自由目标效应和有解样例效应对不同学绩水平学生各学科成绩的影响
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摘要
认知负荷理论主要以资源有限理论和图式理论为基础,从资源分配的角度来考察学习和问题解决。其观点认为：认知结构中包含一个容量有限的工作记忆和一个容量无限的长时记忆。长时记忆中存贮了大量的图式,图式的建构以及自动化对学习起着非常关键的决定作用。自动化的图式能够在长时记忆中保存很长时间,并且降低工作记忆的负荷,从而使学习和问题解决得以顺利发生。由认知负荷理论推导出的一系列教学设计原则也在教学中发挥重大作用。自由目标效应和有解样例效应则是认知负荷理论中为解决学习者的认知资源限制而提出的两个最为普遍且重要的教学设计原则。
本研究以认知负荷理论为理论指导,采用团体测验量化研究的方法,通过对比自由目标效应和有解样例效应对于不同学绩水平学生语文和数学两门学科成绩的影响,探讨这两种效应在语文和数学这两门学科教学中的效果,并从这一角度提出有建设性的改变方案,为这两种效应在不同学科教学中的广泛运用提供一些证据支撑和操作建议。
本研究的实验选取初中二年级(129名)及预初年级(154名)学生作为被试,分别在语文和数学两个学科上以三种不同的实验处理来进行实验设计,考察自由目标效应和有解样例效应对于不同学绩水平的学生在语文和数学两门学科上成绩的影响,同时,还辅佐以认知负荷测量量表,给予数据解释上更加有力的支持。
研究结果表明：
①不同学绩水平的学生在面对相同任务时,其认知负荷总量存在显著性差异。总体来说,学困学生的认知负荷总量最高。
②在三种实验处理下,学生的作文成绩和数学成绩及其相对应的认知负荷分数都呈现出显著性的差异。
③在语文(作文)学科上,虽然自由目标处理和有解样例处理都对学生的作文成绩和认知负荷分数起到影响,但自由目标处理下的实验效果最好。同时,学优组和学中组学生受到教学设计的影响更大,而学困组学生则不受影响。
④在数学学科上,自由目标处理和有解样例处理也都对学生的数学成绩和认知负荷分数起到影响,但有解样例处理下的实验效果最好。同时,学中组和学困组学生受到教学设计的影响更大,而学优组学生则不受影响。
Cognitive Load Theory is mainly based on Limited Resource Theory and Schema Theory. It examines learning and problem-solving from the perspective of resource allocation. It assumes that:cognitive structure contains a limited working memory capacity and an unlimited long-term memory capacity. A large number of schema is stored in long-term memory. Schema construction and automation play a very crucial role to learning. Schema automation can save long-term memory for a long time, and reduce the load on working memory, so that learning and problem-solving occurs esaily. The series of instructional design principles which are derived from Cognitive Load Theory also play a major role in teaching. Free-Goal Effect and Worked example Effect are the two most common and important instructional design principles according to Cognitive Load Theory to address the learner's cognitive resources constraints.
In this study, guided by Cognitive Load Theory, quantitative research group testing method is used to compare the influence of Free-Goal Effect and Worked Example Effect to different students with different learning levels in language and mathematics achievement. And some evidence to support the extensive use and operation recommendations will be provided. Experiments in this study selected 129 second-year junior school students and 154 six-grade students as subjects, who respectively received the test both in language and mathematics in three different experimental treatments.
The results show that:
①To students of different learning level who are facing the same task, their cognitive load had a significant difference. Overall, the cognitive load of students with learning low-level is the highest.
②In the three experimental treatments, the students writing and math scores and corresponding scores of the cognitive load emerged as significant differences.
③In language, Free-Goal Effect and Worked Example Effect have effects on cognitive load scores, but Free-Goal Effect under the experimental is better. Meanwhile, the high-level and the medium-level group are easily affected compared to low-level group.
④In Mathemetics, Free-Goal Effect and Worked Example Effect also have effects on cognitive load scores, but Worked Example Effect under the experimental is better. Meanwhile, the medium-level and low-level group are easily affected compared to high-level group.
本研究以认知负荷理论为理论指导,采用团体测验量化研究的方法,通过对比自由目标效应和有解样例效应对于不同学绩水平学生语文和数学两门学科成绩的影响,探讨这两种效应在语文和数学这两门学科教学中的效果,并从这一角度提出有建设性的改变方案,为这两种效应在不同学科教学中的广泛运用提供一些证据支撑和操作建议。
本研究的实验选取初中二年级(129名)及预初年级(154名)学生作为被试,分别在语文和数学两个学科上以三种不同的实验处理来进行实验设计,考察自由目标效应和有解样例效应对于不同学绩水平的学生在语文和数学两门学科上成绩的影响,同时,还辅佐以认知负荷测量量表,给予数据解释上更加有力的支持。
研究结果表明：
①不同学绩水平的学生在面对相同任务时,其认知负荷总量存在显著性差异。总体来说,学困学生的认知负荷总量最高。
②在三种实验处理下,学生的作文成绩和数学成绩及其相对应的认知负荷分数都呈现出显著性的差异。
③在语文(作文)学科上,虽然自由目标处理和有解样例处理都对学生的作文成绩和认知负荷分数起到影响,但自由目标处理下的实验效果最好。同时,学优组和学中组学生受到教学设计的影响更大,而学困组学生则不受影响。
④在数学学科上,自由目标处理和有解样例处理也都对学生的数学成绩和认知负荷分数起到影响,但有解样例处理下的实验效果最好。同时,学中组和学困组学生受到教学设计的影响更大,而学优组学生则不受影响。
Cognitive Load Theory is mainly based on Limited Resource Theory and Schema Theory. It examines learning and problem-solving from the perspective of resource allocation. It assumes that:cognitive structure contains a limited working memory capacity and an unlimited long-term memory capacity. A large number of schema is stored in long-term memory. Schema construction and automation play a very crucial role to learning. Schema automation can save long-term memory for a long time, and reduce the load on working memory, so that learning and problem-solving occurs esaily. The series of instructional design principles which are derived from Cognitive Load Theory also play a major role in teaching. Free-Goal Effect and Worked example Effect are the two most common and important instructional design principles according to Cognitive Load Theory to address the learner's cognitive resources constraints.
In this study, guided by Cognitive Load Theory, quantitative research group testing method is used to compare the influence of Free-Goal Effect and Worked Example Effect to different students with different learning levels in language and mathematics achievement. And some evidence to support the extensive use and operation recommendations will be provided. Experiments in this study selected 129 second-year junior school students and 154 six-grade students as subjects, who respectively received the test both in language and mathematics in three different experimental treatments.
The results show that:
①To students of different learning level who are facing the same task, their cognitive load had a significant difference. Overall, the cognitive load of students with learning low-level is the highest.
②In the three experimental treatments, the students writing and math scores and corresponding scores of the cognitive load emerged as significant differences.
③In language, Free-Goal Effect and Worked Example Effect have effects on cognitive load scores, but Free-Goal Effect under the experimental is better. Meanwhile, the high-level and the medium-level group are easily affected compared to low-level group.
④In Mathemetics, Free-Goal Effect and Worked Example Effect also have effects on cognitive load scores, but Worked Example Effect under the experimental is better. Meanwhile, the medium-level and low-level group are easily affected compared to high-level group.
引文
1、赖日生,曾晓青,陈美荣：从认知负荷理论看教学设计[J],江西教育学院学报(社会科学),2005(2)：52-55。
2、许永勤,朱新明：关于样例学习中样例设计的若干研究[J],心理学动态,2000(8)：45-49。
3、吴先强,韦斯林：国外认知负荷理论与有效教学的研究进展及启示[J],全球教育展望,2009(2)：28-31。
4、王小明：国外有关样例学习的研究[J],外国中小学教育,2007(1)：48-51。
5、张义泉,许远理：认知负荷测量模型简介[J],信阳师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版),1997(10)：59-62。
6、曹宝龙,刘慧娟,林崇德：认知负荷对小学生工作记忆资源分配策略的影响[J],心理发展与教育,2005(1)：36-41。
7、陈巧芬：认知负荷理论及其发展[J],现代教育技术,2007(9)：16-19。
8、连四清,伍春兰：认知负荷理论与数学教学样例设计[J],数学通报,2005(11)：22-24。
9、张慧,张凡：认知负荷理论综述[J],教育研究与实验,1999(4)：45-47。
10、辛自强,林崇德：认知负荷与认知技能和图式获得的关系及其教学意义[J],华东师范大学学报(教育科学版),2002(12)：55-60。
11、蔡燕玲：学习任务认知负荷与测量方法研究[J],郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2009(1)：128-130。
12、邢强,莫雷：样例和问题的联结方式对迁移作用的实验研究[J],应用心理学,2003(9)：31-35。
13、肖元梅,王治明,王绵珍,兰亚佳：主观负荷评估技术和NASA任务负荷指数量表的信度与效度评价[J],中华劳动卫生职业病杂志,2005(6)：178-181。
14、朱晓斌,张积家：自由目标效应与样例效应对学生写作成绩影响[J],心理科学,2005(5)：1139-1143。
1、Juhani E. Tuovinen, John Sweller:A Comparison of Cognitive Load Associated With Discovery Learning and Worked Examples[J], Journal of Educational Psychology,1999,91(2): 334-341.
16、Roland Brunken, Jan L. Plass, Detlev Leutner:Direct Measurement of Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning[J], Educational Psychology,2003,38(1):53-61.
17、Krista E. DeLeeuw, Richard E. Mayer:A Comparison of Three Measures of Cognitive Load:Evidence for Separable Measures of Intrinsic, Extraneous and Germane Load[J], Journal of Educational Psychology,2008,100(1):223-234.
18、Wolfgang Schnotz, Christian Kurschner:A Reconsideration of Cognitive Load Theory[J], Educational Psychology Review,2007,19(1):469-508.
19、Peter Gerjets, Katharina Scheiter, Gabriele Cierniak:The Scientific Value of Cognitive Load Theory:A Research Agenda Based on the Structuralist View of Theories[J], Educational Psychology Review,2009,21(2):43-54.
20、John Sweller:Discussion of "Emerging Topics in Cognitive Load Research:Using Learner and Information Characteristics in the Design of Powerful Learning Environments"[J], Applied Cognitive Psychology,2006,20(3):353-357.
21、John Sweller, Jeroen J. G. Merrienboer, Fred G. W. C. Paas:Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design[J], Educational Psychology Review, 1998,10(3):251-296.
22、Fred Paas, Juhani E. Tuobinen, Huib Tabbers, Pascal W. M. Van Gerven, Cognitive Load Measurement as a Means to Advance Cognitive Load Theory[J], Educational Psychologist, 2003,38(1):63-71.
23、Fred Pass, Aiexander Renkl, John Sweller:Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design:Recent Developments[J], Educational Psychologist,2003,38(1):1-4.
24、Martin Valcke:Cognitive Load:updating the theory?[J], Learning and Instruction,2002, 12(4):147-154.
25、Graham Cooper, John Sweller:Effects of Schema Acquisition and Rule Automation on Mathematical Problem-Solving Transfer[J], Journal of Educational Psychology,1987,79(4): 347-362.
26、John Sweller, Marvin Levine:Effects of Goal Specificity on Means-Ends Analysis and Learning[J], Journal of Educational Psychology,1982,8(5):463-474.
27、John Sweller, Paul Chandler:Evidence for Cognitive Load Theory[J], Cognition and Instruction,1991,8(4):351-362.
28、Rohani Abmad Tarmizi, John Sweller:Guidance During Mathematical Problem Solving[J], Journal of Educational Psychology,1988,80(4):424-436.
29、Slava Kalyuga:Knowledge Elaboration:A Cognitive Load Perspective[J], Learning and Instruction,2009,19(5):402-410.
30、Maria Bannert:Managing Cognitive Load-Recent Trends in Cognitive Load Theory[J], Learning and Instruction,2002,12(1):139-146.
31、Slava Kalyuga, John Sweller:Measuring Knowledge to Optimize Cognitive Load Factors During Instruction[J], Journal of Educational Psychology,2004,96(3):558-568.
32、Richard E. Mayer, Roxana Moreno:Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning[J], Educational Psychologist,2003,38(1):43-52.
33、Jeroen J. G. Van Merrienboer, Paul Ayres:Research on Cognitive Load Theory and Its Design Implications for E-Learning[J], Educational Technology Research and Development, 2005,53(3):5-13.
34、Gary R. Morrison, Gary J. Anglin:Research on Cognitive Load Theory:Application to E-Learning[J], Educational Technology Research and Development,2005,53(3):94-104.
35、Mark Ward, John Sweller:Structuring Effective Worker Examples[J], Cognition and Instruction,1990,7(1):1-39.
36、Michelle Patrick Cook:Visual Representations in Science Education:The Influence of Prior Knowledge and Cognitive Load Theory on Instructional Design Principles[J], Science Education,2006,10(2):1073-1090.
37、John Sweller, Graham A. Cooper:The Use of Worked Examples as a Substitute for Problem Solving in Learning Algebra[J], Cognition and Instruction,1985,2(1):59-89.
38、John Sweller:The Worked Examples Effect and Human Cognition[J], Learning and Instruction,2006,16(3):165-169.
39、Nadine Marcus, Martin Cooper, John Sweller:Understanding Instructions[J], Journal of Educational Psychology,1996,88(1):49-63.
40、Elizabeth Owen, John Sweller:What Do Students Learn While Solving Mathematics Problems?[J], Journal of Educational Psychology,1985,77(3):272-284.
41、Slava Kalyuga, Paul Chandler, John Sweller:When Problem Solving Is Superior to Studying Worked Examples[J], Journal of Educational Psychology,2001,93(3):579-588.
42、Roxana Moreno:When Worked Examples Don't Work:Is Cognitive Load Theory at An Impasse?[J], Learning and Instruction,2006,16(1):170-181.
43、Paul A. Kirschner, John Sweller, Richard E. Clark:Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work:An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching[J], Educational Psychologist, 2006,41(2):75-86.
44、John Sweller, Paul Chandler:Why Some Material Is Difficult to Learn?[J], Cognition and Instruction,1994,12(3):185-233.
45、John Sweller:Cognitive Load During Problem Solving:Effects of Learning[J], Cognitive Science,1988,12(3):257-285.
2、许永勤,朱新明：关于样例学习中样例设计的若干研究[J],心理学动态,2000(8)：45-49。
3、吴先强,韦斯林：国外认知负荷理论与有效教学的研究进展及启示[J],全球教育展望,2009(2)：28-31。
4、王小明：国外有关样例学习的研究[J],外国中小学教育,2007(1)：48-51。
5、张义泉,许远理：认知负荷测量模型简介[J],信阳师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版),1997(10)：59-62。
6、曹宝龙,刘慧娟,林崇德：认知负荷对小学生工作记忆资源分配策略的影响[J],心理发展与教育,2005(1)：36-41。
7、陈巧芬：认知负荷理论及其发展[J],现代教育技术,2007(9)：16-19。
8、连四清,伍春兰：认知负荷理论与数学教学样例设计[J],数学通报,2005(11)：22-24。
9、张慧,张凡：认知负荷理论综述[J],教育研究与实验,1999(4)：45-47。
10、辛自强,林崇德：认知负荷与认知技能和图式获得的关系及其教学意义[J],华东师范大学学报(教育科学版),2002(12)：55-60。
11、蔡燕玲：学习任务认知负荷与测量方法研究[J],郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2009(1)：128-130。
12、邢强,莫雷：样例和问题的联结方式对迁移作用的实验研究[J],应用心理学,2003(9)：31-35。
13、肖元梅,王治明,王绵珍,兰亚佳：主观负荷评估技术和NASA任务负荷指数量表的信度与效度评价[J],中华劳动卫生职业病杂志,2005(6)：178-181。
14、朱晓斌,张积家：自由目标效应与样例效应对学生写作成绩影响[J],心理科学,2005(5)：1139-1143。
1、Juhani E. Tuovinen, John Sweller:A Comparison of Cognitive Load Associated With Discovery Learning and Worked Examples[J], Journal of Educational Psychology,1999,91(2): 334-341.
16、Roland Brunken, Jan L. Plass, Detlev Leutner:Direct Measurement of Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning[J], Educational Psychology,2003,38(1):53-61.
17、Krista E. DeLeeuw, Richard E. Mayer:A Comparison of Three Measures of Cognitive Load:Evidence for Separable Measures of Intrinsic, Extraneous and Germane Load[J], Journal of Educational Psychology,2008,100(1):223-234.
18、Wolfgang Schnotz, Christian Kurschner:A Reconsideration of Cognitive Load Theory[J], Educational Psychology Review,2007,19(1):469-508.
19、Peter Gerjets, Katharina Scheiter, Gabriele Cierniak:The Scientific Value of Cognitive Load Theory:A Research Agenda Based on the Structuralist View of Theories[J], Educational Psychology Review,2009,21(2):43-54.
20、John Sweller:Discussion of "Emerging Topics in Cognitive Load Research:Using Learner and Information Characteristics in the Design of Powerful Learning Environments"[J], Applied Cognitive Psychology,2006,20(3):353-357.
21、John Sweller, Jeroen J. G. Merrienboer, Fred G. W. C. Paas:Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design[J], Educational Psychology Review, 1998,10(3):251-296.
22、Fred Paas, Juhani E. Tuobinen, Huib Tabbers, Pascal W. M. Van Gerven, Cognitive Load Measurement as a Means to Advance Cognitive Load Theory[J], Educational Psychologist, 2003,38(1):63-71.
23、Fred Pass, Aiexander Renkl, John Sweller:Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design:Recent Developments[J], Educational Psychologist,2003,38(1):1-4.
24、Martin Valcke:Cognitive Load:updating the theory?[J], Learning and Instruction,2002, 12(4):147-154.
25、Graham Cooper, John Sweller:Effects of Schema Acquisition and Rule Automation on Mathematical Problem-Solving Transfer[J], Journal of Educational Psychology,1987,79(4): 347-362.
26、John Sweller, Marvin Levine:Effects of Goal Specificity on Means-Ends Analysis and Learning[J], Journal of Educational Psychology,1982,8(5):463-474.
27、John Sweller, Paul Chandler:Evidence for Cognitive Load Theory[J], Cognition and Instruction,1991,8(4):351-362.
28、Rohani Abmad Tarmizi, John Sweller:Guidance During Mathematical Problem Solving[J], Journal of Educational Psychology,1988,80(4):424-436.
29、Slava Kalyuga:Knowledge Elaboration:A Cognitive Load Perspective[J], Learning and Instruction,2009,19(5):402-410.
30、Maria Bannert:Managing Cognitive Load-Recent Trends in Cognitive Load Theory[J], Learning and Instruction,2002,12(1):139-146.
31、Slava Kalyuga, John Sweller:Measuring Knowledge to Optimize Cognitive Load Factors During Instruction[J], Journal of Educational Psychology,2004,96(3):558-568.
32、Richard E. Mayer, Roxana Moreno:Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning[J], Educational Psychologist,2003,38(1):43-52.
33、Jeroen J. G. Van Merrienboer, Paul Ayres:Research on Cognitive Load Theory and Its Design Implications for E-Learning[J], Educational Technology Research and Development, 2005,53(3):5-13.
34、Gary R. Morrison, Gary J. Anglin:Research on Cognitive Load Theory:Application to E-Learning[J], Educational Technology Research and Development,2005,53(3):94-104.
35、Mark Ward, John Sweller:Structuring Effective Worker Examples[J], Cognition and Instruction,1990,7(1):1-39.
36、Michelle Patrick Cook:Visual Representations in Science Education:The Influence of Prior Knowledge and Cognitive Load Theory on Instructional Design Principles[J], Science Education,2006,10(2):1073-1090.
37、John Sweller, Graham A. Cooper:The Use of Worked Examples as a Substitute for Problem Solving in Learning Algebra[J], Cognition and Instruction,1985,2(1):59-89.
38、John Sweller:The Worked Examples Effect and Human Cognition[J], Learning and Instruction,2006,16(3):165-169.
39、Nadine Marcus, Martin Cooper, John Sweller:Understanding Instructions[J], Journal of Educational Psychology,1996,88(1):49-63.
40、Elizabeth Owen, John Sweller:What Do Students Learn While Solving Mathematics Problems?[J], Journal of Educational Psychology,1985,77(3):272-284.
41、Slava Kalyuga, Paul Chandler, John Sweller:When Problem Solving Is Superior to Studying Worked Examples[J], Journal of Educational Psychology,2001,93(3):579-588.
42、Roxana Moreno:When Worked Examples Don't Work:Is Cognitive Load Theory at An Impasse?[J], Learning and Instruction,2006,16(1):170-181.
43、Paul A. Kirschner, John Sweller, Richard E. Clark:Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work:An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching[J], Educational Psychologist, 2006,41(2):75-86.
44、John Sweller, Paul Chandler:Why Some Material Is Difficult to Learn?[J], Cognition and Instruction,1994,12(3):185-233.
45、John Sweller:Cognitive Load During Problem Solving:Effects of Learning[J], Cognitive Science,1988,12(3):257-285.