The nature of police power in England and Wales is decided by the background in which the police was created. On the one hand, tremendous change happened since the industrial revolution in Britain, especially in big cities, the old policing system was out of date. On the other hand, the tradition was still very strong and resisted the idea of setting up the police.
Traditionally, policing was a local affair. Each person had the obligation to keep the peace of the king. Ten households constituted one'tything', and ten tythings formed into one'hundred'. Once a crime was committed, all members of a community must join the pursuit of the felon by means of hue and cry. Since the 12th century, the office of constable and the Justice of peace emerged. Those part-time, unpaid officers were the main parts of policing system before the new police was established.
The big change in society, the corruption of constable and Justice of Peace led to the collapse of the old system. Facing the serious situation of high crime rates, disorder and riots, the government enacted stricter criminal law and offered rewards to those who brought certain kinds of offender to justice. However those measures did not work. The police reformers had tried to change the old system since middle of 18 century. The magistrates of Bow Street, Henry Fielding and John Fielding set up a small body of'thief-takers'as a secret professional police force. In 1875, the Pitt's government introduced a bill in Parliament, proposing the establishment of a strong police force to act throughout the whole Metropolitan area. Magistrate Patrick Colquhoun published a book talking about the importance of police. The efforts of those policing reformers did not overthrow the old system, however they educated the public. In 1829, Robert Peel introduced his bill of police and it was passed without opposition in parliament. The Metropolitan police was established two month later.
The new police was facing serious public hostility, so the most important issue for the police was legitimacy. The police claimed that a police officer was ordinary citizen, person paid to perform, as a matter of duty, acts which if he were so minded he might have done voluntarily. The police did not have any powers beyond what a citizen had. Robert Peel and other pioneers also took the strategy of policing by consent, non-partisanship, minimizing use of weapons, etc.. In general, the new police had few powers and more obligations.
Chapter II Police Accountability----he Organizational Control of Police Power
Police accountability refers to who controls the police, it is an most important issue when the new police was created in England and Wales. In the beginning, there were three types of accountability:the Metropolitan police were responsible to the Home Office, a central-control model; the municipal police were controlled by Watch Committee; the county police were appointed by magistrates (later by Standing Joint Committee); those two were local-control models. The variety of police accountability resulted from the tradition of local autonomy on policing affairs.
In the 1960s, police accountability became a hot issue again. There were two reasons. Within the development of police force in the country, the police became stronger and more independent. The judges also agreed with the principle of police independence and police accountability to the law. At the same time, many cases of police corruption and abuse of power were exposed. The public felt that the police was out of control. In 1960, the Royal Commission on Police was appointed to review the arrangement of police control. The suggestions of the commission were mainly accepted by the legislature.
The Police Act 1964 established so called'triangle'police accountability. The Home Office has the duty to promote the efficiency of the police and powers to discharge the duty. The local police authority should maintain an adequate and efficient force. The chief constable of each police force controls and directs the police.
The 1964 act gave more powers to the Home Secretary, the function of local authority was weakened. In 1980s, serious riots occurred in big cities, such as London, Manchester. Lord Scarman who was appointed to investigate the riot happened in Brixton London concluded that the hard strategy used by police was one of social reasons caused the riot. He suggested that the police should listen to the voices of the community by setting up a consultation system. This idea was codified later.
However, fighting crime is the top issue for the British government, especially under the pressure of terrorism crime and internet crime. The government needs a centralized and effective police. The Police Act 1996 did not emphasize on democratic accountability, on the contrary, the police accountability tended to be more centralized.
ChapterⅢThe Investigation Power of Police in England and Wales
The idea of'police is public'obstructed the development of the detective branch in London as well as other areas. The Metropolitan Police did not have a detective branch until 1842. At that time, there were only 8 constables. Correspondingly, the legislation of police investigation power developed very slowly.
From the 1820s to the early 1980s, the police used its investigation power derived from common law and extended it through case law. In practice, the police possessed much more powers on arrest, interrogation and prosecution than the ordinary people, although in theory the police had the same power as the latter.
In 1984, the Police and Criminal Evidence Act was enacted. It codified the powers developed by case law during last 155 years. At the same time, the act put more strict regulation on procedure. The aim of this act is keeping the balance between police investigation power and the suspect's rights. However, it turns out that the police were unhappy about the restriction, and the scholars thought too much power was endowed to police.
The Prosecution of Offences Act 1985 created the Crown Prosecution system. The power of prosecution was transferred to this new institution, police lost a significant power.
ChapterⅣThe Remedy of Police Power Abuse
When a citizen's rights are infringed by police, he/she can make complaint to certain organization or sue the police force to the court.
The police complaint system went through four reforms. The Police Act 1964 provided that the police force is responsible for the policeman's misconduct, and the chief constable is in charge of complaint investigation. The Police Act of 1976 created an independent organization, the Police Complaint Board (PCB) which can review the complaint case investigated by the chief constable. The Police and Criminal Evidence Act replaced PCB with the Police Complaint Authority (PCA) which has power to supervise the investigation in some serious cases. The Police reform Act 2002 changed PCA to The Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC). Now, there are four types of investigation:local investigation, IPCC supervised investigation, IPCC directed investigation, IPCC independent investigation. Compared with PCB and PCA, IPCC is more independent and more active in supervision and investigation. With four reforms in 38 years, change happened frequently. The public expected a completely independent police complaint system, which is still not the case in the IPCC model.
Due to the low confidence in the police complaint system, many people prefer filing civil suits to get compensation from the police, and very often, they receives huge sums in damages from the police. The judges are not always on the side of citizen, they examine the police behavior closely and make sure that the citizen's rights are not violated, but they also know the importance of giving police enough power to fight crime.
In general, the complicated police power system is derived from the special history, culture and legal philosophy. The nature of police power was decided by the background in which the new police was created. Police accountability is the organizational control of police power. The statutes regulate the detective and administrative power of police and the courts make modification and supplement. The core principle is maintaining the balance between the police power and the individual's rights.
一、英国警察诞生的历史决定了英国警察权的基本特征。
1829年,伦敦大都市警察的建立,是英国现代警察诞生的标志。然而,当时的社会背景却同时存在着两股相反的力量：一方面是由社会变化产生的客观需求；另一方面则是传统惯性对新事务的强烈抵制。
历史上,自9世纪起,英国就确立了治安自治的原则。最基层的治安组织是由十户组成的“太兴”,预防、打击犯罪的方式则是全民参与的“鸣金捕贼”。12世纪以后,逐渐出现的由治安法官领导治安官负责地方治安的模式,由于两者都是地方乡绅、社区代表,而且都是兼职人员,因此仍然保留了地方性、非职业性的特征。
16世纪以后,随着英国资本主义农业和工业革命的发展,社会不同群体之间产生了明显的两极分化,关系紧张。在工业化和城市化发展到一定阶段后,各种社会矛盾最终都以犯罪、骚乱的形式爆发出来,并日益显现出跨地域的特征,传统的治安维护方式已经不能适应社会环境的变化。
在这种严峻的形势下,政府也尝试通过严厉刑法、奖励个体揭发犯罪人等方法加强打击犯罪的力度,但并不奏效,18世纪的伦敦成为犯罪天堂,居民普遍缺乏安全感,传统治安模式的变革是大势所趋。一些认识到变革必要性的治安法官、内阁大臣开始新的尝试。18世纪中后期,菲尔丁兄弟在弓街组织的以捕贼者为主体的职业治安力量、皮特政府对弓街治安法官和治安官职业化的改革、治安法官帕特里克·苛奎恩组建的泰晤士水上警察都为大都市警察的最终建立奠定了思想与实践基础。
然而,英国自大宪章以来确立的“自由”观念以及地方自治的传统,使得普通公众和地方政要对具有特殊权力的警察深怀恐惧与憎恨,对种种建立警察的尝试都予以坚决反对。《大都市警察法》是时任内政部长罗伯特·比尔运用政治手段,在适当的时候提出议案而侥幸得以通过的结果。
法律的通过、警察组织的建立,只是变革的开端。社会各界对警察的憎恨因其建立而加剧,警察面对的首要问题是生存。为此,罗伯特等改革先驱者采用了强调警察的平民性与警察政治中立的策略以消除公众的疑虑,这种定位最终取得了成效,而从另一个角度看,也决定了英国警察权的基本特征——警察权力源于公民权利、警察没有超出公民权利的特殊权力、警察要遵守法律。
总体上,英国警察建立初期表现出弱权的形象。
二、警察负责制是英国警察权制约的组织基础
英国警察权制约体系中的支柱是警察负责制,即由谁控制警察的问题。这也是警察建立后急需解决的、最重要的问题。《大都市警察法》以及之后各地方警察组织据以建立的法律,其关注点都是负责制。
英国警察建立初期,各地的负责制形式主要有三种：一是伦敦大都市警察之警察局对内政部负责的中央控制模式；二是由监督委员会控制的市警察组织模式；三是治安法官(后为常务联合委员会)控制但警察局长相对独立的郡警察组织模式。多元的负责制模式,是地方自治传统作用的结果。警察制度的推行,必须以确认地方权力对警察的控制权为前提。当然,1856年的《郡和市警察法》通过中央财政补贴这一手段,拉开了中央对地方警察进行控制的序幕。
自大都市警察建立至20世纪60年代之前的130余年中,警察逐渐发展为一个成熟的职业群体,各地警察局之间的合作、交流越来越多,渐渐形成一些共同的观念、文化,再加上内政部的支持,警察独立性地位日益突出。司法判决也支持警察独立、警察对法律负责的观念。但是,与此同时,有关警察滥用权力、收受贿赂的丑闻事件自50年代后不断被曝光,引起公众对警察控制问题的关注。由此,1960年,有关警察(事务)的皇家委员会成立,专门就警察负责制进行调查研究,该委员会报告成为,《1964年警察法》的立法基础。
1964年的立法所确立了现行的三角结构的警察负责制形式。其具体内容为：即内政部、警察局长和地方警察委员会对警察各负其责、相互制约；内政部行使所有最有助于推动警察效率的权力；警察局长指挥和控制警察局；地方警察委员会则负责保证维持人数足够、有效的地方警察组织,并实施为实现该目的而由法律所授予的权力。
《1964年警察法》总体上确认了在过去百年中中央权力扩张的事实,赋予内政部更多的干涉地方警务的权力,地方警察委员会的作用被大大削弱,警察局长对内具有绝对的决定权,其独立性得到进一步发展,而这又进一步为司法判决所巩固。此种变革的最大弊端是警察负责制中民主控制的衰落,这与英国警察的优良传统是不符的。
20世纪80年代,英国大城市如伦敦、曼彻斯特等市,相继发生大规模骚乱,引起社会震惊。对伦敦布里克斯顿骚乱进行调查的《斯卡曼报告》认为警察采取的强硬措施与社区公众的需求不相符,引起公众仇恨。由此,警察组织的民主控制问题成为社会焦点。社会各界提出不同的负责制改革方案,最终斯卡曼勋爵的建议被采纳,即在现有的负责制基础上建立、完善警察和地方社区之间的咨询机制。
对政府而言,打击新型严重犯罪,如网络犯罪、恐怖主义活动等,比满足公众的民主控制需求更为重要。《1996年警察法》扩大了内政部对警察组织的控制程度,同时设立由中央控制的国家专门警察机构,警察负责制的中央化趋势进一步巩固。20世纪末的英国警察显然已经不用担心生存问题,国家需要统一的、有效的警察组织以应对国际化的严重犯罪。
三、英国警察侦查权的发展
侦查权是警察拥有的一项重要权力。与我国相比,由于英国的犯罪概念比我国的要广,警察侦查的犯罪案件就不仅仅是我国所称的“刑事案件”,还包括“治安违法行为”。英国警察的侦查权相当于我国警察对刑事案件的侦查权加上对治安违法案件的调查权,范围更大。因此,侦查权集中地体现了英国警察权力内容。
英国警察在建立初期强调警察是对治安官的继承,警察就是公众,其主要职责是通过巡逻预防犯罪,从事犯罪侦查的警察因其“密探”形象而遭到反对。因此,大都市警察建立初期并没有设立侦查部门,直到1842年,大都市警察局才建立了只有8人的侦查部门。此后,该部门逐步发展。
与侦查部门发展缓慢相一致的是制定法对侦查权规范的漠视。警察就是公众,警察拥有的权力与公民的相同。此种观念决定了警察侦查权长期以来适用普通法。无论是警察的逮捕权、讯问权、起诉权,都是源于公民的权利,并由判例法进行调整。在20世纪80年代之前的150余年中,警察的侦查权事实上不断扩大,而这种趋势又大都为法官所认可。
《1984年警察与刑事证据法》是一部全面规范警察侦查权的法律。该法的颁布,改变了侦查权长期以来缺乏制定法依据的局面。其立法宗旨是希望在警察权力与公民权利(特别是犯罪嫌疑人的权利)之间保持平衡。该法将之前普通法发展的警察侦查权制定法化,也就是肯定了警察权扩张的事实。同时,在具体程序上予以细化,以实现制约警察权的目的。对于《警察与刑事证据法》的实际效果,警察和学者有不同观点。前者认为该法制约了警察打击犯罪的能力,后者则批评该法将警察实际中采用的不当做法合法化,扩大了警察权力。
80年代警察侦查权的另一个重大变化是,警察的起诉权因1985年《犯罪起诉法》的通过、1986年王室检察院的创建而被剥夺,这是1829年以来,警察首次丧失一项重要的权力。
四、英国警察权行使的救济
警察使用权力不当,行为相对人可以通过投诉或提起民事诉讼的方式获得救济,这种事后纠错也是控制警察权力的重要机制。
英国警察的投诉机制经历了四次变革：《1964年警察法》初步确立了警察投诉机制,那是一种警察自我调查的模式；《1976年警察法》规定了警察自我调查为主、警察投诉委员会有限介入的警察投诉机制；《1984年警察和刑事证据法》以警察投诉机构取代警察投诉委员会,同时规定了更为灵活的投诉处理方式以及完整的处理程序；《2002年警察改革法》设立了独立警察投诉委员会,确立了四种调查形式：地方警察委员会或警察局长进行调查；地方警察委员会或警察局长在独立警察投诉委员会监督下进行调查；地方警察委员会或警察局长在独立警察投诉委员会指挥下进行调查；独立警察投诉委员会独立进行调查。
从上述变革过程可以看出,警察投诉机制中专门委员会调查的独立性不断加强,这对于保证调查的客观、公正非常重要。这样的变化并不是警察主动改进的结果,而是在不同阶段,一系列有争议的事件引起公众对投诉机制效果的质疑后,政府不得不采取的应对措施。被动性使得警察投诉机制的改革缓慢前行并且难以摆脱在受质疑与改变之间循环往复的宿命。
公民在自身权益因警察行为受到侵害后,也可以通过民事诉讼获得救济。由于对警察投诉机制缺乏信心,很多公民选择状告警察局。通过这种方式,原告经常能够获得高额赔偿。但是,法官并不是简单地以保护公民权利、抑制警察权力为原则,而是努力平衡两者之间的关系。一方面,法官对警察的行为进行严格的审查,另一方面,又对警察承担民事责任的边界和赔偿金额进行控制。在法官看来：民事诉讼中的赔偿应当以弥补原告所遭受的痛苦为主,而不是惩罚警察；法律在保障公民权利、监督警察正当执法的同时,也要确保警察有充足的资源履行其维护社会秩序的职能。
综上所述,英国特有的历史、法律、文化传统造就了英国多维的警察权控制体系,其特征为：由自由观念决定的警察权力的公民权利属性、警察负责制是警察权界定与控制的核心、制定法是明确警察权力具体内容的主要依据、普通法在警察权力控制方面起着调节的作用、投诉机制和针对警察的民事诉讼是警察权不当行使的救济手段。这样一种模式是其他任何国家所不能复制的。但是,纵观英国警察权变迁的历史,其中一些重要的观念、基本制度仍然是值得我们借鉴的。
The police force is an important branch of government in charge of crime investigation, crime prevention and order maintenance. In most countries, the balance between police power and citizen's rights is a big issue. The Metropolitan Police created in 1829 is regarded as the first uniformed police force in modern society. Due to its history, culture and legal tradition, police power in England and Wales has its own characteristics. This thesis focuses on the change of police power in England and Wales. There are four chapters concerning the creation of new police, the change in police accountability, the police power in crime investigation and the police complaint system.
Chapter I The Creation of a Modern Police Force in England and Wales
The nature of police power in England and Wales is decided by the background in which the police was created. On the one hand, tremendous change happened since the industrial revolution in Britain, especially in big cities, the old policing system was out of date. On the other hand, the tradition was still very strong and resisted the idea of setting up the police.
Traditionally, policing was a local affair. Each person had the obligation to keep the peace of the king. Ten households constituted one'tything', and ten tythings formed into one'hundred'. Once a crime was committed, all members of a community must join the pursuit of the felon by means of hue and cry. Since the 12th century, the office of constable and the Justice of peace emerged. Those part-time, unpaid officers were the main parts of policing system before the new police was established.
The big change in society, the corruption of constable and Justice of Peace led to the collapse of the old system. Facing the serious situation of high crime rates, disorder and riots, the government enacted stricter criminal law and offered rewards to those who brought certain kinds of offender to justice. However those measures did not work. The police reformers had tried to change the old system since middle of 18 century. The magistrates of Bow Street, Henry Fielding and John Fielding set up a small body of'thief-takers'as a secret professional police force. In 1875, the Pitt's government introduced a bill in Parliament, proposing the establishment of a strong police force to act throughout the whole Metropolitan area. Magistrate Patrick Colquhoun published a book talking about the importance of police. The efforts of those policing reformers did not overthrow the old system, however they educated the public. In 1829, Robert Peel introduced his bill of police and it was passed without opposition in parliament. The Metropolitan police was established two month later.
The new police was facing serious public hostility, so the most important issue for the police was legitimacy. The police claimed that a police officer was ordinary citizen, person paid to perform, as a matter of duty, acts which if he were so minded he might have done voluntarily. The police did not have any powers beyond what a citizen had. Robert Peel and other pioneers also took the strategy of policing by consent, non-partisanship, minimizing use of weapons, etc.. In general, the new police had few powers and more obligations.
Chapter II Police Accountability----he Organizational Control of Police Power
Police accountability refers to who controls the police, it is an most important issue when the new police was created in England and Wales. In the beginning, there were three types of accountability:the Metropolitan police were responsible to the Home Office, a central-control model; the municipal police were controlled by Watch Committee; the county police were appointed by magistrates (later by Standing Joint Committee); those two were local-control models. The variety of police accountability resulted from the tradition of local autonomy on policing affairs.
In the 1960s, police accountability became a hot issue again. There were two reasons. Within the development of police force in the country, the police became stronger and more independent. The judges also agreed with the principle of police independence and police accountability to the law. At the same time, many cases of police corruption and abuse of power were exposed. The public felt that the police was out of control. In 1960, the Royal Commission on Police was appointed to review the arrangement of police control. The suggestions of the commission were mainly accepted by the legislature.
The Police Act 1964 established so called'triangle'police accountability. The Home Office has the duty to promote the efficiency of the police and powers to discharge the duty. The local police authority should maintain an adequate and efficient force. The chief constable of each police force controls and directs the police.
The 1964 act gave more powers to the Home Secretary, the function of local authority was weakened. In 1980s, serious riots occurred in big cities, such as London, Manchester. Lord Scarman who was appointed to investigate the riot happened in Brixton London concluded that the hard strategy used by police was one of social reasons caused the riot. He suggested that the police should listen to the voices of the community by setting up a consultation system. This idea was codified later.
However, fighting crime is the top issue for the British government, especially under the pressure of terrorism crime and internet crime. The government needs a centralized and effective police. The Police Act 1996 did not emphasize on democratic accountability, on the contrary, the police accountability tended to be more centralized.
ChapterⅢThe Investigation Power of Police in England and Wales
The idea of'police is public'obstructed the development of the detective branch in London as well as other areas. The Metropolitan Police did not have a detective branch until 1842. At that time, there were only 8 constables. Correspondingly, the legislation of police investigation power developed very slowly.
From the 1820s to the early 1980s, the police used its investigation power derived from common law and extended it through case law. In practice, the police possessed much more powers on arrest, interrogation and prosecution than the ordinary people, although in theory the police had the same power as the latter.
In 1984, the Police and Criminal Evidence Act was enacted. It codified the powers developed by case law during last 155 years. At the same time, the act put more strict regulation on procedure. The aim of this act is keeping the balance between police investigation power and the suspect's rights. However, it turns out that the police were unhappy about the restriction, and the scholars thought too much power was endowed to police.
The Prosecution of Offences Act 1985 created the Crown Prosecution system. The power of prosecution was transferred to this new institution, police lost a significant power.
ChapterⅣThe Remedy of Police Power Abuse
When a citizen's rights are infringed by police, he/she can make complaint to certain organization or sue the police force to the court.
The police complaint system went through four reforms. The Police Act 1964 provided that the police force is responsible for the policeman's misconduct, and the chief constable is in charge of complaint investigation. The Police Act of 1976 created an independent organization, the Police Complaint Board (PCB) which can review the complaint case investigated by the chief constable. The Police and Criminal Evidence Act replaced PCB with the Police Complaint Authority (PCA) which has power to supervise the investigation in some serious cases. The Police reform Act 2002 changed PCA to The Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC). Now, there are four types of investigation:local investigation, IPCC supervised investigation, IPCC directed investigation, IPCC independent investigation. Compared with PCB and PCA, IPCC is more independent and more active in supervision and investigation. With four reforms in 38 years, change happened frequently. The public expected a completely independent police complaint system, which is still not the case in the IPCC model.
Due to the low confidence in the police complaint system, many people prefer filing civil suits to get compensation from the police, and very often, they receives huge sums in damages from the police. The judges are not always on the side of citizen, they examine the police behavior closely and make sure that the citizen's rights are not violated, but they also know the importance of giving police enough power to fight crime.
In general, the complicated police power system is derived from the special history, culture and legal philosophy. The nature of police power was decided by the background in which the new police was created. Police accountability is the organizational control of police power. The statutes regulate the detective and administrative power of police and the courts make modification and supplement. The core principle is maintaining the balance between the police power and the individual's rights.
引文
1 Goldstein, H., Policing a free Society, Cambridge, MA:Ballinger,1977, p.1,转引自[美]罗伯特·兰沃西,劳伦斯·特拉维斯著：《社么是警察：美国的经验》,尤小文译,群众出版社2004年版,第5页。
2 陈兴良：《限权与分权：刑事法视野中的警察权》,载《法律科学》2002年第1期,第52页。
3 本文所研究的英国警察权的变迁,是指英格兰和威尔士地区的警察制度而言。苏格兰和北爱尔兰地区有其独立的警察体制。
1 参见陈真,陈合权著：《世界警察概论》,四川大学出版社,2008年4月版,第3-9页；王大伟著：《英美警察科学》,中国人民公安大学出版社,1995年版第158页。[台湾]洪文玲,蔡震荣,郑善印著：《警察法规》“国立空中大学”发行,“民国94年”(2005年),第3-4页。
2 Barbara Weinberger, The Police and the Public in Mid-nineteenth-century Warwickshire, From Victor Bailey, Policing and Punishment in Nineteenth Century Britain, Croom Helm Ltd,1981, p.67.
1 Clive Emsley, Clive Emsley, The English Police A Political and social History, Second Edition, Longman, 1996, p.3.
1 [德]恩格斯：《家庭、私有制和国家的起源》,载《马克思恩格斯选集》第四卷,人民出版社1972年5月版,第114页。
2 同上,第167页。
3 参见[日]松井茂著：《警察学纲要》,吴天译,张天虹,张晓鹏勘校,中国政法大学出版社出版,2005年3月版,第19页。
4 陈允文著：《中国的警察》,商务印书馆,民国二十四年二月[1935.2]出版印行,第5页。
5 许韬,张君霞,余湘青,李亮著：《中外警察法比较研究》,中国检察出版社2009年3月版,第3页。
1 [英]罗伯特·雷纳著：《警察与政治》,易继苍、朱俊瑞译,知识产权出版社2008年6月版,第1页。
2 [美]罗伯特·兰沃西,劳伦斯·特拉维斯著：《社么是警察：美国的经验》,尤小文译,群众出版社2004年版,第4页。
3 [美]罗伯特·兰沃西,劳伦斯·特拉维斯著：《社么是警察：美国的经验》,尤小文译,群众出版社2004年版,第5页。
4 李(?)生：《论警察的概念》,载《公安大学学报》1995年第3期,第10页。
5 张开贵,杨瑞清,张建明,赵兴瑞主编：《公安学基础理论新编》,中国人民公安大学出版社2004年6月版,第25-26页。
6 尹春生：《“警察”概念之科学透视》,载《公安大学学报》1989年第5期第12页。
7 余秀豪著：《警察学大纲》,商务印书馆,民国三十五年十一月[1946.11]出版印行,第3页。
8 李(?)生：《论警察的概念》,载《公安大学学报》1995年第3期,第16页。
1 惠生武著：《警察法论纲》,中国政法大学出版社2000年1月版,第3页。
2 毛泽东：《论人民民主专政》,选自《毛泽东选集》第四卷,人民出版社1991年版,第1476页。
3 惠生武著：《警察法论纲》,中国政法大学出版社2000年1月版,第127页。
1 李健和：《我国警察权力配置的现状、问题与原因——警察权力专题研究之二》,载《中国人民公安大学学报》(社会科学版),2007年第5期第7页。
2 郝赤勇：《警察权力论》,载《公安研究》2005年第9期,第5页。
3 陈兴良：《限权与分权：刑事法视野中的警察权》,载《法律科学》2002年第1期,第53页。
4 David Dixon, Law in Policing:Legal Regulation and Police Practices, Clarendon Press,1997,p.64.
5 陈永生：《论侦查权的性质与特征》,载《法制与社会发展》2003年第2期,第135至144页；但伟,姜涛：《论侦查权的性质》,载《国家检察官学院学报》2003年第5期,第123至128页；彭贵才：《论我国警察权行使的法律规制》,载《当代法学》2009年第4期,第133-134页。
1 杨宗辉：《论我国侦查权的性质——驳“行政权本体说”》,载《法学》2005年第9期,第15至22页。张孝刚：《侦查权性质论纲》,载《公安研究》2007年11期,第63至68页。黎亚薇,黄捷：《论我国侦查权的性质》,载《求索》2007年第12期,第105-107页。
2 李晓明著：《行政刑法学导论》,法律出版社2003年11月版,第13页。
3 [法]孟德斯鸠著：《论法的精神》上册,商务印书馆1978年版,第155-166页。
4 笔者在英国曼彻斯特大学访学期间与Bill Heberton, Philip Rawlings等英国学者交流时,他们提出此观点。
1 上述学者的代表作为：Charles Reith, A New Study of Police History, Oliver and Boyd,1956. T.A. Critchley,A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967. Robert D. Storch, The policeman as domestic missionary:Urban discipline and popular culture in Northern England,1850-57, International Review of Social History,1975, pp.481-509. Clive Emsley, Clive Emsley, The English Police A Political and social History, Second Edition, Longman,1996. Robert Reiner, The Politics of Police,3rd edition, Oxford University Press,2000.
2 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,2002, p.4.
1 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.3
2 Ibid. p.4.
1 Ibid.p.1.
2 Ibid. p.5.
4 Ibid. p.17.
3 Joan R. Kent, The English Village Constable 1580-1642, Oxford University Press,1986, p.16.
1 T.A. Critchley,A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.5.
2 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,2002, p.16.
3 Ibid. p.7.
4 Ibid. p.8.
5 程汉大、李培锋著：《英国司法制度史》,清华大学出版社2007年6月版,第16页。
1 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.18.
2 Patrick Pringle, Hue and Cry-----The Birth of The British Police, London Museum Press Limited,1955, p.43.
3 Ibid.p.44.
1 Ibid.
2 Patrick Pringle, Hue and Cry-----The Birth of The British Police, London Museum Press Limited,1955, p.44. T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, pp.18-20.
3 Joan R. Kent, The English Village Constable 1580-1642, Oxford University Press,1986, p.149.
4 Patrick Pringle, Hue and Cry-----The Birth of The British Police, London Museum Press Limited,1955, pp.29-30.
1 Clive Emsley, The English Police A Political and Social History, Second Edition, Longman, p.16.
2 Leon Radzinowicz, A History of English Criminal Law and its Administration from 1750, Stevens & Sons,1968, p.70.
3 Philip Rawlings, Crime and Power A History of Criminal Justice 1688-1998, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1999, p.14.
4 James Stephen, A History Of The Criminal Law Of England, vol.I, Macmillan And Co.,1883, p.458.
5 Patrick Pringle, Hue and Cry-----The Birth of The British Police, London Museum Press Limited,1955, p.1.
1 文中所提若干制度,详见何勤华、夏菲编著：《西方刑法史》,北京大学出版社,2005年12月版,第311-322页。
2 Patrick Pringle, Hue and Cry-----The Birth of The British Police, London Museum Press Limited,1955, p.35.
3 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,2002, p.82.
1 有关乔纳森·王尔得的捕贼人经历,详见Donald Rumbelow,I Spy Blue The Police and Crime in the City of London from Elizabeth I to Victoria, Macmillan London LTD, pp.61-75.
2 注：亨利·菲尔丁(1707-1754),主要从事小说和戏剧创作,由于其作品以讽刺执政当局为主要内容,其创作—度受到限制。他也因此转而学习法律,并从事律师工作,但并不成功。在穷困潦倒中,于1748年经朋友介绍被任命为治安法官。
3 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,2002, p.92.
1 Patrick Pringle, Hue and Cry-----The Birth of The British Police, London Museum Press Limited,1955, p.81.
2 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.32.
4 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,,2002, p.93.
3 Ibid.p.79.
1 T.A. Critchley,A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.33.
2 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,2002, p.95.
1 英国的卢德运动是19世纪初英国手工业工人发起的抗议运动,其主要抗议手段是破坏工厂机器。详见李培锋：《论英国卢德运动的维权特性》,载《徐州师范大学学报》(哲学社会科学版)2005年9月第32卷第5期,第90-93页。
2 Philip Rawlings, Crime and Power A History of Criminal Justice 1688-1998, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1999, p.67.
1 T.A. Critchley,A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.36.
2 Ibid. p.37.
3 Clive Emsley, The English Police A Political and social History, Second Edition, Longman,1996, p.20.
4 Mark Neocleous, Social Police and the Mechanisms of Prevention Patrick Colquhoun and the Condition of Poverty, British Journal of Criminology (2000) 40, p.711.
1 Ibid.pp.711-712.
2 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.39.
3 Elaine A. Reynolds, Before the Bobbies The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London,1720-1830, Macmillan Press Ltd,1998, p.84.
1 John Wade,A treaties on the police and crimes of the metropolis:also an account of the courts of justice and prisons of London; and an inquiry into the causes of the increase of crime; the tendency of the debtor laws; and into the present state of the licensed victuallers'trade; with suugestions for the improvement of the protective institutions of the metropolis, and the prevention of offences London, Longman,1829. Electronic book of John Rylands University Library, University of Manchester, p.46.
2 1818 Police Committee Report, pp.25-26, From Elaine A. Reynolds, Before the Bobbies The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London,1720-1830, Macmillan Press Ltd,1998, p107.
3 1822 Police Committee Report, p.9, From Philip Rawlings, Crime and Power A History of Criminal Justice 1688-1998, Addison Wesley Longman Limited,1999, p.74.
1 陈日华：《中古英国地方自治研究综述》,载《世界历史》2008年第5期,第111、112页。
2 John Wade, A treaties on the police and crimes of the metropolis:also an account of the courts of justice and prisons of London; and an inquiry into the causes of the increase of crime; the tendency of the debtor laws; and into the present state of the licensed victuallers'trade; with suugestions for the improvement of the protective institutions of the metropolis, and the prevention of offences London, Longman,1829. Electronic book of John Rylands University Library, University of Manchester, p.28.
3 Ibid. p.32.
1 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,2002, p.110
2 Elaine A. Reynolds, Before the Bobbies The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London,1720-1830, Macmillan Press Ltd,1998, p136
1 Philip Rawlings, Crime and Power A History of Criminal Justice 1688-1998, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1999, p.75.
2 对于大都市的范围,1829年《改进大都市及附近区域警察组织法》规定是以维斯敏斯特市为主,包括米德尔塞克斯郡、萨里郡、肯特郡一些教区,伦敦市被排除在在外。
1 Elaine A. Reynolds, Before the Bobbies The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London,1720-1830, Macmillan Press Ltd,1998, p155.
1 Robert D. Storch, The policeman as domestic missionary:Urban discipline and popular culture in Northern England,1850-57, International Review of Social History,1975, p482.
2 Ibid.
3 Philip Rawlings, Crime and Power A History of Criminal Justice 1688-1998, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1999, p12.
4 Ibid.
1 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,2002, p.122.
2 Elaine A. Reynolds, Before the Bobbies The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London,1720-1830, Macmillan Press Ltd,1998, p157.
1 Clive Emsley, Policing and its Context 1750-1870, The Macmillan Press Ltd.,1983, p.68.
2 Ibid.
3 David Philips and Robert D. Storch, Policing Provincial England,1829-1856 The Politics of Reform, Leicester University Press,1999, p.139.
1 小治安法院(petty session)是季审法院的补充。在季审法院闭庭期间,由治安法官召开以处理紧急事务,其程序相对简单。详见程汉大、李培锋著：《英国司法制度史》,清华大学出版社2007年6月版,第16页。
2 David Philips and Robert D. Storch, Policing Provincial England,1829-1856 The Politics of Reform, Leicester University Press,1999, p.213.
3 Ibid.p.215.
4 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd.,1967, p.105.
5 Ibid.
1 Ibid. pp.110-111.
2 Ibid. p.113.
3 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd.,1967, pp.115-116. David Philips and Robert D. Storch, Policing Provincial England,1829-1856 The Politics of Reform, Leicester University Press,1999, p.229.
1 Charles Reith, A New Study of Police History, Oliver and Boyd,1956,pp.135-136.
1 Elaine A. Reynolds, Before the Bobbies The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London,1720-1830, Macmillan Press Ltd,1998, p.153.
2 Robert Reiner, The Politics of Police,3rd edition, Oxford University Press,2000, p.52.
1 Charles Reith, A New Study of Police History, Oliver and Boyd,1956,p.138.
2 Ibid.p.141.
4 T.A. Critchley,A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.53.
3 Clive Emsley, Policing and Its Context 1750-1870, Macmillan Press Ltd.1983, p.63.
1 Elaine A. Reynolds, Before the Bobbies The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London,1720-1830, Macmillan Press Ltd.,1998, p.152.
2 Robert Reiner, The Politics of Police,3rd edition, Oxford University Press,2000, p.53.
3 Charles Reith, A New Study of Police History, Oliver and Boyd,1956,p.140.
4 Ibid, p.142.
5 Clive Emsley, Policing and its Context 1750-1870, The Macmillan Press Ltd.1983, p.158.
6 Robert Reiner, The Politics of Police,3rd edition, Oxford University Press,2000, pp.55-56.
1 Joan R. Kent, The English Village Constable 1580-1642, Oxford University Press,1986, p.25.
2 Ibid.p.27.
3 Ibid.pp.27-28.
4 Ibid.p.32.
5 Ibid.p.30.
1 关于治安官负责征收的各种税收,详见Joan R. Kent, The English Village Constable 1580-1642, Oxford University Press,1986, pp.42-49,153-175
1 [英]坎南编：《亚当·斯密关于法律、警察、岁入及军备的演讲》,陈福生,陈振骅译,商务印书馆1962年12月版,第173页。
2 [意]贝卡利亚著：《论犯罪与刑罚》,黄风译,中国大百科全书出版社1993年6月版,第104页。
3 [英]边沁著：《道德与立法原理导论》,时殷弘译,商务印书馆2009年版,第59页。
4 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.46.
1 Carolyn Steedman, Policing the Victorian Community The Formation of English Provincial Police Forces, 1856-80, Routledge & Kegan Paul,1984, p.43.
1 Ibid.p.44.
2 Clive Emsley, Policing and its Context 1750-1870, The Macmillan Press Ltd.,1983, pp.70-71.
3 关于英国季审法院之职能可参见程汉大、李培锋著：《英国司法制度史》,清华大学出版社2007年6月版,第14-16页。
1 Tony Jefferson and Roger Grimshaw, Controlling the Constable Police Accountability in England and Wales, Frederick Muller Limited,1984, pp.31-32.
2 Carolyn Steedman, Policing the Victorian Community The Formation of English Provincial Police Forces, 1856-80, Routledge & Kegan Paul,1984, p.39.
3 Ibid. P.42.
4 1888年的地方政府法(Local Government Act)的内容,主要是郡政府的改革。该法建立了与1835年市议会相似的郡议会。在警察制度方面,规定常务联合委员会为管理郡警察组织的地方权威,其成员一半是郡议会任命的议员,另一半是由季审法院任命的治安法官。
1 Clive Emsley, The English Police A Political and social History, Second Edition, Longman,1996, p.93.
1 Roger Geary,(1985) Policing industrial disputes:1893 to 1985, Cambridge University Press, pp.35-36.
2 T.A. Critchley (1967)A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd, p.183.
1 T.A. Critchley (1967)A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd, pp.131-132.
2 Ibid.pp.271-272.
3 Clive Emsley, (1996)The English Police A Political and social History, Second Edition, Longman, p.101.
4 Fisher v. Oldham Corporation [1930] 2K. B.364
1 Enever v. The King(1906) 3 Commonwealth L. R.969.
2 Select Committee(1834) Report From Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,,2002, p154.
3 [英]罗伯特·雷纳著：《警察与政治》,易继苍、朱俊瑞译,知识产权出版社2008年6月版,第31页。
4 Philip Rawlings, Crime and Power A History of Criminal Justice 1688-1998, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1999, p154.
1 参见T. A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable London,1967, pp.270-274; Ian Oliver, Police, Government and Accountability, The Macmillan Press Ltd,1987, pp.8-10; Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,,2002, pp.200-201
1 Final Report of Royal Commission on the Police 1962, Cmnd 1728, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, p.7
2 Ibid.
1 Tony Jefferson and Roger Grimshaw, Controlling the Constable Police Accountability in England and Wales, Frederick Muller Limited,1984, p.19.
2 依照《1963年打赌、游戏和博采法》,如果概率性游戏,其输赢概率对每个人而言都是均等的,则是合法的,否则为非法。而在当时伦敦绝大部分赌场、俱乐部中的游戏多是使用一种带零的轮盘赌游戏机,这种游戏机的概率更有利于庄家。
1 Regina v. Commissioner of Police of the Metropolitan Police Ex parte Blackburn ex parte Blackburn [1968] 1 All E.R.763
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid.
1 Regina v. Commissioner of Police of the Metropolitan Police Ex parte Blackburn and Another (no 3) [1973] 1 All E.R.324
1 [英]罗伯特·雷纳著：《警察与政治》,易继苍、朱俊瑞译,知识产权出版社2008年6月版,第75页。
2 [英]罗伯特·雷纳著：《警察与政治》,易继苍、朱俊瑞译,知识产权出版社2008年6月版,第77页。
1 Eugene McLaughlin, Community, Policing and Accountability The politics of policing in Manchester in the 1980s, Avebury Ashgate Publishing Ltd,1994, p.1.
2 1976年至1991年在任的曼彻斯特警察局长詹姆斯·安德顿(James Anderton)就是坚持这种“阴谋论”的典型代表。他将所有来自地方的对警察的指责都视为是违反宪政、企图推翻英国民主的阴谋,极力维护警察独立原则。详见Eugene McLaughlin, Community, Policing and Accountability The politics of policing in Manchester in the 1980s, Avebury Ashgate Publishing Ltd,1994, pp.35-49.
3 A. Hiller, Proposals on Police-Community Relations and Other Matters-the Scarman Report on the Brixton Disorders and the Home Office Report on Racial Attacks,12 The University of Queensland Law Journal, (1981-1982), p.23.
1 Carole F. Willis, The Police and Race Relations in England,8 Police Stud. Int'I Rev. Police Dev.1985, p.228.
2 Roger Geary, Policing Industrial Disputes:1893 to 1985, Cambridge University Press,1985,p.139.
1 杰克议案总共只有十条,详见Ian Oliver, Police, Government and Accountability, The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1987, pp.68-69.
2 Tim Newburn, Robert Reiner, From PC Dixon to Dixon PLC:policing and policing powers since 1954, Crim. L.R.2004, Aug,601-618.
1 The Brixton Disorders 10-12April 1981, Report of an Inquiry by the Rt. Hon. The Lord Scarman, O.B.E., Cmnd. 8427, Her Majesty's Stationery Office,1982, p.63.
2 Ibid. p.95.
3 Ibid.p.96.
1 Tony Jefferson and Roger Grimshaw, Controlling the Constable Police Accountability in England and Wales, Frederick Muller Limited,1984, p.174.
1 Eugene McLaughlin, Community, Policing and Accountability The politics of policing in Manchester in the 1980s, Avebury Ashgate Publishing Ltd,1994, p.81.
1 Regina. v Secretary of State for the Home Department Ex p. Northumbria Police Authority [1988] 1 All E.R. 556.
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid.
1 Kiron Reid, Current Developments in Police Accountability,66 Journal of Criminal Law,2002, p.174.
1 http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/written_answers/1997/jul/30/ncis-and-ncs-chairman-and-members访问时间2009-7-19,7：50分。
1 Kiron Reid, Current Developments in Police Accountability,66 Journal of Criminal Law,2002, p.180.
1 [英]罗伯特·雷纳著,《警察与政治》,易继苍、朱俊瑞译,知识产权出版社2008年6月版,第9页。
1 Philip Rawlings, Crime and Power A History of Criminal Justice 1688-1998, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1999, p161.
2 Eugene McLaughlin, Community, Policing and Accountability The politics of policing in Manchester in the 1980s, Avebury Ashgate Publishing Ltd,1994, p.106.
1 Final Report of the Royal Commission on the Police 1962, Cmnd 1728, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, p.11.
1 详见程汉大著：《英国政治制度史》,中国社会科学出版社1995年版,第285-288页。
2 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,,2002, p.168.
1 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.55
2 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,,2002, p.167.
1 Alan R. Pike, A Brief History of the Criminal Investigation Department of the London Metropolitan Police, Police Study International Review. Police Development 22(1978), p.24.
2 Ibid. p.25.
3 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.161.
1 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,,2002, p.170.
1 David Dixon, Revising'Police Power':Legal Theories and Policing Practices in Historical and Contemporary Contexts From Lesley Noaks, Mike Maguire and Michael Levi, Contemporary Issues in Criminology, Cardiff University of Wales press,1995, p.134.
2 详见何勤华、夏菲编著：《西方刑法史》,北京大学出版社2005年12月版,第308页,319-320页。
3 Beckwith v. Philby,108 E.R.585.
1 John Lewis & Co.Ld v. Tims,[1952] A.C.676.
2 Dallison v. Caffery, [1965] 1 Q.B.348, p.366.
1 Dallison v. Caffery, [1965] 1 Q.B.348, pp.366-367.
2 L.H. Leigh, Police Power in England and Wales, London Butterworths,1985, p.36.
1 R. v. Baldry,169 E.R.568(1852).
2 Rex v. Richard Enoch and Mary Pulley,172 E.R.1089; (1833).
3 Reg. v. Garner,169 E.R.267(1848).
1 R. v. Drew,173 E.R.433(1837).
1 1912至1918年有关讯问的九条法官规则的具体内容,详见T.E.ST. Johnston, The Judges'Rules and Police Interrogation in England Today, Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology & Police Science, Mar 1966, Vol.57,pp.86-87.
1 详见R.v.Prager,[1972]1 W.L.R.260.
2 Doreen McBarnet, The Royal Commission and the Judges'Rules, British Journal of Law and Society, Vol.8, 1981,p.110.
3 T.E.ST. Johnston, The Judges'Rules and Police Interrogation in England Today, Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology & Police Science, Mar 1966, Vol.57,p.86.
4 [英]麦高伟,杰弗里·威尔逊主编：《英国刑事司法程序》,姚永吉等译,何家弘审校,法律出版社2003年4月版,第40页
5 Andrew Sanders, Arrest, Charge and Prosecution,6 Legal Study (1986), p.261.
1 [英]麦高伟,杰弗里·威尔逊主编：《英国刑事司法程序》,姚永吉等译,何家弘审校,法律出版社2003年4月版,第43页。
2 Andrew Sanders, George F. Cole, The Prosecution of "Weak" Cases in England and Wales, Criminal Justice Review,1982, Vol.7, p.24.
3 Ibid. P.30, Table 3.
4 Ibid. p.26.
1 详见Andrew Ashworth, Developments in the Public Prosecutor's Office in England and Wales, European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice, Vol.8/3,2000, pp.258-259.
1 Rebeakah Delsol, Michael Shiner, Regulating Stop and Search:A Challenge for Police and Community Relations in England and Wales, Critical Criminology(2006)14, p.243.
2 Andrew Sanders, Richard Young, Criminal Justice,2ed edition, Butterworths,2000, p.80.
3 对在伦敦、曼彻斯特发生的骚乱事件,本文第二章有介绍。见第63-64页。
1 The Brixton Disorders 10-12 April 1981, Report of an Inquiry by the Rt. Hon. The Lord Scarman, O.B.E., Cmnd. 8427, Her Majesty's Stationery Office,1982, p.57.
2 Ibid.p.65.
3 Rebeakah Delsol, Michael Shiner, Regulating Stop and Search:A Challenge for Police and Community Relations in England and Wales, Critical Criminology(2006)14, p.244.
4 《警察和刑事证据法》第1条第(7)、(8)款,对违禁物品的概念做了界定。违禁物品主要有三大类：一是攻击性武器,具体而言,包括被制造、改造用来伤害他人人身的物品以及被个体意图用来伤害他人人身的物品；二是被制造、改造用来实施夜盗、普通盗窃、盗窃车辆、诈骗等犯罪的物品；三是个体意图用来实施上述犯罪的物品。
1 注：《警察和刑事证据法》第116条和执行计划5对“严重的可逮捕犯罪”进行了界定。具体而言,包括叛国、谋杀、过失杀人、强奸、绑架、与未满13岁的女孩发生性关系、与未满16岁的男孩或未经对方同意而与其发生鸡奸关系、导致爆炸威胁到他人人身、财产安全的、拥有武器企图伤害他人、造成严重后果的其他犯罪,等等。可参见[英]约翰·斯普莱克著《英国刑事诉讼程序》第九版,徐美君杨立涛译,中国人民公安大学出版社2006年12月版,第15页。
2 Rebeakah Delsol, Michael Shiner, Regulating Stop and Search:A Challenge for Police and Community Relations in England and Wales, Critical Criminology(2006)14, p.248.
3 Kiron Reid, Race Issues and Stop and Search:Looking behind the Statistics, The Journal of Criminal Law,2009, Vol.73,p.166.
1 注：《警察和刑事证据法》第66条授权内政部长就警察盘查权、搜查权、财产没收权以及嫌疑人羁押、处遇、讯问、身份认定等事宜发布实施细则。实施细则要通过上、下两院的认可,具有制定法效力,警察违反实施细则将会受到纪律处分。实施细则自《警察和刑事证据法》通过以来,几经修改。本文中的内容是依据2008年公布的最新实施细则。
2 Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, Codes of Practice, Code A Exercise by Police Officers of Statutory Powers of Stop and Search.
1 L.H. Leigh, Police Power in England and Wales, London Butterworths,1985, p.161.
2 Donnelly v. Jackman, [1970] 1 W.L.R.562.
4 Lodwick v. Sanders, [1985] 1 WLR 382.
3 King v. Gardner, (1980)71 Cr.App.R.13.
1 Andrew Sanders, Richard Young, Criminal Justice,2ed edition, Butterworths,2000, p.86,Citation 10.
2 Steel v. Goacher, [1983] R.T.R.98. Power in England and Wales, London Butterworths,1985, p161.
3 Andrew Sanders, Richard Young, Criminal Justice,2ed edition, Butterworths,2000, p.90; L.H. Leigh, Police
1 Lee Bridges, Tony Bunyan, Britain's New Urban Policing Strategy-The Police and Criminal Evidence Bill in Context, Journal of Law & Society, Vol 10,1983,p.87.
1 详见Rebeakah Delsol, Michael Shiner, Regulating Stop and Search:A Challenge for Police and Community Relations in England and Wales, Critical Criminology(2006)14, pp.257-258.
2 Andrew Sanders, Richard Young, Criminal Justice,2ed edition, Butterworths,2000, p.142.
1 Shaaban Bin Hussien and Others v. Chong Fook Kam and Others, [1970] AC 942, p.948.
2 Ibid.p.949.
1 Andrew Sanders, Richard Young, Criminal Justice,2ed edition, Butterworths,2000, p.156. of Law and Society, Vol.26, December 1999, p.509.
2 Paddy Hillyard, David Gordon, Arresting Statistics:The Drift to Informal Justice in England and Wales, Journal
1.Andrew Sanders, Richard Young, Criminal Justice,2ed edition, Butterworths,2000, p.273.
1 详见Andrew Sanders, Richard Young, Criminal Justice,2ed edition, Butterworths,2000, pp.223-228.
1 龙宗智,《英国对沉默权制度的改革以及给我们的启示》,载《法学》2002年第3期,第26页。
2 Michael Zander, Police Powers in England:Report of the Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure, American Bar Associating Journal,1981, Vol.67,p.733.
3 有关调查报告的结论,详见David Dixon, Law in Policing:Legal Regulation and Police Practices, Clarendon Press,1997, pp.229-230.
4 Ibid.pp.231-232.
5 主要是指Guild Four和Birmingham Six案件。
1 David Dixon, Law in Policing:Legal Regulation and Police Practices, Clarendon Press,1997, p.234.
1 David Dixon, Law in Policing:Legal Regulation and Police Practices, Clarendon Press,1997, p.262.
2 Bill Wakefield, J. David Hirschel, Scott Sasse, Public Prosecution in England:Resistance to Change in a Major Police Force, American Journal of Police Vol.8,1994, p.172.
1 DPP检察长并不是一个新创立的职位,其出现于1879年。但是由于检察长办公室人员较少,负责起诉的案件种类非常有限,主要是非常严重的犯罪,如杀人罪以及一些敏感案件,如警察犯罪案件,其在英国刑事司法体系中的作用和影响都十分微弱。
2 Andrew Ashworth, Developments in the Public Prosecutor's Office in England and Wales, European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice, Vol.8/3,2000, p.275.
1 Ibid.272.
2 Bill Wakefield, J. David Hirschel, Scott Sasse, Public Prosecution in England:Resistance to Change in a Major Police Force, American Journal of Police Vol.8,1994, pp.180-186.
3 Andrew Sanders, Richard Young, Criminal Justice,2ed edition, Butterworths,2000, p.319.
1 注：这两个案件的详情见本文第二章,第59-61页。
1 Buckoke v. Greater London Council, [1971] 2 All E.R.254.
2 [英]麦高伟,杰弗里·威尔逊主编：《英国刑事司法程序》,姚永吉等译,何家弘审校,法律出版社2003年4月版,第159页。
1 David Williams, Terrorism and the Law in the United Kingdom,26 UNSW Law Journal,2003, p.181.
2 Daniel Moeckli, Stop and Search under the Terrorism Act 2000:A Comment on R(Gillan) v Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis,70(4) Modern Law Review(2007), p.661.
3 Ibid.p.665.
1 Graham Smith, A Most Enduring Problem:Police Complaints Reform in England and Wales, Journal of Social Policy (2006) 35,1, pp125-126.
2 详见本文第二章,第12页。
1 Final Report of Royal Commission on the Police 1962, Cmnd 1728, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, p125
2 Ibid.
3 T. A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable London,1967, p.318.
1 Charles Wegg-Prosser, Police corruption and violence, Poly Law Review 1980:6, p.34.
2 Ibid. p.32.
3 Ibid.
1 Ibid.p.34.
2 http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1977/dec/12/mr-liddle-towers访问时间2009-9-16
3 http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/23/newsid_2523000/2523959.stm访问时间2009-9-16
1 The Brixton Disorders 10-12 April 1981, Report of an Inquiry by the Rt. Hon. The Lord Scarman, O.B.E.,Cmnd. 8427, Her Majesty's Stationery Office,1982, p.65.
2 Graham Smith, A Most Enduring Problem:Police Complaints Reform in England and Wales, Journal of Social Policy (2006) 35,1, pp129-130.
3 Ibid.p.130.
1 Richard Young, Carolyn Hoyle, Karen Cooper, Roderick Hill, Informal resolution of complaints against the police:A quasi-experimental test of restorative justice, Criminal Justice 2005,3, p.280.
2 Mary Seneviratne, Policing the Police in the United Kingdom, Policing & Society, Vol.14, No.4, December 2004, p.337.
3 Graham Smith, Why Don't More People Complain against the Police? European Journal of Criminology (2009) 6, pp.256-257.
1 See Richard Young, Carolyn Hoyle, Karen Cooper, Roderick Hill, Informal resolution of complaints against the police:A quasi-experimental test of restorative justice, Criminal Justice 2005,3, p.287.
2 Geoff Inqlis, Sarah Shepherd, Confidence in the police complaints systems:a second survey of the general population, Independent Police Complaints Commission, p.4.
1 英国犯罪调查(British Crime Survey)开始于1982年,最初是在英格兰、威尔士和苏格兰进行。自1993年起,苏格兰有自己独立的犯罪调查。因此,所谓英国犯罪调查主要指的就是英格兰和威尔士的情况。2001年前,平均是每两年进行一次。2001年起改为每年进行一次。目前,该项调查由内政部主持进行。该项调查的样本约为40000人,主要是了解公民成为犯罪受害人的比例以及公众与刑事司法体系接触的情况。另外,还向其中10000名受访者调查其对警察的态度。
2 IPCC annual report and statement of accounts 2007/08, Independent Police Complaints Commission, p.25http://www.ipcc.gov.uk/annual_report2007-8v.1.pdf访问时间2009-10-11
3 Graham Smith, Why Don't More People Complain against the Police? European Journal of Criminology (2009) 6, p250.
1 Bradley & Ewing, p.754,转引自张越编著：《英国行政法》,中国政法大学出版社2004年6月版,第685页。
2 Mary Seneviratne, Policing the Police in the United Kingdom, Policing & Society, Vol.14, No.4, December 2004, p.331.
3 Tim Newburn, Robert Reiner, From PC Dixon to Dixon PLC:policing and policing powers since 1954, Crim. L.R.2004, Aug,601-618.
4 White v. Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis,1982 WL 222712(QBD).
1 Terry Kirby, Police rule out action over arrest death, Wednesday,29 July 1992 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/police-rule-out-action-over-arrest-death-1536141.html访问时间2009-9-29.
2 Heather Mills, Restaurant that became a symbol for radicalism:An action for damages by a civil rights leader has ended but without an apology. Heather Mills reports, Tuesday,13 October 1992 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/restaurant-that-became-a-symbol-for-radicalism-an-action-for-damages-by-a-civil-rights-leader-has-ended-but-without-an-apology-heather-mills-reports-1557061.html访问时间2009-9-29.
3 Vikram Dodd, (?)324,000 payout to family of man who died in custody, The Guardian, Tuesday 14 May 2002 http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2002/may/14/prisonsandprobation.vikramdodd访问时间2009-9-29.
4 Tim Newburn, Robert Reiner, From PC Dixon to Dixon PLC:policing and policing powers since 1954, Crim. L.R.2004, Aug,601-618.
1 Thompson v. Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, HSU v. Same, [1997] 2 All E.R.762, p.407.
1 八点内容详见Thompson v. Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, HSU v. Same, [1997] 2 All E.R.762, pp.415-418.
1 See Kirsten Storry, The Implications of the Macpherson Report Into the Death of Stephen Lawrence, Current Issues in Criminal Justice 12,2001-2002, p.106.
2 Brooks v Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis and others [2005] UKHL 24, [2005]1 WLR, p.1499.
3 Ibid.
1 Ibid.p.1501.
2 Hill v. Chief Constable of West Yorkshire [1989] AC 53 (HL(E)) p.63.
1 Brooks v Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis and others [2005] UKHL 24, [2005]1 WLR, p.1510.
1 Graham Smith, Police Complaints and Criminal Prosecutions,64 Modern Law Review 2001, p.374.
2 Ibid.pp.375-376.
3 Judith Cotton, David Povey, Police Complaints and Discipline, England and Wales April 1997 to March 1998, p.6 http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs/hosb2098.pdf,访问时间2009-10-10
4 Judith Cotton, Police Complaints and Discipline, England and Wales 12 months to March 2003, p.6 http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/hosb0404.pdf,访问时间2009-10-10。
1 IPCC Annual Report and Statement of Accounts 2007/08, Independent Police Complaints Commission p.10, http://www.ipcc.gov.uk/annual report2007-8v.l.pdf访问时间2009-10-11。
2 IPCC Annual Report and Statement of Accounts 2008/09, Independent Police Complaints Commission p.13, http://www.ipcc.gov.uk/ipcc annual report 2008-09-full.pdf访问时间2009-10-11。
1 Emily Gleeson, Kerry Grace, Police Complaints:Statistics for England and Wale 2008/09, p.24, http://www.ipcc.gov.uk/complaints statistics_2008_09-3.pdf访问时间2009-10-11。
2 Brooks v Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis and others [2005] UKHL 24, [2005]1 WLR, p.1505
1 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.201
1 Final Report of Royal Commission on the Police 1962, Cmnd 1728, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, p.9.
1 David Dixon, Law in Policing:Legal Regulation and Police Practices, Clarendon Press,1997, p.3
2 [英]罗伯特·雷纳著：《警察与政治》,易继苍、朱俊瑞译,知识产权出版社2008年6月版,第102页。
1 David Dixon, Law in Policing:Legal Regulation and Police Practices, Clarendon Press,1997, p.43
2 Sanders,A., Young, R., The Rule of Law, Due Process and Pre-trial Criminal Justice, Current Legal Problems 1994,47(2), p.138.
3 [英]罗伯特·雷纳著：《警察与政治》,易继苍、朱俊瑞译,知识产权出版社2008年6月版,第200页。
1 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,,2002, p.201
1 王智军著：《警察的政治属性》,社会科学文献出版社2009年2月版,第8页、第102页。
1 中国人民公安史稿编写小组编著：《中国人民公安史稿》,警官教育出版社1997年版,第81-83页。
2 [美]魏斐德著：《上海警察,1927-1937》,章红,陈雁,金燕,张晓阳译,周育民校,上海古籍出版社2004年8月版,第185页。
1 王智军著：《警察的政治属性》,社会科学文献出版社2009年2月版,第8页、第42页
2 [英]戴雪著：《英宪精义》,雷宾南译,中国法制出版社2001年4月版,第228页。
1马克昌：《中国刑法学60年反思》,载《武汉大学学报》哲学社会科学版,2009年9月第62卷第5期,第585页。
1 何勤华：《改革开放30年与中国的法制建设》,载《法学》2008年第11期,第3页。
1、程汉大、李培锋著：《英国司法制度史》,清华大学出版社2007年6月版。
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5、冯德文编著：《警察学概论》 中国人民公安大学出版社,2005年版。
6、何勤华主编：《英国法律发达史》,法律出版社1999年1月版。
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9、惠生武著：《警察法论纲》,中国政法大学出版社2000年1月版。
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16、王皖强著：《国家与市场——撒切尔主义研究》,湖南教育出版社1999年12月版。
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18、余凌云著：《警察行政强制的理论与实践》,中国人民公安大学出版社,2007年版。
19、余秀豪著：《警察学大纲》,商务印书馆,民国三十五年十一月[1946.11]出版印行。
20、张开贵,杨瑞清,张建明,赵兴瑞主编：《公安学基础理论新编》,中国人民公安大学出版社2004年6月版。
21、张越编著：《英国行政法》,中国政法大学出版社2004年6月版。
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23、中国人民公安史稿编写小组编著：《中国人民公安史稿》,警官教育出版社1997年版。
24、[英]边沁著：《道德与立法原理导论》,时殷弘译,商务印书馆2009年版。
25、[英]戴雪著：《英宪精义》,雷宾南译,中国法制出版社2001年4月版,2009年1月印。
26、[意]贝卡利亚著：《论犯罪与刑罚》,黄风译,中国大百科全书出版社1993年6月版
27、[英]菲利蒲·约翰·斯特德著：《英国警察》何家宏,刘刚译,群众出版社,1989年版。
28、[英]坎南编：《亚当·斯密关于法律、警察、岁入及军备的演讲》,陈福生,陈振骅译,商务印书馆1962年12月版。
29、[美]罗伯特·兰沃西, 劳伦斯·特拉维斯著：《社么是警察：美国的经验》,尤小文译,群众出版社2004年版。
30、[英]罗伯特·雷纳著：《警察与政治》,易继苍、朱俊瑞译,知识产权出版社2008年6月版。
31、[法]孟德斯鸠著：《论法的精神》上册,商务印书馆1978年版。
32、[德]马克思,恩格斯,《马克思恩格斯全集》第四卷,人民出版社1972年5月版。
33、[英]麦高伟,杰弗里·威尔逊主编：《英国刑事司法程序》,姚永吉等译,何家弘审校,法律出版社2003年4月版。
34、[日]松井茂著：《警察学纲要》,吴天译,张天虹,张晓鹏勘校,中国 政法大学出版社出版,2005年3月版。
35、[英]W. Ivor詹宁斯著：《法与宪法》,龚祥瑞,侯健译,贺卫方校,三联书店1997年11月版。
36、[美]魏斐德著：《上海警察,1927-1937》,章红,陈雁,金燕,张晓阳译,周育民校,上海古籍出版社2004年8月版。
37、[英]威廉·布莱克斯通：《英国法释义》第一卷,游云庭,缪苗译,上海人民出版社2006年9月版。
38、[英]约翰·斯普莱克著：《英国刑事诉讼程序》,徐美君杨立涛译,中国人民大学出版社,2,006年12月版。
1、陈日华：《中古英国地方自治研究综述》,载《世界历史》2008年第5期。
2、陈兴良：《限权与分权：刑事法视野中的警察权》,载《法律科学》2002年第1期。
3、陈永生：《论侦查权的性质与特征》,载《法制与社会发展》2003年第2期。
4、但伟,姜涛：《论侦查权的性质》,载《国家检察官学院学报》2003年第5期。
5、郝赤勇：《警察权力论》,载《公安研究》2005年第9期。
6、何勤华：《改革开放30年与中国的法制建设》,载《法学》2008年第11期。
7、李健和：《我国警察权力配置的现状、问题与原因——警察权力专题研究之二》,载《中国人民公安大学学报》(社会科学版),2007年第5期。
8、李培锋：《论英国卢德运动的维权特性》,载《徐州师范大学学报》(哲学社会科学版)2005年9月第32卷第5期。
9、李坤生：《论警察的概念》,载《公安大学学报》1995年第3期。
10、黎亚薇,黄捷：《论我国侦查权的性质》,载《求索》2007年第12期。
11、龙宗智,《英国对沉默权制度的改革以及给我们的启示》,载于《法学》2002年第3期。
12、马克昌：《中国刑法学60年反思》,载《武汉大学学报》哲学社会科学 版,2009年9月第62卷第5期。
13、尹春生：《“警察”概念之科学透视》,载《公安大学学报》1989年第5期。
14、彭贵才：《论我国警察权行使的法律规制》,载《当代法学》2009年第4期。
15、杨宗辉：《论我国侦查权的性质——驳“行政权本体说”》,载《法学》2005年第9期。
16、张孝刚：《侦查权性质论纲》,载《公安研究》2007年11期。
1、张强：《法治视野下的警察权》,吉林大学博士学位论文,2005年。
2、刘贵峰：《我国警察权研究》,中国政法大学博士学位论文,2006年。
1、Andrew Sanders, Richard Young, Criminal Justice, 2ed edition, Butterworths,2000.
2、Carolyn Steedman, Policing the Victorian Community The Formation of English Provincial Police Forces,1856-80, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984.
3、Charles Reith, A New Study of Police History, Oliver and Boyd,1956.
4、Clive Emsley, Clive Emsley, The English Police A Political and social History, Second Edition, Longman, 1996.
5、Clive Emsley, Policing and its Context 1750-1870, The Macmillan Press Ltd. 1983.
6、David Dixon, Law in Policing:Legal Regulation and Police Practices, Clarendon Press, 1997.
7、Donald Rumbelow, I Spy Blue The Police and Crime in the City of London from Elizabeth I to Victoria, Macmillan London LTD.,1971.
8、Donatella della Porta, Herbert Reiter, Policing Protest The Control of Mass Demonstrations in Western Democracies, University of Minnesota Press,1998.
9、Elaine A. Reynolds, Before the Bobbies The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London, 1720-1830, Macmillan Press Ltd, 1998.
10、Eugene McLaughlin, Community, Policing and Accountability The politics of policing in Manchester in the 1980s, Avebury Ashgate Publishing Ltd, 1994.
11、Ian Oliver, Police, Government and Accountability, The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1987.
12、L. H. Leigh, Police Power in England and Wales, London Butterworths, 1985.
13、James Stephen, A History Of The Criminal Law Of England,vol. I, Macmillan And Co.,1883.
14、Joan R. Kent, The English Village Constable 1580-1642, Oxford University Press,1986.
15、John Alderson, Principled Policing Protecting the Public with Integrity, Watersides Press,1998.
16、John Wade, A treatise on the police and crimes of the metropolis: also an account of the courts of justice and prisons of London:and an inquiry into the causes of the increase of crime:the tendency of the debtor laws:and into the present state of the licensed victuallers' trade:with suggestions for the improvement of the protective institutions of the metropolis, and the prevention of offences London, Longman,1829. Electronic book of John Rylands University Library, University of Manchester.
17、David Philips and Robert D. Storch, Policing Provincial England, 1829-1856 The Politics of Reform, Leicester University Press,1999.
18、Leon Radzinowicz, A History of English Criminal Law and its Administration from 1750, Stevens & Sons,1968.
19、Lesley Noaks, Mike Maguire and Michael Levi, Contemporary Issues in Criminology, Cardiff University of Wales press,1995.
20、Malcolm Young, An Inside Job, Policing and Police Culture in Britain, Clarendon Press, 1991.
21、Patrick Pringle, Hue and Cry -----The Birth of The British Police, London Museum Press Limited, 1955.
22、Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing, 2002.
23、Philip Rawlings, Crime and Power A History of Criminal Justice 1688-1998, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1999.
24、Robert Reiner, The Politics of Police, 3rd edition, Oxford University Press,2000.
25、Roger Geary,(1985) Policing industrial disputes:1893 to 1985, Cambridge University Press.
26、T. A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd, 1967.
27、Tony Jefferson and Roger Grimshaw, Controlling the Constable Police Accountability in England and Wales, Frederick Muller Limited, 1984.
28、Victor Bailey, Policing and Punishment in Nineteenth Century Britain, Croom Helm Ltd, 1981.
1、Alan R. Pike, A Brief History of the Criminal Investigation Department of the London Metropolitan Police, Police Study International Review Police Development 22(1978).
2、Andrew Sanders, George F. Cole, The Prosecution of "Weak" Cases in England and Wales, Criminal Justice Review, 1982, Vol.7.
3、Andrew Sanders, Arrest, Charge and Prosecution. 6 Legal Study (1986).
4、Andrew Ashworth, Developments in the Public Prosecutor's Office in England and Wales, European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice, 2000, Vol. 8/3.
5、A. Hiller, Proposals on Police- Community Relations and Other Matters- the Scarman Report on the Brixton Disorders and the Home Office Report on Racial Attacks, 12 The University of Queensland Law Journal, 1981-1982.
6、Bill Wakefield, J. David Hirschel, Scott Sasse, Public Prosecution in England:Resistance to Change in a Major Police Force, American Journal of Police Vol.8, 1994.
7、Carole F. Willis, The Police and Race Relations in England, 8 Police Stud. Int'l Rev. Police Dev. 1985.
8、Tim Newburn, Robert Reiner, From PC Dixon to Dixon PLC:policing and policing powers since 1954, Crim. L. R. 2004, Aug.
9、Charles Wegg-Prosser, Police corruption and violence, Poly Law Review 1980:6.
10、Daniel Moeckli, Stop and Search under the Terrorism Act 2000:A Comment on R(Gillan) v Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis,70(4) Modern Law Review (2007).
11、David Williams, Terrorism and the Law in the United Kingdom, 26 UNSW Law Journal,2003.
12、Doreen McBarnet, The Royal Commission and the Judges'Rules, British Journal of Law and Society, 1981, Vol.8.
13、Graham Smith, A Most Enduring Problem:Police Complaints Reform in England and Wales, Journal of Social Policy (2006) 35, 1.
14、Graham Smith, Why Don't More People Complain against the Police? European Journal of Criminology (2009) 6.
15、Graham Smith, Police Complaints and Criminal Prosecutions,64 Modern Law Review 2001.
16、Kiron Reid, Race Issues and Stop and Search:Looking behind the Statistics,73 Journal of Criminal Law, 2009.
17、Kiron Reid, Current Developments in Police Accountability, 66 Journal of Criminal Law, 2002.
18、Kirsten Storry, The Implications of the Macpherson Report Into the Death of Stephen Lawrence, Current Issues in Criminal Justice 12, 2001-2002.
19、Lee Bridges, Tony Bunyan, Britain's New Urban Policing Strategy-The Police and Criminal Evidence Bill in Context, Journal of Law & Society, 1983. Vol.10.
20、Mark Neocleous, Social Police and the Mechanisms of Prevention Patrick Colquhoun and the Condition of Poverty, British Journal of Criminology (2000) 40.
21、Mary Seneviratne, Policing the Police in the United Kingdom, Policing & Society, December 2004, Vol.14, No.4.
22、Michael Zander, Police Powers in England:Report of the Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure, American Bar Associating Journal,1981, Vol.67.
23、Paddy Hillyard, David Gordon, Arresting Statistics:The Drift to Informal Justice in England and Wales, Journal of Law and Society, December 1999, Vol.26.
24、Rebeakah Delsol, Michael Shiner, Regulating Stop and Search:A Challenge for Police and Community Relations in England and Wales, Critical Criminology (2006)14.
25、Richard Young, Carolyn Hoyle, Karen Cooper, Roderick Hill, Informal resolution of complaints against the police:A quasi-experimental test of restorative justice, Criminal Justice 2005,3.
26、Robert D. Storch, The policeman as domestic missionary:Urban discipline and popular culture in Northern England, 1850-57, International Review of Social History, 1976, Vol.9, No.4.
27、T. E. ST. Johnston, The Judges'Rules and Police Interrogation in England Today, Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology & Police Science, Mar 1966, Vol.57.
1、Beckwith v. Philby, 108 E. R. 585 (1827)
2、Rex v. Richard Enoch and Mary Pulley, 172 E.R. 1089; (1833)
3、R. v. Drew, 173 E. R. 433(1837)
4、Reg. v. Garner, 169 E. R.267(1848)
5、R. v. Baldry, 169 E. R. 568(1852)
6、Enever v. The King (1906) 3 Commonwealth L. R. 969
7、Fisher v. Oldham Corporation [1930] 2K. B. 364
8、John Lewis & Co. Ld v. Tims, [1952] A.C. 676
9、Dallison v. Caffery, [1965] 1 Q. B. 348,
10、Regina v. Commissioner of Police of the Metropolitan Police Ex parte Blackburn ex parte Blackburn [1968] 1 All E.R. 763
11、Donnelly v. Jackman, [1970] 1 W. L. R.562
12、Shaaban Bin Hussien and Others v. Chong Fook Kam and Others, [1970] AC 942
13、Buckoke v. Greater London Council, [1971] 2 All E. R. 254
14、R. v. Prager, [1972] 1 W. L. R. 260
15、King v. Gardner, (1980)71 Cr. App. R. 13
16、White v. Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, 1982 WL 222712(QBD)
17、Steel v. Goacher, [1983] R.T.R. 98
18、Lodwick v. Sanders, [1985] 1 WLR 382
19、Regina. v Secretary of State for the Home Department Ex p. Northumbria Police Authority [1988] 1 All E. R. 556
20、Hill v. Chief Constable of West Yorkshire [1989] AC 53
21、Thompson v. Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, HSU v. Same, [1997] 2 All E.R. 762, p.407
22、Brooks v Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis and others [2005] UKHL 24, [2005]1 WLR, p.1510
1 http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/written answers/1997/jul/30/ncis-and- ncs-chairman-and-members访问时间2009-7-19,7：50分。
2 http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1977/dec/12/mr-liddle-towe rs访问时间2009-9-16
3 http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/23/newsid 2523 000 /25 2 3959. stm访问时间2009-9-16
4、Terry Kirby, Police rule out action over arrest death, Wednesday, 29 July 1992 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/police-rule-out-action-over-arre st-death-1536141.html访问时问2009-9-29
5、Heather Mills, Restaurant that became a symbol for radicalism: An action for damages by a civil rights leader has ended but without an apology. Heather Mills reports, Tuesday, 13 October 1992 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/restaurant-that-became-a-symbol-for-radicalism-an-action-for-damages-by-a-civil-rights-leader-has-end ed-but-without-an-apology-heather-mills-reports-1557061.html 访问时间 2009-9-29
6、Vikram Dodd, (?)324,000 payout to family of man who died in custody, The Guardian, Tuesday 14 May 2002 http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2002/may/14/prisonsandprobation.vikramdo dd访问时间2009-9-29
1、An Act for improving the Police in and near the Metropolis,1829
2、An Act to provide for the Regulation of Municipal Corporation in England and Wales,1835
3、An Act to render More Effectual the Police in Counties and Borough in England and Wales,1856
4、Police Act 1964
5、Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984
6、PCEA Codes of Practice, Code A Exercise by Police Officers of Statutory Powers of'Stop and Search
7、PCEA Codes of Practice, Code C Code of Practice for the Detention, Treatment and Questioning of Persons by Police Officers
8、PCEA Codes of Practice, Code E Code of Practice on Audio Recording Interviews with Suspects
9、Prosecution of Offences Act 1985
10、Police Act 1996
11、Police Reform Act 2002
12、Police and Justice Act 2006
1、Final Report of Royal Commission on the Police 1962, Cmnd 1728, Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
2、The Brixton Disorders 10-12 April 1981, Report of an Inquiry by the Rt. Hon. The Lord Scarman, O. B. E., Cmnd. 8427, Her Majesty' s Stationery Office, 1982.
3、Judith Cotton, David Povey, Police Complaints and Discipline, England and Wales April 1997 to March 1998, p.6
http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs/hosb2098.pdf,访问时间2009-10-10
4、Judith Cotton, Police Complaints and Discipline, England and Wales 12 months to March 2003, p.6 http://rds.homeoffice,gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/hosb0404.pdf,访问时间2009-10-10
5、Maria Docking and Tom Bucke, Confidence in the police complaints systems:a survey of the general population, Independent Police Complaints Commission 2004.
6、Geoff Inqlis, Sarah Shepherd, Confidence in the police complaints systems:a second survey of the general population, Independent Police Complaints Commission, 2007.
7、IPCC annual report and statement of accounts 2007/08, Independent Police Complaints Commission, http://www.ipcc.gov.uk/annual_report2007-8v.1.pdf访问时间2009-10-11
8、IPCC Annual Report and Statement of Accounts 2008/09, Independent Police Complaints Commission p.13, http://www.ipcc.gov.uk/ipcc_annual_report_2008-09_-_full.pdf访问时间2009-10-11
9、Emily Gleeson, Kerry Grace, Police Complaints:Statistics for England and Wale 2008/09, p.24, http://www.ipcc.gov.uk/complaints_statistics_2008_09-3.pdf访问时间2009-10-11
2 陈兴良：《限权与分权：刑事法视野中的警察权》,载《法律科学》2002年第1期,第52页。
3 本文所研究的英国警察权的变迁,是指英格兰和威尔士地区的警察制度而言。苏格兰和北爱尔兰地区有其独立的警察体制。
1 参见陈真,陈合权著：《世界警察概论》,四川大学出版社,2008年4月版,第3-9页；王大伟著：《英美警察科学》,中国人民公安大学出版社,1995年版第158页。[台湾]洪文玲,蔡震荣,郑善印著：《警察法规》“国立空中大学”发行,“民国94年”(2005年),第3-4页。
2 Barbara Weinberger, The Police and the Public in Mid-nineteenth-century Warwickshire, From Victor Bailey, Policing and Punishment in Nineteenth Century Britain, Croom Helm Ltd,1981, p.67.
1 Clive Emsley, Clive Emsley, The English Police A Political and social History, Second Edition, Longman, 1996, p.3.
1 [德]恩格斯：《家庭、私有制和国家的起源》,载《马克思恩格斯选集》第四卷,人民出版社1972年5月版,第114页。
2 同上,第167页。
3 参见[日]松井茂著：《警察学纲要》,吴天译,张天虹,张晓鹏勘校,中国政法大学出版社出版,2005年3月版,第19页。
4 陈允文著：《中国的警察》,商务印书馆,民国二十四年二月[1935.2]出版印行,第5页。
5 许韬,张君霞,余湘青,李亮著：《中外警察法比较研究》,中国检察出版社2009年3月版,第3页。
1 [英]罗伯特·雷纳著：《警察与政治》,易继苍、朱俊瑞译,知识产权出版社2008年6月版,第1页。
2 [美]罗伯特·兰沃西,劳伦斯·特拉维斯著：《社么是警察：美国的经验》,尤小文译,群众出版社2004年版,第4页。
3 [美]罗伯特·兰沃西,劳伦斯·特拉维斯著：《社么是警察：美国的经验》,尤小文译,群众出版社2004年版,第5页。
4 李(?)生：《论警察的概念》,载《公安大学学报》1995年第3期,第10页。
5 张开贵,杨瑞清,张建明,赵兴瑞主编：《公安学基础理论新编》,中国人民公安大学出版社2004年6月版,第25-26页。
6 尹春生：《“警察”概念之科学透视》,载《公安大学学报》1989年第5期第12页。
7 余秀豪著：《警察学大纲》,商务印书馆,民国三十五年十一月[1946.11]出版印行,第3页。
8 李(?)生：《论警察的概念》,载《公安大学学报》1995年第3期,第16页。
1 惠生武著：《警察法论纲》,中国政法大学出版社2000年1月版,第3页。
2 毛泽东：《论人民民主专政》,选自《毛泽东选集》第四卷,人民出版社1991年版,第1476页。
3 惠生武著：《警察法论纲》,中国政法大学出版社2000年1月版,第127页。
1 李健和：《我国警察权力配置的现状、问题与原因——警察权力专题研究之二》,载《中国人民公安大学学报》(社会科学版),2007年第5期第7页。
2 郝赤勇：《警察权力论》,载《公安研究》2005年第9期,第5页。
3 陈兴良：《限权与分权：刑事法视野中的警察权》,载《法律科学》2002年第1期,第53页。
4 David Dixon, Law in Policing:Legal Regulation and Police Practices, Clarendon Press,1997,p.64.
5 陈永生：《论侦查权的性质与特征》,载《法制与社会发展》2003年第2期,第135至144页；但伟,姜涛：《论侦查权的性质》,载《国家检察官学院学报》2003年第5期,第123至128页；彭贵才：《论我国警察权行使的法律规制》,载《当代法学》2009年第4期,第133-134页。
1 杨宗辉：《论我国侦查权的性质——驳“行政权本体说”》,载《法学》2005年第9期,第15至22页。张孝刚：《侦查权性质论纲》,载《公安研究》2007年11期,第63至68页。黎亚薇,黄捷：《论我国侦查权的性质》,载《求索》2007年第12期,第105-107页。
2 李晓明著：《行政刑法学导论》,法律出版社2003年11月版,第13页。
3 [法]孟德斯鸠著：《论法的精神》上册,商务印书馆1978年版,第155-166页。
4 笔者在英国曼彻斯特大学访学期间与Bill Heberton, Philip Rawlings等英国学者交流时,他们提出此观点。
1 上述学者的代表作为：Charles Reith, A New Study of Police History, Oliver and Boyd,1956. T.A. Critchley,A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967. Robert D. Storch, The policeman as domestic missionary:Urban discipline and popular culture in Northern England,1850-57, International Review of Social History,1975, pp.481-509. Clive Emsley, Clive Emsley, The English Police A Political and social History, Second Edition, Longman,1996. Robert Reiner, The Politics of Police,3rd edition, Oxford University Press,2000.
2 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,2002, p.4.
1 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.3
2 Ibid. p.4.
1 Ibid.p.1.
2 Ibid. p.5.
4 Ibid. p.17.
3 Joan R. Kent, The English Village Constable 1580-1642, Oxford University Press,1986, p.16.
1 T.A. Critchley,A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.5.
2 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,2002, p.16.
3 Ibid. p.7.
4 Ibid. p.8.
5 程汉大、李培锋著：《英国司法制度史》,清华大学出版社2007年6月版,第16页。
1 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.18.
2 Patrick Pringle, Hue and Cry-----The Birth of The British Police, London Museum Press Limited,1955, p.43.
3 Ibid.p.44.
1 Ibid.
2 Patrick Pringle, Hue and Cry-----The Birth of The British Police, London Museum Press Limited,1955, p.44. T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, pp.18-20.
3 Joan R. Kent, The English Village Constable 1580-1642, Oxford University Press,1986, p.149.
4 Patrick Pringle, Hue and Cry-----The Birth of The British Police, London Museum Press Limited,1955, pp.29-30.
1 Clive Emsley, The English Police A Political and Social History, Second Edition, Longman, p.16.
2 Leon Radzinowicz, A History of English Criminal Law and its Administration from 1750, Stevens & Sons,1968, p.70.
3 Philip Rawlings, Crime and Power A History of Criminal Justice 1688-1998, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1999, p.14.
4 James Stephen, A History Of The Criminal Law Of England, vol.I, Macmillan And Co.,1883, p.458.
5 Patrick Pringle, Hue and Cry-----The Birth of The British Police, London Museum Press Limited,1955, p.1.
1 文中所提若干制度,详见何勤华、夏菲编著：《西方刑法史》,北京大学出版社,2005年12月版,第311-322页。
2 Patrick Pringle, Hue and Cry-----The Birth of The British Police, London Museum Press Limited,1955, p.35.
3 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,2002, p.82.
1 有关乔纳森·王尔得的捕贼人经历,详见Donald Rumbelow,I Spy Blue The Police and Crime in the City of London from Elizabeth I to Victoria, Macmillan London LTD, pp.61-75.
2 注：亨利·菲尔丁(1707-1754),主要从事小说和戏剧创作,由于其作品以讽刺执政当局为主要内容,其创作—度受到限制。他也因此转而学习法律,并从事律师工作,但并不成功。在穷困潦倒中,于1748年经朋友介绍被任命为治安法官。
3 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,2002, p.92.
1 Patrick Pringle, Hue and Cry-----The Birth of The British Police, London Museum Press Limited,1955, p.81.
2 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.32.
4 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,,2002, p.93.
3 Ibid.p.79.
1 T.A. Critchley,A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.33.
2 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,2002, p.95.
1 英国的卢德运动是19世纪初英国手工业工人发起的抗议运动,其主要抗议手段是破坏工厂机器。详见李培锋：《论英国卢德运动的维权特性》,载《徐州师范大学学报》(哲学社会科学版)2005年9月第32卷第5期,第90-93页。
2 Philip Rawlings, Crime and Power A History of Criminal Justice 1688-1998, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1999, p.67.
1 T.A. Critchley,A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.36.
2 Ibid. p.37.
3 Clive Emsley, The English Police A Political and social History, Second Edition, Longman,1996, p.20.
4 Mark Neocleous, Social Police and the Mechanisms of Prevention Patrick Colquhoun and the Condition of Poverty, British Journal of Criminology (2000) 40, p.711.
1 Ibid.pp.711-712.
2 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.39.
3 Elaine A. Reynolds, Before the Bobbies The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London,1720-1830, Macmillan Press Ltd,1998, p.84.
1 John Wade,A treaties on the police and crimes of the metropolis:also an account of the courts of justice and prisons of London; and an inquiry into the causes of the increase of crime; the tendency of the debtor laws; and into the present state of the licensed victuallers'trade; with suugestions for the improvement of the protective institutions of the metropolis, and the prevention of offences London, Longman,1829. Electronic book of John Rylands University Library, University of Manchester, p.46.
2 1818 Police Committee Report, pp.25-26, From Elaine A. Reynolds, Before the Bobbies The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London,1720-1830, Macmillan Press Ltd,1998, p107.
3 1822 Police Committee Report, p.9, From Philip Rawlings, Crime and Power A History of Criminal Justice 1688-1998, Addison Wesley Longman Limited,1999, p.74.
1 陈日华：《中古英国地方自治研究综述》,载《世界历史》2008年第5期,第111、112页。
2 John Wade, A treaties on the police and crimes of the metropolis:also an account of the courts of justice and prisons of London; and an inquiry into the causes of the increase of crime; the tendency of the debtor laws; and into the present state of the licensed victuallers'trade; with suugestions for the improvement of the protective institutions of the metropolis, and the prevention of offences London, Longman,1829. Electronic book of John Rylands University Library, University of Manchester, p.28.
3 Ibid. p.32.
1 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,2002, p.110
2 Elaine A. Reynolds, Before the Bobbies The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London,1720-1830, Macmillan Press Ltd,1998, p136
1 Philip Rawlings, Crime and Power A History of Criminal Justice 1688-1998, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1999, p.75.
2 对于大都市的范围,1829年《改进大都市及附近区域警察组织法》规定是以维斯敏斯特市为主,包括米德尔塞克斯郡、萨里郡、肯特郡一些教区,伦敦市被排除在在外。
1 Elaine A. Reynolds, Before the Bobbies The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London,1720-1830, Macmillan Press Ltd,1998, p155.
1 Robert D. Storch, The policeman as domestic missionary:Urban discipline and popular culture in Northern England,1850-57, International Review of Social History,1975, p482.
2 Ibid.
3 Philip Rawlings, Crime and Power A History of Criminal Justice 1688-1998, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1999, p12.
4 Ibid.
1 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,2002, p.122.
2 Elaine A. Reynolds, Before the Bobbies The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London,1720-1830, Macmillan Press Ltd,1998, p157.
1 Clive Emsley, Policing and its Context 1750-1870, The Macmillan Press Ltd.,1983, p.68.
2 Ibid.
3 David Philips and Robert D. Storch, Policing Provincial England,1829-1856 The Politics of Reform, Leicester University Press,1999, p.139.
1 小治安法院(petty session)是季审法院的补充。在季审法院闭庭期间,由治安法官召开以处理紧急事务,其程序相对简单。详见程汉大、李培锋著：《英国司法制度史》,清华大学出版社2007年6月版,第16页。
2 David Philips and Robert D. Storch, Policing Provincial England,1829-1856 The Politics of Reform, Leicester University Press,1999, p.213.
3 Ibid.p.215.
4 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd.,1967, p.105.
5 Ibid.
1 Ibid. pp.110-111.
2 Ibid. p.113.
3 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd.,1967, pp.115-116. David Philips and Robert D. Storch, Policing Provincial England,1829-1856 The Politics of Reform, Leicester University Press,1999, p.229.
1 Charles Reith, A New Study of Police History, Oliver and Boyd,1956,pp.135-136.
1 Elaine A. Reynolds, Before the Bobbies The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London,1720-1830, Macmillan Press Ltd,1998, p.153.
2 Robert Reiner, The Politics of Police,3rd edition, Oxford University Press,2000, p.52.
1 Charles Reith, A New Study of Police History, Oliver and Boyd,1956,p.138.
2 Ibid.p.141.
4 T.A. Critchley,A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.53.
3 Clive Emsley, Policing and Its Context 1750-1870, Macmillan Press Ltd.1983, p.63.
1 Elaine A. Reynolds, Before the Bobbies The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London,1720-1830, Macmillan Press Ltd.,1998, p.152.
2 Robert Reiner, The Politics of Police,3rd edition, Oxford University Press,2000, p.53.
3 Charles Reith, A New Study of Police History, Oliver and Boyd,1956,p.140.
4 Ibid, p.142.
5 Clive Emsley, Policing and its Context 1750-1870, The Macmillan Press Ltd.1983, p.158.
6 Robert Reiner, The Politics of Police,3rd edition, Oxford University Press,2000, pp.55-56.
1 Joan R. Kent, The English Village Constable 1580-1642, Oxford University Press,1986, p.25.
2 Ibid.p.27.
3 Ibid.pp.27-28.
4 Ibid.p.32.
5 Ibid.p.30.
1 关于治安官负责征收的各种税收,详见Joan R. Kent, The English Village Constable 1580-1642, Oxford University Press,1986, pp.42-49,153-175
1 [英]坎南编：《亚当·斯密关于法律、警察、岁入及军备的演讲》,陈福生,陈振骅译,商务印书馆1962年12月版,第173页。
2 [意]贝卡利亚著：《论犯罪与刑罚》,黄风译,中国大百科全书出版社1993年6月版,第104页。
3 [英]边沁著：《道德与立法原理导论》,时殷弘译,商务印书馆2009年版,第59页。
4 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.46.
1 Carolyn Steedman, Policing the Victorian Community The Formation of English Provincial Police Forces, 1856-80, Routledge & Kegan Paul,1984, p.43.
1 Ibid.p.44.
2 Clive Emsley, Policing and its Context 1750-1870, The Macmillan Press Ltd.,1983, pp.70-71.
3 关于英国季审法院之职能可参见程汉大、李培锋著：《英国司法制度史》,清华大学出版社2007年6月版,第14-16页。
1 Tony Jefferson and Roger Grimshaw, Controlling the Constable Police Accountability in England and Wales, Frederick Muller Limited,1984, pp.31-32.
2 Carolyn Steedman, Policing the Victorian Community The Formation of English Provincial Police Forces, 1856-80, Routledge & Kegan Paul,1984, p.39.
3 Ibid. P.42.
4 1888年的地方政府法(Local Government Act)的内容,主要是郡政府的改革。该法建立了与1835年市议会相似的郡议会。在警察制度方面,规定常务联合委员会为管理郡警察组织的地方权威,其成员一半是郡议会任命的议员,另一半是由季审法院任命的治安法官。
1 Clive Emsley, The English Police A Political and social History, Second Edition, Longman,1996, p.93.
1 Roger Geary,(1985) Policing industrial disputes:1893 to 1985, Cambridge University Press, pp.35-36.
2 T.A. Critchley (1967)A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd, p.183.
1 T.A. Critchley (1967)A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd, pp.131-132.
2 Ibid.pp.271-272.
3 Clive Emsley, (1996)The English Police A Political and social History, Second Edition, Longman, p.101.
4 Fisher v. Oldham Corporation [1930] 2K. B.364
1 Enever v. The King(1906) 3 Commonwealth L. R.969.
2 Select Committee(1834) Report From Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,,2002, p154.
3 [英]罗伯特·雷纳著：《警察与政治》,易继苍、朱俊瑞译,知识产权出版社2008年6月版,第31页。
4 Philip Rawlings, Crime and Power A History of Criminal Justice 1688-1998, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1999, p154.
1 参见T. A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable London,1967, pp.270-274; Ian Oliver, Police, Government and Accountability, The Macmillan Press Ltd,1987, pp.8-10; Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,,2002, pp.200-201
1 Final Report of Royal Commission on the Police 1962, Cmnd 1728, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, p.7
2 Ibid.
1 Tony Jefferson and Roger Grimshaw, Controlling the Constable Police Accountability in England and Wales, Frederick Muller Limited,1984, p.19.
2 依照《1963年打赌、游戏和博采法》,如果概率性游戏,其输赢概率对每个人而言都是均等的,则是合法的,否则为非法。而在当时伦敦绝大部分赌场、俱乐部中的游戏多是使用一种带零的轮盘赌游戏机,这种游戏机的概率更有利于庄家。
1 Regina v. Commissioner of Police of the Metropolitan Police Ex parte Blackburn ex parte Blackburn [1968] 1 All E.R.763
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid.
1 Regina v. Commissioner of Police of the Metropolitan Police Ex parte Blackburn and Another (no 3) [1973] 1 All E.R.324
1 [英]罗伯特·雷纳著：《警察与政治》,易继苍、朱俊瑞译,知识产权出版社2008年6月版,第75页。
2 [英]罗伯特·雷纳著：《警察与政治》,易继苍、朱俊瑞译,知识产权出版社2008年6月版,第77页。
1 Eugene McLaughlin, Community, Policing and Accountability The politics of policing in Manchester in the 1980s, Avebury Ashgate Publishing Ltd,1994, p.1.
2 1976年至1991年在任的曼彻斯特警察局长詹姆斯·安德顿(James Anderton)就是坚持这种“阴谋论”的典型代表。他将所有来自地方的对警察的指责都视为是违反宪政、企图推翻英国民主的阴谋,极力维护警察独立原则。详见Eugene McLaughlin, Community, Policing and Accountability The politics of policing in Manchester in the 1980s, Avebury Ashgate Publishing Ltd,1994, pp.35-49.
3 A. Hiller, Proposals on Police-Community Relations and Other Matters-the Scarman Report on the Brixton Disorders and the Home Office Report on Racial Attacks,12 The University of Queensland Law Journal, (1981-1982), p.23.
1 Carole F. Willis, The Police and Race Relations in England,8 Police Stud. Int'I Rev. Police Dev.1985, p.228.
2 Roger Geary, Policing Industrial Disputes:1893 to 1985, Cambridge University Press,1985,p.139.
1 杰克议案总共只有十条,详见Ian Oliver, Police, Government and Accountability, The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1987, pp.68-69.
2 Tim Newburn, Robert Reiner, From PC Dixon to Dixon PLC:policing and policing powers since 1954, Crim. L.R.2004, Aug,601-618.
1 The Brixton Disorders 10-12April 1981, Report of an Inquiry by the Rt. Hon. The Lord Scarman, O.B.E., Cmnd. 8427, Her Majesty's Stationery Office,1982, p.63.
2 Ibid. p.95.
3 Ibid.p.96.
1 Tony Jefferson and Roger Grimshaw, Controlling the Constable Police Accountability in England and Wales, Frederick Muller Limited,1984, p.174.
1 Eugene McLaughlin, Community, Policing and Accountability The politics of policing in Manchester in the 1980s, Avebury Ashgate Publishing Ltd,1994, p.81.
1 Regina. v Secretary of State for the Home Department Ex p. Northumbria Police Authority [1988] 1 All E.R. 556.
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid.
1 Kiron Reid, Current Developments in Police Accountability,66 Journal of Criminal Law,2002, p.174.
1 http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/written_answers/1997/jul/30/ncis-and-ncs-chairman-and-members访问时间2009-7-19,7：50分。
1 Kiron Reid, Current Developments in Police Accountability,66 Journal of Criminal Law,2002, p.180.
1 [英]罗伯特·雷纳著,《警察与政治》,易继苍、朱俊瑞译,知识产权出版社2008年6月版,第9页。
1 Philip Rawlings, Crime and Power A History of Criminal Justice 1688-1998, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1999, p161.
2 Eugene McLaughlin, Community, Policing and Accountability The politics of policing in Manchester in the 1980s, Avebury Ashgate Publishing Ltd,1994, p.106.
1 Final Report of the Royal Commission on the Police 1962, Cmnd 1728, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, p.11.
1 详见程汉大著：《英国政治制度史》,中国社会科学出版社1995年版,第285-288页。
2 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,,2002, p.168.
1 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.55
2 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,,2002, p.167.
1 Alan R. Pike, A Brief History of the Criminal Investigation Department of the London Metropolitan Police, Police Study International Review. Police Development 22(1978), p.24.
2 Ibid. p.25.
3 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.161.
1 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,,2002, p.170.
1 David Dixon, Revising'Police Power':Legal Theories and Policing Practices in Historical and Contemporary Contexts From Lesley Noaks, Mike Maguire and Michael Levi, Contemporary Issues in Criminology, Cardiff University of Wales press,1995, p.134.
2 详见何勤华、夏菲编著：《西方刑法史》,北京大学出版社2005年12月版,第308页,319-320页。
3 Beckwith v. Philby,108 E.R.585.
1 John Lewis & Co.Ld v. Tims,[1952] A.C.676.
2 Dallison v. Caffery, [1965] 1 Q.B.348, p.366.
1 Dallison v. Caffery, [1965] 1 Q.B.348, pp.366-367.
2 L.H. Leigh, Police Power in England and Wales, London Butterworths,1985, p.36.
1 R. v. Baldry,169 E.R.568(1852).
2 Rex v. Richard Enoch and Mary Pulley,172 E.R.1089; (1833).
3 Reg. v. Garner,169 E.R.267(1848).
1 R. v. Drew,173 E.R.433(1837).
1 1912至1918年有关讯问的九条法官规则的具体内容,详见T.E.ST. Johnston, The Judges'Rules and Police Interrogation in England Today, Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology & Police Science, Mar 1966, Vol.57,pp.86-87.
1 详见R.v.Prager,[1972]1 W.L.R.260.
2 Doreen McBarnet, The Royal Commission and the Judges'Rules, British Journal of Law and Society, Vol.8, 1981,p.110.
3 T.E.ST. Johnston, The Judges'Rules and Police Interrogation in England Today, Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology & Police Science, Mar 1966, Vol.57,p.86.
4 [英]麦高伟,杰弗里·威尔逊主编：《英国刑事司法程序》,姚永吉等译,何家弘审校,法律出版社2003年4月版,第40页
5 Andrew Sanders, Arrest, Charge and Prosecution,6 Legal Study (1986), p.261.
1 [英]麦高伟,杰弗里·威尔逊主编：《英国刑事司法程序》,姚永吉等译,何家弘审校,法律出版社2003年4月版,第43页。
2 Andrew Sanders, George F. Cole, The Prosecution of "Weak" Cases in England and Wales, Criminal Justice Review,1982, Vol.7, p.24.
3 Ibid. P.30, Table 3.
4 Ibid. p.26.
1 详见Andrew Ashworth, Developments in the Public Prosecutor's Office in England and Wales, European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice, Vol.8/3,2000, pp.258-259.
1 Rebeakah Delsol, Michael Shiner, Regulating Stop and Search:A Challenge for Police and Community Relations in England and Wales, Critical Criminology(2006)14, p.243.
2 Andrew Sanders, Richard Young, Criminal Justice,2ed edition, Butterworths,2000, p.80.
3 对在伦敦、曼彻斯特发生的骚乱事件,本文第二章有介绍。见第63-64页。
1 The Brixton Disorders 10-12 April 1981, Report of an Inquiry by the Rt. Hon. The Lord Scarman, O.B.E., Cmnd. 8427, Her Majesty's Stationery Office,1982, p.57.
2 Ibid.p.65.
3 Rebeakah Delsol, Michael Shiner, Regulating Stop and Search:A Challenge for Police and Community Relations in England and Wales, Critical Criminology(2006)14, p.244.
4 《警察和刑事证据法》第1条第(7)、(8)款,对违禁物品的概念做了界定。违禁物品主要有三大类：一是攻击性武器,具体而言,包括被制造、改造用来伤害他人人身的物品以及被个体意图用来伤害他人人身的物品；二是被制造、改造用来实施夜盗、普通盗窃、盗窃车辆、诈骗等犯罪的物品；三是个体意图用来实施上述犯罪的物品。
1 注：《警察和刑事证据法》第116条和执行计划5对“严重的可逮捕犯罪”进行了界定。具体而言,包括叛国、谋杀、过失杀人、强奸、绑架、与未满13岁的女孩发生性关系、与未满16岁的男孩或未经对方同意而与其发生鸡奸关系、导致爆炸威胁到他人人身、财产安全的、拥有武器企图伤害他人、造成严重后果的其他犯罪,等等。可参见[英]约翰·斯普莱克著《英国刑事诉讼程序》第九版,徐美君杨立涛译,中国人民公安大学出版社2006年12月版,第15页。
2 Rebeakah Delsol, Michael Shiner, Regulating Stop and Search:A Challenge for Police and Community Relations in England and Wales, Critical Criminology(2006)14, p.248.
3 Kiron Reid, Race Issues and Stop and Search:Looking behind the Statistics, The Journal of Criminal Law,2009, Vol.73,p.166.
1 注：《警察和刑事证据法》第66条授权内政部长就警察盘查权、搜查权、财产没收权以及嫌疑人羁押、处遇、讯问、身份认定等事宜发布实施细则。实施细则要通过上、下两院的认可,具有制定法效力,警察违反实施细则将会受到纪律处分。实施细则自《警察和刑事证据法》通过以来,几经修改。本文中的内容是依据2008年公布的最新实施细则。
2 Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, Codes of Practice, Code A Exercise by Police Officers of Statutory Powers of Stop and Search.
1 L.H. Leigh, Police Power in England and Wales, London Butterworths,1985, p.161.
2 Donnelly v. Jackman, [1970] 1 W.L.R.562.
4 Lodwick v. Sanders, [1985] 1 WLR 382.
3 King v. Gardner, (1980)71 Cr.App.R.13.
1 Andrew Sanders, Richard Young, Criminal Justice,2ed edition, Butterworths,2000, p.86,Citation 10.
2 Steel v. Goacher, [1983] R.T.R.98. Power in England and Wales, London Butterworths,1985, p161.
3 Andrew Sanders, Richard Young, Criminal Justice,2ed edition, Butterworths,2000, p.90; L.H. Leigh, Police
1 Lee Bridges, Tony Bunyan, Britain's New Urban Policing Strategy-The Police and Criminal Evidence Bill in Context, Journal of Law & Society, Vol 10,1983,p.87.
1 详见Rebeakah Delsol, Michael Shiner, Regulating Stop and Search:A Challenge for Police and Community Relations in England and Wales, Critical Criminology(2006)14, pp.257-258.
2 Andrew Sanders, Richard Young, Criminal Justice,2ed edition, Butterworths,2000, p.142.
1 Shaaban Bin Hussien and Others v. Chong Fook Kam and Others, [1970] AC 942, p.948.
2 Ibid.p.949.
1 Andrew Sanders, Richard Young, Criminal Justice,2ed edition, Butterworths,2000, p.156. of Law and Society, Vol.26, December 1999, p.509.
2 Paddy Hillyard, David Gordon, Arresting Statistics:The Drift to Informal Justice in England and Wales, Journal
1.Andrew Sanders, Richard Young, Criminal Justice,2ed edition, Butterworths,2000, p.273.
1 详见Andrew Sanders, Richard Young, Criminal Justice,2ed edition, Butterworths,2000, pp.223-228.
1 龙宗智,《英国对沉默权制度的改革以及给我们的启示》,载《法学》2002年第3期,第26页。
2 Michael Zander, Police Powers in England:Report of the Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure, American Bar Associating Journal,1981, Vol.67,p.733.
3 有关调查报告的结论,详见David Dixon, Law in Policing:Legal Regulation and Police Practices, Clarendon Press,1997, pp.229-230.
4 Ibid.pp.231-232.
5 主要是指Guild Four和Birmingham Six案件。
1 David Dixon, Law in Policing:Legal Regulation and Police Practices, Clarendon Press,1997, p.234.
1 David Dixon, Law in Policing:Legal Regulation and Police Practices, Clarendon Press,1997, p.262.
2 Bill Wakefield, J. David Hirschel, Scott Sasse, Public Prosecution in England:Resistance to Change in a Major Police Force, American Journal of Police Vol.8,1994, p.172.
1 DPP检察长并不是一个新创立的职位,其出现于1879年。但是由于检察长办公室人员较少,负责起诉的案件种类非常有限,主要是非常严重的犯罪,如杀人罪以及一些敏感案件,如警察犯罪案件,其在英国刑事司法体系中的作用和影响都十分微弱。
2 Andrew Ashworth, Developments in the Public Prosecutor's Office in England and Wales, European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice, Vol.8/3,2000, p.275.
1 Ibid.272.
2 Bill Wakefield, J. David Hirschel, Scott Sasse, Public Prosecution in England:Resistance to Change in a Major Police Force, American Journal of Police Vol.8,1994, pp.180-186.
3 Andrew Sanders, Richard Young, Criminal Justice,2ed edition, Butterworths,2000, p.319.
1 注：这两个案件的详情见本文第二章,第59-61页。
1 Buckoke v. Greater London Council, [1971] 2 All E.R.254.
2 [英]麦高伟,杰弗里·威尔逊主编：《英国刑事司法程序》,姚永吉等译,何家弘审校,法律出版社2003年4月版,第159页。
1 David Williams, Terrorism and the Law in the United Kingdom,26 UNSW Law Journal,2003, p.181.
2 Daniel Moeckli, Stop and Search under the Terrorism Act 2000:A Comment on R(Gillan) v Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis,70(4) Modern Law Review(2007), p.661.
3 Ibid.p.665.
1 Graham Smith, A Most Enduring Problem:Police Complaints Reform in England and Wales, Journal of Social Policy (2006) 35,1, pp125-126.
2 详见本文第二章,第12页。
1 Final Report of Royal Commission on the Police 1962, Cmnd 1728, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, p125
2 Ibid.
3 T. A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable London,1967, p.318.
1 Charles Wegg-Prosser, Police corruption and violence, Poly Law Review 1980:6, p.34.
2 Ibid. p.32.
3 Ibid.
1 Ibid.p.34.
2 http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1977/dec/12/mr-liddle-towers访问时间2009-9-16
3 http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/23/newsid_2523000/2523959.stm访问时间2009-9-16
1 The Brixton Disorders 10-12 April 1981, Report of an Inquiry by the Rt. Hon. The Lord Scarman, O.B.E.,Cmnd. 8427, Her Majesty's Stationery Office,1982, p.65.
2 Graham Smith, A Most Enduring Problem:Police Complaints Reform in England and Wales, Journal of Social Policy (2006) 35,1, pp129-130.
3 Ibid.p.130.
1 Richard Young, Carolyn Hoyle, Karen Cooper, Roderick Hill, Informal resolution of complaints against the police:A quasi-experimental test of restorative justice, Criminal Justice 2005,3, p.280.
2 Mary Seneviratne, Policing the Police in the United Kingdom, Policing & Society, Vol.14, No.4, December 2004, p.337.
3 Graham Smith, Why Don't More People Complain against the Police? European Journal of Criminology (2009) 6, pp.256-257.
1 See Richard Young, Carolyn Hoyle, Karen Cooper, Roderick Hill, Informal resolution of complaints against the police:A quasi-experimental test of restorative justice, Criminal Justice 2005,3, p.287.
2 Geoff Inqlis, Sarah Shepherd, Confidence in the police complaints systems:a second survey of the general population, Independent Police Complaints Commission, p.4.
1 英国犯罪调查(British Crime Survey)开始于1982年,最初是在英格兰、威尔士和苏格兰进行。自1993年起,苏格兰有自己独立的犯罪调查。因此,所谓英国犯罪调查主要指的就是英格兰和威尔士的情况。2001年前,平均是每两年进行一次。2001年起改为每年进行一次。目前,该项调查由内政部主持进行。该项调查的样本约为40000人,主要是了解公民成为犯罪受害人的比例以及公众与刑事司法体系接触的情况。另外,还向其中10000名受访者调查其对警察的态度。
2 IPCC annual report and statement of accounts 2007/08, Independent Police Complaints Commission, p.25http://www.ipcc.gov.uk/annual_report2007-8v.1.pdf访问时间2009-10-11
3 Graham Smith, Why Don't More People Complain against the Police? European Journal of Criminology (2009) 6, p250.
1 Bradley & Ewing, p.754,转引自张越编著：《英国行政法》,中国政法大学出版社2004年6月版,第685页。
2 Mary Seneviratne, Policing the Police in the United Kingdom, Policing & Society, Vol.14, No.4, December 2004, p.331.
3 Tim Newburn, Robert Reiner, From PC Dixon to Dixon PLC:policing and policing powers since 1954, Crim. L.R.2004, Aug,601-618.
4 White v. Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis,1982 WL 222712(QBD).
1 Terry Kirby, Police rule out action over arrest death, Wednesday,29 July 1992 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/police-rule-out-action-over-arrest-death-1536141.html访问时间2009-9-29.
2 Heather Mills, Restaurant that became a symbol for radicalism:An action for damages by a civil rights leader has ended but without an apology. Heather Mills reports, Tuesday,13 October 1992 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/restaurant-that-became-a-symbol-for-radicalism-an-action-for-damages-by-a-civil-rights-leader-has-ended-but-without-an-apology-heather-mills-reports-1557061.html访问时间2009-9-29.
3 Vikram Dodd, (?)324,000 payout to family of man who died in custody, The Guardian, Tuesday 14 May 2002 http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2002/may/14/prisonsandprobation.vikramdodd访问时间2009-9-29.
4 Tim Newburn, Robert Reiner, From PC Dixon to Dixon PLC:policing and policing powers since 1954, Crim. L.R.2004, Aug,601-618.
1 Thompson v. Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, HSU v. Same, [1997] 2 All E.R.762, p.407.
1 八点内容详见Thompson v. Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, HSU v. Same, [1997] 2 All E.R.762, pp.415-418.
1 See Kirsten Storry, The Implications of the Macpherson Report Into the Death of Stephen Lawrence, Current Issues in Criminal Justice 12,2001-2002, p.106.
2 Brooks v Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis and others [2005] UKHL 24, [2005]1 WLR, p.1499.
3 Ibid.
1 Ibid.p.1501.
2 Hill v. Chief Constable of West Yorkshire [1989] AC 53 (HL(E)) p.63.
1 Brooks v Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis and others [2005] UKHL 24, [2005]1 WLR, p.1510.
1 Graham Smith, Police Complaints and Criminal Prosecutions,64 Modern Law Review 2001, p.374.
2 Ibid.pp.375-376.
3 Judith Cotton, David Povey, Police Complaints and Discipline, England and Wales April 1997 to March 1998, p.6 http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs/hosb2098.pdf,访问时间2009-10-10
4 Judith Cotton, Police Complaints and Discipline, England and Wales 12 months to March 2003, p.6 http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/hosb0404.pdf,访问时间2009-10-10。
1 IPCC Annual Report and Statement of Accounts 2007/08, Independent Police Complaints Commission p.10, http://www.ipcc.gov.uk/annual report2007-8v.l.pdf访问时间2009-10-11。
2 IPCC Annual Report and Statement of Accounts 2008/09, Independent Police Complaints Commission p.13, http://www.ipcc.gov.uk/ipcc annual report 2008-09-full.pdf访问时间2009-10-11。
1 Emily Gleeson, Kerry Grace, Police Complaints:Statistics for England and Wale 2008/09, p.24, http://www.ipcc.gov.uk/complaints statistics_2008_09-3.pdf访问时间2009-10-11。
2 Brooks v Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis and others [2005] UKHL 24, [2005]1 WLR, p.1505
1 T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd,1967, p.201
1 Final Report of Royal Commission on the Police 1962, Cmnd 1728, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, p.9.
1 David Dixon, Law in Policing:Legal Regulation and Police Practices, Clarendon Press,1997, p.3
2 [英]罗伯特·雷纳著：《警察与政治》,易继苍、朱俊瑞译,知识产权出版社2008年6月版,第102页。
1 David Dixon, Law in Policing:Legal Regulation and Police Practices, Clarendon Press,1997, p.43
2 Sanders,A., Young, R., The Rule of Law, Due Process and Pre-trial Criminal Justice, Current Legal Problems 1994,47(2), p.138.
3 [英]罗伯特·雷纳著：《警察与政治》,易继苍、朱俊瑞译,知识产权出版社2008年6月版,第200页。
1 Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing,,2002, p.201
1 王智军著：《警察的政治属性》,社会科学文献出版社2009年2月版,第8页、第102页。
1 中国人民公安史稿编写小组编著：《中国人民公安史稿》,警官教育出版社1997年版,第81-83页。
2 [美]魏斐德著：《上海警察,1927-1937》,章红,陈雁,金燕,张晓阳译,周育民校,上海古籍出版社2004年8月版,第185页。
1 王智军著：《警察的政治属性》,社会科学文献出版社2009年2月版,第8页、第42页
2 [英]戴雪著：《英宪精义》,雷宾南译,中国法制出版社2001年4月版,第228页。
1马克昌：《中国刑法学60年反思》,载《武汉大学学报》哲学社会科学版,2009年9月第62卷第5期,第585页。
1 何勤华：《改革开放30年与中国的法制建设》,载《法学》2008年第11期,第3页。
1、程汉大、李培锋著：《英国司法制度史》,清华大学出版社2007年6月版。
2、程汉大著：《英国政治制度史》,中国社会科学出版社1995年版。
3、陈允文著：《中国的警察》,商务印书馆,民国二十四年二月[1935.2]出版印行。
4、陈真,陈合权著：《世界警察概论》,四川大学出版社,2008年4月版。
5、冯德文编著：《警察学概论》 中国人民公安大学出版社,2005年版。
6、何勤华主编：《英国法律发达史》,法律出版社1999年1月版。
7、何勤华、夏菲编著：《西方刑法史》,北京大学出版社,2005年12月版。
8、洪文玲,蔡震荣,郑善印著：《警察法规》“国立空中大学”发行,“民国94年”(2005年)。
9、惠生武著：《警察法论纲》,中国政法大学出版社2000年1月版。
10、李晓明著：《行政刑法学导论》,法律出版社2003年11月版。
11、毛泽东著：《毛泽东选集》第四卷,人民出版社1991年版
12、聂福茂,余凌云主编：《警察行政法学》,中国人民公安大学出版社,2005年版。
13、王大伟著：《英美警察科学》,中国人民公安大学出版社,1995年版。
14、王大伟著：《欧美警察科学原理》,中国人民公安大学出版社,2007年1月版。
15、王智军著：《警察的政治属性》,社会科学文献出版社2009年2月版。
16、王皖强著：《国家与市场——撒切尔主义研究》,湖南教育出版社1999年12月版。
17、许韬,张君霞,余湘青,李亮著：《中外警察法比较研究》,中国检察出版社2009年3月版。
18、余凌云著：《警察行政强制的理论与实践》,中国人民公安大学出版社,2007年版。
19、余秀豪著：《警察学大纲》,商务印书馆,民国三十五年十一月[1946.11]出版印行。
20、张开贵,杨瑞清,张建明,赵兴瑞主编：《公安学基础理论新编》,中国人民公安大学出版社2004年6月版。
21、张越编著：《英国行政法》,中国政法大学出版社2004年6月版。
22、张兆端著：《警察哲学——哲学视阈中的警察学原理》,中国人民公安大学出版社2008年6月版。
23、中国人民公安史稿编写小组编著：《中国人民公安史稿》,警官教育出版社1997年版。
24、[英]边沁著：《道德与立法原理导论》,时殷弘译,商务印书馆2009年版。
25、[英]戴雪著：《英宪精义》,雷宾南译,中国法制出版社2001年4月版,2009年1月印。
26、[意]贝卡利亚著：《论犯罪与刑罚》,黄风译,中国大百科全书出版社1993年6月版
27、[英]菲利蒲·约翰·斯特德著：《英国警察》何家宏,刘刚译,群众出版社,1989年版。
28、[英]坎南编：《亚当·斯密关于法律、警察、岁入及军备的演讲》,陈福生,陈振骅译,商务印书馆1962年12月版。
29、[美]罗伯特·兰沃西, 劳伦斯·特拉维斯著：《社么是警察：美国的经验》,尤小文译,群众出版社2004年版。
30、[英]罗伯特·雷纳著：《警察与政治》,易继苍、朱俊瑞译,知识产权出版社2008年6月版。
31、[法]孟德斯鸠著：《论法的精神》上册,商务印书馆1978年版。
32、[德]马克思,恩格斯,《马克思恩格斯全集》第四卷,人民出版社1972年5月版。
33、[英]麦高伟,杰弗里·威尔逊主编：《英国刑事司法程序》,姚永吉等译,何家弘审校,法律出版社2003年4月版。
34、[日]松井茂著：《警察学纲要》,吴天译,张天虹,张晓鹏勘校,中国 政法大学出版社出版,2005年3月版。
35、[英]W. Ivor詹宁斯著：《法与宪法》,龚祥瑞,侯健译,贺卫方校,三联书店1997年11月版。
36、[美]魏斐德著：《上海警察,1927-1937》,章红,陈雁,金燕,张晓阳译,周育民校,上海古籍出版社2004年8月版。
37、[英]威廉·布莱克斯通：《英国法释义》第一卷,游云庭,缪苗译,上海人民出版社2006年9月版。
38、[英]约翰·斯普莱克著：《英国刑事诉讼程序》,徐美君杨立涛译,中国人民大学出版社,2,006年12月版。
1、陈日华：《中古英国地方自治研究综述》,载《世界历史》2008年第5期。
2、陈兴良：《限权与分权：刑事法视野中的警察权》,载《法律科学》2002年第1期。
3、陈永生：《论侦查权的性质与特征》,载《法制与社会发展》2003年第2期。
4、但伟,姜涛：《论侦查权的性质》,载《国家检察官学院学报》2003年第5期。
5、郝赤勇：《警察权力论》,载《公安研究》2005年第9期。
6、何勤华：《改革开放30年与中国的法制建设》,载《法学》2008年第11期。
7、李健和：《我国警察权力配置的现状、问题与原因——警察权力专题研究之二》,载《中国人民公安大学学报》(社会科学版),2007年第5期。
8、李培锋：《论英国卢德运动的维权特性》,载《徐州师范大学学报》(哲学社会科学版)2005年9月第32卷第5期。
9、李坤生：《论警察的概念》,载《公安大学学报》1995年第3期。
10、黎亚薇,黄捷：《论我国侦查权的性质》,载《求索》2007年第12期。
11、龙宗智,《英国对沉默权制度的改革以及给我们的启示》,载于《法学》2002年第3期。
12、马克昌：《中国刑法学60年反思》,载《武汉大学学报》哲学社会科学 版,2009年9月第62卷第5期。
13、尹春生：《“警察”概念之科学透视》,载《公安大学学报》1989年第5期。
14、彭贵才：《论我国警察权行使的法律规制》,载《当代法学》2009年第4期。
15、杨宗辉：《论我国侦查权的性质——驳“行政权本体说”》,载《法学》2005年第9期。
16、张孝刚：《侦查权性质论纲》,载《公安研究》2007年11期。
1、张强：《法治视野下的警察权》,吉林大学博士学位论文,2005年。
2、刘贵峰：《我国警察权研究》,中国政法大学博士学位论文,2006年。
1、Andrew Sanders, Richard Young, Criminal Justice, 2ed edition, Butterworths,2000.
2、Carolyn Steedman, Policing the Victorian Community The Formation of English Provincial Police Forces,1856-80, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984.
3、Charles Reith, A New Study of Police History, Oliver and Boyd,1956.
4、Clive Emsley, Clive Emsley, The English Police A Political and social History, Second Edition, Longman, 1996.
5、Clive Emsley, Policing and its Context 1750-1870, The Macmillan Press Ltd. 1983.
6、David Dixon, Law in Policing:Legal Regulation and Police Practices, Clarendon Press, 1997.
7、Donald Rumbelow, I Spy Blue The Police and Crime in the City of London from Elizabeth I to Victoria, Macmillan London LTD.,1971.
8、Donatella della Porta, Herbert Reiter, Policing Protest The Control of Mass Demonstrations in Western Democracies, University of Minnesota Press,1998.
9、Elaine A. Reynolds, Before the Bobbies The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London, 1720-1830, Macmillan Press Ltd, 1998.
10、Eugene McLaughlin, Community, Policing and Accountability The politics of policing in Manchester in the 1980s, Avebury Ashgate Publishing Ltd, 1994.
11、Ian Oliver, Police, Government and Accountability, The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1987.
12、L. H. Leigh, Police Power in England and Wales, London Butterworths, 1985.
13、James Stephen, A History Of The Criminal Law Of England,vol. I, Macmillan And Co.,1883.
14、Joan R. Kent, The English Village Constable 1580-1642, Oxford University Press,1986.
15、John Alderson, Principled Policing Protecting the Public with Integrity, Watersides Press,1998.
16、John Wade, A treatise on the police and crimes of the metropolis: also an account of the courts of justice and prisons of London:and an inquiry into the causes of the increase of crime:the tendency of the debtor laws:and into the present state of the licensed victuallers' trade:with suggestions for the improvement of the protective institutions of the metropolis, and the prevention of offences London, Longman,1829. Electronic book of John Rylands University Library, University of Manchester.
17、David Philips and Robert D. Storch, Policing Provincial England, 1829-1856 The Politics of Reform, Leicester University Press,1999.
18、Leon Radzinowicz, A History of English Criminal Law and its Administration from 1750, Stevens & Sons,1968.
19、Lesley Noaks, Mike Maguire and Michael Levi, Contemporary Issues in Criminology, Cardiff University of Wales press,1995.
20、Malcolm Young, An Inside Job, Policing and Police Culture in Britain, Clarendon Press, 1991.
21、Patrick Pringle, Hue and Cry -----The Birth of The British Police, London Museum Press Limited, 1955.
22、Philip Rawlings, Policing A Short History, Willam Publishing, 2002.
23、Philip Rawlings, Crime and Power A History of Criminal Justice 1688-1998, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1999.
24、Robert Reiner, The Politics of Police, 3rd edition, Oxford University Press,2000.
25、Roger Geary,(1985) Policing industrial disputes:1893 to 1985, Cambridge University Press.
26、T. A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966, Constable and Company Ltd, 1967.
27、Tony Jefferson and Roger Grimshaw, Controlling the Constable Police Accountability in England and Wales, Frederick Muller Limited, 1984.
28、Victor Bailey, Policing and Punishment in Nineteenth Century Britain, Croom Helm Ltd, 1981.
1、Alan R. Pike, A Brief History of the Criminal Investigation Department of the London Metropolitan Police, Police Study International Review Police Development 22(1978).
2、Andrew Sanders, George F. Cole, The Prosecution of "Weak" Cases in England and Wales, Criminal Justice Review, 1982, Vol.7.
3、Andrew Sanders, Arrest, Charge and Prosecution. 6 Legal Study (1986).
4、Andrew Ashworth, Developments in the Public Prosecutor's Office in England and Wales, European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice, 2000, Vol. 8/3.
5、A. Hiller, Proposals on Police- Community Relations and Other Matters- the Scarman Report on the Brixton Disorders and the Home Office Report on Racial Attacks, 12 The University of Queensland Law Journal, 1981-1982.
6、Bill Wakefield, J. David Hirschel, Scott Sasse, Public Prosecution in England:Resistance to Change in a Major Police Force, American Journal of Police Vol.8, 1994.
7、Carole F. Willis, The Police and Race Relations in England, 8 Police Stud. Int'l Rev. Police Dev. 1985.
8、Tim Newburn, Robert Reiner, From PC Dixon to Dixon PLC:policing and policing powers since 1954, Crim. L. R. 2004, Aug.
9、Charles Wegg-Prosser, Police corruption and violence, Poly Law Review 1980:6.
10、Daniel Moeckli, Stop and Search under the Terrorism Act 2000:A Comment on R(Gillan) v Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis,70(4) Modern Law Review (2007).
11、David Williams, Terrorism and the Law in the United Kingdom, 26 UNSW Law Journal,2003.
12、Doreen McBarnet, The Royal Commission and the Judges'Rules, British Journal of Law and Society, 1981, Vol.8.
13、Graham Smith, A Most Enduring Problem:Police Complaints Reform in England and Wales, Journal of Social Policy (2006) 35, 1.
14、Graham Smith, Why Don't More People Complain against the Police? European Journal of Criminology (2009) 6.
15、Graham Smith, Police Complaints and Criminal Prosecutions,64 Modern Law Review 2001.
16、Kiron Reid, Race Issues and Stop and Search:Looking behind the Statistics,73 Journal of Criminal Law, 2009.
17、Kiron Reid, Current Developments in Police Accountability, 66 Journal of Criminal Law, 2002.
18、Kirsten Storry, The Implications of the Macpherson Report Into the Death of Stephen Lawrence, Current Issues in Criminal Justice 12, 2001-2002.
19、Lee Bridges, Tony Bunyan, Britain's New Urban Policing Strategy-The Police and Criminal Evidence Bill in Context, Journal of Law & Society, 1983. Vol.10.
20、Mark Neocleous, Social Police and the Mechanisms of Prevention Patrick Colquhoun and the Condition of Poverty, British Journal of Criminology (2000) 40.
21、Mary Seneviratne, Policing the Police in the United Kingdom, Policing & Society, December 2004, Vol.14, No.4.
22、Michael Zander, Police Powers in England:Report of the Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure, American Bar Associating Journal,1981, Vol.67.
23、Paddy Hillyard, David Gordon, Arresting Statistics:The Drift to Informal Justice in England and Wales, Journal of Law and Society, December 1999, Vol.26.
24、Rebeakah Delsol, Michael Shiner, Regulating Stop and Search:A Challenge for Police and Community Relations in England and Wales, Critical Criminology (2006)14.
25、Richard Young, Carolyn Hoyle, Karen Cooper, Roderick Hill, Informal resolution of complaints against the police:A quasi-experimental test of restorative justice, Criminal Justice 2005,3.
26、Robert D. Storch, The policeman as domestic missionary:Urban discipline and popular culture in Northern England, 1850-57, International Review of Social History, 1976, Vol.9, No.4.
27、T. E. ST. Johnston, The Judges'Rules and Police Interrogation in England Today, Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology & Police Science, Mar 1966, Vol.57.
1、Beckwith v. Philby, 108 E. R. 585 (1827)
2、Rex v. Richard Enoch and Mary Pulley, 172 E.R. 1089; (1833)
3、R. v. Drew, 173 E. R. 433(1837)
4、Reg. v. Garner, 169 E. R.267(1848)
5、R. v. Baldry, 169 E. R. 568(1852)
6、Enever v. The King (1906) 3 Commonwealth L. R. 969
7、Fisher v. Oldham Corporation [1930] 2K. B. 364
8、John Lewis & Co. Ld v. Tims, [1952] A.C. 676
9、Dallison v. Caffery, [1965] 1 Q. B. 348,
10、Regina v. Commissioner of Police of the Metropolitan Police Ex parte Blackburn ex parte Blackburn [1968] 1 All E.R. 763
11、Donnelly v. Jackman, [1970] 1 W. L. R.562
12、Shaaban Bin Hussien and Others v. Chong Fook Kam and Others, [1970] AC 942
13、Buckoke v. Greater London Council, [1971] 2 All E. R. 254
14、R. v. Prager, [1972] 1 W. L. R. 260
15、King v. Gardner, (1980)71 Cr. App. R. 13
16、White v. Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, 1982 WL 222712(QBD)
17、Steel v. Goacher, [1983] R.T.R. 98
18、Lodwick v. Sanders, [1985] 1 WLR 382
19、Regina. v Secretary of State for the Home Department Ex p. Northumbria Police Authority [1988] 1 All E. R. 556
20、Hill v. Chief Constable of West Yorkshire [1989] AC 53
21、Thompson v. Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, HSU v. Same, [1997] 2 All E.R. 762, p.407
22、Brooks v Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis and others [2005] UKHL 24, [2005]1 WLR, p.1510
1 http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/written answers/1997/jul/30/ncis-and- ncs-chairman-and-members访问时间2009-7-19,7：50分。
2 http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1977/dec/12/mr-liddle-towe rs访问时间2009-9-16
3 http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/23/newsid 2523 000 /25 2 3959. stm访问时间2009-9-16
4、Terry Kirby, Police rule out action over arrest death, Wednesday, 29 July 1992 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/police-rule-out-action-over-arre st-death-1536141.html访问时问2009-9-29
5、Heather Mills, Restaurant that became a symbol for radicalism: An action for damages by a civil rights leader has ended but without an apology. Heather Mills reports, Tuesday, 13 October 1992 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/restaurant-that-became-a-symbol-for-radicalism-an-action-for-damages-by-a-civil-rights-leader-has-end ed-but-without-an-apology-heather-mills-reports-1557061.html 访问时间 2009-9-29
6、Vikram Dodd, (?)324,000 payout to family of man who died in custody, The Guardian, Tuesday 14 May 2002 http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2002/may/14/prisonsandprobation.vikramdo dd访问时间2009-9-29
1、An Act for improving the Police in and near the Metropolis,1829
2、An Act to provide for the Regulation of Municipal Corporation in England and Wales,1835
3、An Act to render More Effectual the Police in Counties and Borough in England and Wales,1856
4、Police Act 1964
5、Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984
6、PCEA Codes of Practice, Code A Exercise by Police Officers of Statutory Powers of'Stop and Search
7、PCEA Codes of Practice, Code C Code of Practice for the Detention, Treatment and Questioning of Persons by Police Officers
8、PCEA Codes of Practice, Code E Code of Practice on Audio Recording Interviews with Suspects
9、Prosecution of Offences Act 1985
10、Police Act 1996
11、Police Reform Act 2002
12、Police and Justice Act 2006
1、Final Report of Royal Commission on the Police 1962, Cmnd 1728, Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
2、The Brixton Disorders 10-12 April 1981, Report of an Inquiry by the Rt. Hon. The Lord Scarman, O. B. E., Cmnd. 8427, Her Majesty' s Stationery Office, 1982.
3、Judith Cotton, David Povey, Police Complaints and Discipline, England and Wales April 1997 to March 1998, p.6
http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs/hosb2098.pdf,访问时间2009-10-10
4、Judith Cotton, Police Complaints and Discipline, England and Wales 12 months to March 2003, p.6 http://rds.homeoffice,gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/hosb0404.pdf,访问时间2009-10-10
5、Maria Docking and Tom Bucke, Confidence in the police complaints systems:a survey of the general population, Independent Police Complaints Commission 2004.
6、Geoff Inqlis, Sarah Shepherd, Confidence in the police complaints systems:a second survey of the general population, Independent Police Complaints Commission, 2007.
7、IPCC annual report and statement of accounts 2007/08, Independent Police Complaints Commission, http://www.ipcc.gov.uk/annual_report2007-8v.1.pdf访问时间2009-10-11
8、IPCC Annual Report and Statement of Accounts 2008/09, Independent Police Complaints Commission p.13, http://www.ipcc.gov.uk/ipcc_annual_report_2008-09_-_full.pdf访问时间2009-10-11
9、Emily Gleeson, Kerry Grace, Police Complaints:Statistics for England and Wale 2008/09, p.24, http://www.ipcc.gov.uk/complaints_statistics_2008_09-3.pdf访问时间2009-10-11