场独立/依赖的认知风格对语言测试成绩的影响——一项基于完形填空的研究
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摘要
The study bases its theoretical framework on Bachman's model on the factors affecting test scores, in which personal trait and test method facet are both the factors imposing influences on language test performance and leading to test bias.
First, this study aims to investigate the relationship between Field Independence / Field Dependence and cloze test performance. On the basis of previous studies e.g. Witkin, Hansen etc., we assume that test-takers' FI, as an import personal trait, positively correlates with their cloze test performance. The correlation analyses are conducted to test the hypothesis.
Second, the cloze procedure, as a test method, has 5 facets, i.e. Exact Word Cloze, Acceptable Word Cloze, Banked MC Cloze, Separate Item MC Cloze and C-cloze. In the light of Bachman's model, we hypothesize the power of influence imposed by FID on cloze test performance varies across the 5 cloze test method facets. The cross-sectional comparison is performed to test the hypothesis.
Third, the findings in the previous studies indicate that there exists a cross-gender difference. Then, we hypothesize there exist interactive effects between FI and the sex difference, and the sex difference affects cloze test performance through a roundabout way, i.e. via the third party-FI. To test this hypothesis, we make a factorial design and conduct a Two-way ANOVA.
Another purpose of the present study is to explore the cognitive strategies taken by FI test-takers and those by FD test-takers in the process of taking the cloze tests. We take the introspection method to trace and describe the cognitive strategies.
In result, the three hypotheses were proved to be true. Then, the findings in the present studies are discussed within the conceptual frameworks of FID and cloze procedure. Finally the implication of these findings for language testing theories and practices, especially the issues of construct validity and test bias, are evaluated. At last, the suggestions for further studies are presented.
引文
Abraham, R.G. 1985. Field Independence-Dependence and the Teaching of Grammar. Tesol Quarterly, 20(4).
Allport, G. W. (1937). Personality: a Psychological Interpretation. New York: Holt & Co.
Anderson, J. 1976. Psycholinguistic Experiments in Foreign Language Testing. University of Queensland Press, St Lucia.
Atman, K. S. (1988). Psychological Type Elements and Goal Accomplishment Style: Implications for Distance Education. The American Journal of Distance Education, 2 (3).
Ausburn, L. J., & Ausburn, F. B. (1978). Cognitive Styles: Some Information and Implications for Instructional Design. Educational Communication and Technology, 26 (4).
Ayersman, D., & Minden, A. (1995). Individual Differences, Computers, and Instruction. Computers in Human Behavior, 20 (10), 1-20
Bachman, L. F., & Palmer, A. S. (1981). The Construct Validation of the FSI Oral Interview. Language Learning, 31.
Bachman, L. F., & Clark, J. L. D. (1987). The Measurement of Foreign/Second Language Proficiency. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 490.
Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: OUP.
Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Bennink, C. D. (1982), Individual Differences in Cognitive Style, Working Memory, and Semantic Integration. Journal of Research in Personality, 16 (3), 267-280.
Bert Hayslip. Jr., & Paul E. Panek (1989). Adult Development and Aging. Harper & Row Publishers, Inc.
Bergouist, W. H., Lloyd, J. T., & Johansson, S. L.(1973). Individual Differences among Repressors and Sensitizers in Conceptual skills. Social Behavior and Personality, 1(2).
Brodzinsky, D.M. (1982). Relationship between cognitive style and cognitive development: A 2-year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 18, 617-626.
Brown, H. Douglas. 1994. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Bonham, L.A. (1987). Theoretical and Practical Differences and Similarities among Selected Cognitive and Learning Styles of Adults: An Analysis of the Literature. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Georgia State University, Athens, Georgia.
Cairns, E. Malone, S., Johnston, J., & Cammock, T. (1985). Sex Differences in Children's Group Embedded Figures Test Performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 6(5).
Chapelle, C. (1988). Field Independence: A Source of Language Test Variance? Language Testing 5.
Chapelle, C., & Abraham, R. (1990). Cloze Method: What Difference does it Make? Language Testing 7.
Chapelle, C., & Green, P. (1992). Field Independence/Dependence in Second Language Acquisition Research. Language Learning 42.
Clark, J. L. D., & Clifford, R. T. (1988). The FSI/ILR/ACTFL Proficiency Scales and Testing Techniques: Development, Current Status, and Needed Research. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 10.
Chapelle, C. & Roberts, C. (1986). Ambiguity tolerance and field independence as predictors of proficiency in English as a second language. Language Learning, 36.
Clark, J. L. D., & Leet, J. (1988). A research agenda. In P. Lowe, Jr. & C. W. Stansfield (Eds.), Second Language Proficiency Assessment: Current Issues. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Clifford, R. T. (1978). Reliability and Validity of Language Aspects Contributing to Oral Proficiency of Prospective Teachers of German. In J. L. D. Clark (Ed.), Direct Testing of Speaking Proficiency: Theory and Application. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
Clifford, R. T. (1981). Convergent and Discriminant Validation of Integrated and Unitary Language Skills: The Need for a Research Model. In L. Palmer & B. Spolsky (Eds.), Papers in Language Testing: 1967-74 (pp. 62-70). Washington, DC: TESOL.
Das, J. P. (1988). Simultaneous-Successive Processing and Planning: Implications for School Learning. In R. Schmeck (Ed.), Learning Strategies and Learning Styles. New York: Plenum Press.
DeRussey, E. A. & Futch, E. (1971). Field Dependence-Independence as Related to College Curricula. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 33.
Dunn, R., DeBello, T., Brennan, P., Krimsky, J., & Murrain, P. (1981). Learning Style Researchers Define Differences Differently. Educational Leadership, 38.
Ellis, Rod. 1985. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Fritz, Robert (1992). A Study of Gender Differences in Cognitive Style and Conative Volition. Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC), ED354379,
Galton, F. (1883). Human Faculty and Development. London: Macmillan.
Gardner, R. W. (1961). Cognitive Controls of Attention Deployment as Determinants of Visual Illusions. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62.
Goldstein, K. M., & Blackman, S. (1978). Cognitive Style: Five Approaches and Relevant Research. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Hansen, J. & Stansfield, C. (1981). The Relationship of Field Dependent-Independent Cognitive Styles to Foreign Language Achievement. Language Learning, 31.
Holzman, P. S., & Klein, G. S. (1954). Cognitive System-Principles of Leveling and Sharpening: Individual Differences in Visual Time-error Assimilation Effects. Journal of Psychology, 37.
Hansen, L. (1984). Field Dependence-independence and Language Testing: Evidence from six Pacific Island Cultures. TESOL Quarterly, 18.
Hudson, L. (1966). Contrary Imaginations. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
J. Charles Alderson (1979a). The Cloze Procedure and Proficiency in English as a Foreign Language. TESOL Quarterly 13.
J. Charles Alderson, & Caroline Clapham, & Dianne Wall (1995). Language Test Construction and Evaluation. Cambridge University Press.
Jonassen, D. H., & Grabowski, B. L. (1993). Handbook of Individual Differences, Learning, and Instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kagan, J. (1965) Impusive and Reflective Children: Significance of Perceptual Tempo. In J.D. Krumboltz (Ed.) Learning and the Educational Process. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
Kelly, G. A. (1955). The Psychology of Personal Constructs (Vol.Ⅰ). New York: Norton.
Kini, A.S., 1994. Effects of Cognitive Style and Verbal and Visual Presentation Modes on Concept Learning in CBI. Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, L.A., 2-13, ERIC Document Service, ED371032.
Kirby, J. R. (1988). Style, Strategy, and Skills in Reading. In R. R. Schmeck (Ed.), Learning Strategies and Learning Styles. New York: Plenum Press.
Kogan, N., & Wallach, M. A. (1964). Risk-taking: A Study in Cognition and Personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
Kogan, N. (1971). Educational Implications of Cognitive Styles. In G. S. Lesser (Ed.), Psychology and Educationalpractice. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, & Company.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kurt Lewin (1951). Field Theory in Social Science. Harper & Brother Publishers, New York.
Lawrence, G. (1984). A Synthesis of Learning Style Research Involving MBTI. Journal of Psychological Type, 8.
Leithwood, K. A., & Montgomery, D. J. (1982). The Role of the Elementary School Principal in Program Improvement. Review of Educational Research, 52.
Letteri, Charles A. (1982). Cognitive Profiles: Examining Self-Planned Learning and Thinking Styles. Paper presentetd at American Education Research Assocation, New York, March.
Letteri, C. A. (1980). Cognitive Profile: Basic Determinant of Academic Achievement. Journal of Educational Research, 73, 195-199.
Lewenfeld, V. (1945). Tests for Visual and Haptical Aptitudes. American Journal of Psychology, 58.
Li Xiaoju (1997). The Science and Art of Language Testing, Hunan Education Press.
Lu,C.H. & Suen,H.K.(1995). Assessment Approach and Cognitive Style, Journal of Educational Measurement.
Messick, S. (Ed.) (1976). Individuality in Learning, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Moore, C. (1973). Styles of Teacher Behaviour Under Simulated Teaching Conditions. Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University.
Morf, M.E., Kavanaugh, R.D. & McConnville, M. (1971). Interest and Sex Difference on a Portable Rod-and-Frame Test., Perceptual Motor Skills, 32.
Negishi, M. (1996). Unpublished PhD thesis University of Reading.
Nitko, A. J. (1983). Educational Tests and Measurement: An Introduction. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Parlee, M. B., & Rajogopal, J. (1974). Sex Differences in the EFT: A Cross-cultural Comparison of College Students in India and the United States. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 39.
Pask, G. (1972). A Fresh Look at Cognition and the Individual. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 4.
Peters A. M. (1977). Languages Learning Strategies: Does the Whole Equal the Sum of the Parts? Language, 53.
Pilypas, H. (1997). The Use of the Computer as a Tool for Testing Reading Comprehension. Unpublished BEd Honours Thesis, School of Education, Flinders University, Adelaide.
Riding, R. J., & Taylor, E. M. (1976). Imagery Performance and Prose Comprehension in 7-year-old Children. Educational Studies (England), 2.
Richardson, A. (1977). Verbalizer-Visualizer: A Cognitive Style Dimension. Journal of Mental Imagery, 1(1).
Riding, R., & Cheema, I. (1991). Cognitive Styles -- An Overview and Integration. Educational Psychology, 11 (3-4).
Riding, R.J., Glass, A. and Douglas, G. (1993). Individual Differences in Thinking: Cognitive and Neurophysiological Perspectives. Special Issues: Thinking. Educational Psychology, 13 (3&4), 267-269.
Rye, J. (1982). Cloze Procedures and the Teaching of Reading. Heineman Educational, London.
Saarni, C.I. (1973). Piagetian Operations and Field Independence as Factors in Children's Problem-Solving Performance. Child Development. 44.
Sabir A. Alvi. Sar B.Khan and Sandra L.Vegeris (1986). A Cross-cultural Study of Psychological Differentiation. International Journal of Psychology 21.659-670.
Schmeck, R. R. (1983). Learning Styles of College Students. In R. F. Dillon & R. R. Schmeck (Eds.), Individual Differences in Cognition. New York: Academic Press.
Sherman. J. (1984) Field Articulation, Sex, Spatial Visualization, Dependency, Practice, Laterality of the Brain and Birth Order. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 38.
Stansfield, C., & Hansen, J. (1983). Field Dependence-independence as a Variable in Second
Language Cloze Test Performance. TESOL Quarterly, 17.
Shade, B. (1982). Afro-American Cognitive Style: A Variable in School Success? Review of Educational Research, 52.
Shohamy, E. (1983). Interrater and Intrarater Reliability of the Oral Interview and Concurrent Validity with Cloze Procedure in Hebrew. In J. W. Oller, Jr. (Ed.), Issues in Language Testing Research. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
Shohamy, E. (1983). The Stability of Oral Proficiency Assessment on the Oral Interview Testing Procedure. Language Learning, 33.
Shohamy, E. (1984). Does the Testing Method Make a Difference? The Case of Reading Comprehension. Language Testing, 1.
Shohamy, E. (1984). Input and Output in Language Testing. In T. Culhane, C. Klein-Braley, & D. K. Stevenson (Eds.), Practice and Problems in Language Testing. Occasional Papers, No. 29. Essex: Department of Language and Linguistics, University of Essex.
Tanaka, J. S., Panter, A. T., & Winborne, W. C. (1986-87). Associations between Daydreaming Style and Information Processing Predispositions. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 6 (2).
Takigami, Y. (1975). Sex Differences in Field Dependence. Japanese Psychological Review, 18 (1).
Taylor, W.L. (1953). Cloze Procedure: A New Tool for Measuring Readability. Journalism Quarterly.
Tennant, M. (1988). Psychology and Adult Learning. London: Routledge.
Torrance, E. P., & Rockenstein, Z. L. (1988). Styles of Thinking and Creativity. In R. R. Schmeck (Ed.), Learning Strategies and Learning Styles. New York: Plenum Press.
Torres, R. & Cano, J. (1994). Field Dependence/Independence of Students in a College of Agriculture. Proceedings of the National Agricultural Education Research Meeting. Dallas, TX. Vol. 21. pp 324-31.
Van Leeuwen. M.S. (1978) A Cross-Cultural Examination of Psychological Differentiation in Mal es and Females. International Journal of Psychology 13.
Witkin, H. A. (1962). Psychological Differentiation: Studies of Development. New York: Wiley.
Witkin, H.A., P.K. Oltman, E.Raskin, and S.A. Karp. (1971)A Manual for the Embedded Figures
Test. California: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Wiktin, H.A., Oltman, P.K., Raskin, E., & Karp, S. A. (1971). Group Embedded Figures Test Manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Witkin, H.A. and Berry, J.W. (1975) Psychological Differentiation in Cross-cultural Perspective. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 6, 4-87.
Witkin, H. A. & Goodenough, D. (1981). Cognitive Styles: Essence and Origins - Field Dependence and Field Independence. New York: International Universities Press.
Witkin, H.A., C.A. Moore, D.R. Goodenough, and P.W. Cox. (1997). Field-Dependent and Field-Independent Styles and their Educational Implication. Review of Educational Research 47
谢斯骏、张厚粲(1988)．《认知方式——一个人格维度的实验研究》．北京师范大学出版社。
Allport, G. W. (1937). Personality: a Psychological Interpretation. New York: Holt & Co.
Anderson, J. 1976. Psycholinguistic Experiments in Foreign Language Testing. University of Queensland Press, St Lucia.
Atman, K. S. (1988). Psychological Type Elements and Goal Accomplishment Style: Implications for Distance Education. The American Journal of Distance Education, 2 (3).
Ausburn, L. J., & Ausburn, F. B. (1978). Cognitive Styles: Some Information and Implications for Instructional Design. Educational Communication and Technology, 26 (4).
Ayersman, D., & Minden, A. (1995). Individual Differences, Computers, and Instruction. Computers in Human Behavior, 20 (10), 1-20
Bachman, L. F., & Palmer, A. S. (1981). The Construct Validation of the FSI Oral Interview. Language Learning, 31.
Bachman, L. F., & Clark, J. L. D. (1987). The Measurement of Foreign/Second Language Proficiency. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 490.
Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: OUP.
Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Bennink, C. D. (1982), Individual Differences in Cognitive Style, Working Memory, and Semantic Integration. Journal of Research in Personality, 16 (3), 267-280.
Bert Hayslip. Jr., & Paul E. Panek (1989). Adult Development and Aging. Harper & Row Publishers, Inc.
Bergouist, W. H., Lloyd, J. T., & Johansson, S. L.(1973). Individual Differences among Repressors and Sensitizers in Conceptual skills. Social Behavior and Personality, 1(2).
Brodzinsky, D.M. (1982). Relationship between cognitive style and cognitive development: A 2-year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 18, 617-626.
Brown, H. Douglas. 1994. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Bonham, L.A. (1987). Theoretical and Practical Differences and Similarities among Selected Cognitive and Learning Styles of Adults: An Analysis of the Literature. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Georgia State University, Athens, Georgia.
Cairns, E. Malone, S., Johnston, J., & Cammock, T. (1985). Sex Differences in Children's Group Embedded Figures Test Performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 6(5).
Chapelle, C. (1988). Field Independence: A Source of Language Test Variance? Language Testing 5.
Chapelle, C., & Abraham, R. (1990). Cloze Method: What Difference does it Make? Language Testing 7.
Chapelle, C., & Green, P. (1992). Field Independence/Dependence in Second Language Acquisition Research. Language Learning 42.
Clark, J. L. D., & Clifford, R. T. (1988). The FSI/ILR/ACTFL Proficiency Scales and Testing Techniques: Development, Current Status, and Needed Research. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 10.
Chapelle, C. & Roberts, C. (1986). Ambiguity tolerance and field independence as predictors of proficiency in English as a second language. Language Learning, 36.
Clark, J. L. D., & Leet, J. (1988). A research agenda. In P. Lowe, Jr. & C. W. Stansfield (Eds.), Second Language Proficiency Assessment: Current Issues. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Clifford, R. T. (1978). Reliability and Validity of Language Aspects Contributing to Oral Proficiency of Prospective Teachers of German. In J. L. D. Clark (Ed.), Direct Testing of Speaking Proficiency: Theory and Application. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
Clifford, R. T. (1981). Convergent and Discriminant Validation of Integrated and Unitary Language Skills: The Need for a Research Model. In L. Palmer & B. Spolsky (Eds.), Papers in Language Testing: 1967-74 (pp. 62-70). Washington, DC: TESOL.
Das, J. P. (1988). Simultaneous-Successive Processing and Planning: Implications for School Learning. In R. Schmeck (Ed.), Learning Strategies and Learning Styles. New York: Plenum Press.
DeRussey, E. A. & Futch, E. (1971). Field Dependence-Independence as Related to College Curricula. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 33.
Dunn, R., DeBello, T., Brennan, P., Krimsky, J., & Murrain, P. (1981). Learning Style Researchers Define Differences Differently. Educational Leadership, 38.
Ellis, Rod. 1985. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Fritz, Robert (1992). A Study of Gender Differences in Cognitive Style and Conative Volition. Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC), ED354379,
Galton, F. (1883). Human Faculty and Development. London: Macmillan.
Gardner, R. W. (1961). Cognitive Controls of Attention Deployment as Determinants of Visual Illusions. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62.
Goldstein, K. M., & Blackman, S. (1978). Cognitive Style: Five Approaches and Relevant Research. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Hansen, J. & Stansfield, C. (1981). The Relationship of Field Dependent-Independent Cognitive Styles to Foreign Language Achievement. Language Learning, 31.
Holzman, P. S., & Klein, G. S. (1954). Cognitive System-Principles of Leveling and Sharpening: Individual Differences in Visual Time-error Assimilation Effects. Journal of Psychology, 37.
Hansen, L. (1984). Field Dependence-independence and Language Testing: Evidence from six Pacific Island Cultures. TESOL Quarterly, 18.
Hudson, L. (1966). Contrary Imaginations. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
J. Charles Alderson (1979a). The Cloze Procedure and Proficiency in English as a Foreign Language. TESOL Quarterly 13.
J. Charles Alderson, & Caroline Clapham, & Dianne Wall (1995). Language Test Construction and Evaluation. Cambridge University Press.
Jonassen, D. H., & Grabowski, B. L. (1993). Handbook of Individual Differences, Learning, and Instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kagan, J. (1965) Impusive and Reflective Children: Significance of Perceptual Tempo. In J.D. Krumboltz (Ed.) Learning and the Educational Process. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
Kelly, G. A. (1955). The Psychology of Personal Constructs (Vol.Ⅰ). New York: Norton.
Kini, A.S., 1994. Effects of Cognitive Style and Verbal and Visual Presentation Modes on Concept Learning in CBI. Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, L.A., 2-13, ERIC Document Service, ED371032.
Kirby, J. R. (1988). Style, Strategy, and Skills in Reading. In R. R. Schmeck (Ed.), Learning Strategies and Learning Styles. New York: Plenum Press.
Kogan, N., & Wallach, M. A. (1964). Risk-taking: A Study in Cognition and Personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
Kogan, N. (1971). Educational Implications of Cognitive Styles. In G. S. Lesser (Ed.), Psychology and Educationalpractice. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, & Company.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kurt Lewin (1951). Field Theory in Social Science. Harper & Brother Publishers, New York.
Lawrence, G. (1984). A Synthesis of Learning Style Research Involving MBTI. Journal of Psychological Type, 8.
Leithwood, K. A., & Montgomery, D. J. (1982). The Role of the Elementary School Principal in Program Improvement. Review of Educational Research, 52.
Letteri, Charles A. (1982). Cognitive Profiles: Examining Self-Planned Learning and Thinking Styles. Paper presentetd at American Education Research Assocation, New York, March.
Letteri, C. A. (1980). Cognitive Profile: Basic Determinant of Academic Achievement. Journal of Educational Research, 73, 195-199.
Lewenfeld, V. (1945). Tests for Visual and Haptical Aptitudes. American Journal of Psychology, 58.
Li Xiaoju (1997). The Science and Art of Language Testing, Hunan Education Press.
Lu,C.H. & Suen,H.K.(1995). Assessment Approach and Cognitive Style, Journal of Educational Measurement.
Messick, S. (Ed.) (1976). Individuality in Learning, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Moore, C. (1973). Styles of Teacher Behaviour Under Simulated Teaching Conditions. Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University.
Morf, M.E., Kavanaugh, R.D. & McConnville, M. (1971). Interest and Sex Difference on a Portable Rod-and-Frame Test., Perceptual Motor Skills, 32.
Negishi, M. (1996). Unpublished PhD thesis University of Reading.
Nitko, A. J. (1983). Educational Tests and Measurement: An Introduction. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Parlee, M. B., & Rajogopal, J. (1974). Sex Differences in the EFT: A Cross-cultural Comparison of College Students in India and the United States. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 39.
Pask, G. (1972). A Fresh Look at Cognition and the Individual. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 4.
Peters A. M. (1977). Languages Learning Strategies: Does the Whole Equal the Sum of the Parts? Language, 53.
Pilypas, H. (1997). The Use of the Computer as a Tool for Testing Reading Comprehension. Unpublished BEd Honours Thesis, School of Education, Flinders University, Adelaide.
Riding, R. J., & Taylor, E. M. (1976). Imagery Performance and Prose Comprehension in 7-year-old Children. Educational Studies (England), 2.
Richardson, A. (1977). Verbalizer-Visualizer: A Cognitive Style Dimension. Journal of Mental Imagery, 1(1).
Riding, R., & Cheema, I. (1991). Cognitive Styles -- An Overview and Integration. Educational Psychology, 11 (3-4).
Riding, R.J., Glass, A. and Douglas, G. (1993). Individual Differences in Thinking: Cognitive and Neurophysiological Perspectives. Special Issues: Thinking. Educational Psychology, 13 (3&4), 267-269.
Rye, J. (1982). Cloze Procedures and the Teaching of Reading. Heineman Educational, London.
Saarni, C.I. (1973). Piagetian Operations and Field Independence as Factors in Children's Problem-Solving Performance. Child Development. 44.
Sabir A. Alvi. Sar B.Khan and Sandra L.Vegeris (1986). A Cross-cultural Study of Psychological Differentiation. International Journal of Psychology 21.659-670.
Schmeck, R. R. (1983). Learning Styles of College Students. In R. F. Dillon & R. R. Schmeck (Eds.), Individual Differences in Cognition. New York: Academic Press.
Sherman. J. (1984) Field Articulation, Sex, Spatial Visualization, Dependency, Practice, Laterality of the Brain and Birth Order. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 38.
Stansfield, C., & Hansen, J. (1983). Field Dependence-independence as a Variable in Second
Language Cloze Test Performance. TESOL Quarterly, 17.
Shade, B. (1982). Afro-American Cognitive Style: A Variable in School Success? Review of Educational Research, 52.
Shohamy, E. (1983). Interrater and Intrarater Reliability of the Oral Interview and Concurrent Validity with Cloze Procedure in Hebrew. In J. W. Oller, Jr. (Ed.), Issues in Language Testing Research. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
Shohamy, E. (1983). The Stability of Oral Proficiency Assessment on the Oral Interview Testing Procedure. Language Learning, 33.
Shohamy, E. (1984). Does the Testing Method Make a Difference? The Case of Reading Comprehension. Language Testing, 1.
Shohamy, E. (1984). Input and Output in Language Testing. In T. Culhane, C. Klein-Braley, & D. K. Stevenson (Eds.), Practice and Problems in Language Testing. Occasional Papers, No. 29. Essex: Department of Language and Linguistics, University of Essex.
Tanaka, J. S., Panter, A. T., & Winborne, W. C. (1986-87). Associations between Daydreaming Style and Information Processing Predispositions. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 6 (2).
Takigami, Y. (1975). Sex Differences in Field Dependence. Japanese Psychological Review, 18 (1).
Taylor, W.L. (1953). Cloze Procedure: A New Tool for Measuring Readability. Journalism Quarterly.
Tennant, M. (1988). Psychology and Adult Learning. London: Routledge.
Torrance, E. P., & Rockenstein, Z. L. (1988). Styles of Thinking and Creativity. In R. R. Schmeck (Ed.), Learning Strategies and Learning Styles. New York: Plenum Press.
Torres, R. & Cano, J. (1994). Field Dependence/Independence of Students in a College of Agriculture. Proceedings of the National Agricultural Education Research Meeting. Dallas, TX. Vol. 21. pp 324-31.
Van Leeuwen. M.S. (1978) A Cross-Cultural Examination of Psychological Differentiation in Mal es and Females. International Journal of Psychology 13.
Witkin, H. A. (1962). Psychological Differentiation: Studies of Development. New York: Wiley.
Witkin, H.A., P.K. Oltman, E.Raskin, and S.A. Karp. (1971)A Manual for the Embedded Figures
Test. California: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Wiktin, H.A., Oltman, P.K., Raskin, E., & Karp, S. A. (1971). Group Embedded Figures Test Manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Witkin, H.A. and Berry, J.W. (1975) Psychological Differentiation in Cross-cultural Perspective. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 6, 4-87.
Witkin, H. A. & Goodenough, D. (1981). Cognitive Styles: Essence and Origins - Field Dependence and Field Independence. New York: International Universities Press.
Witkin, H.A., C.A. Moore, D.R. Goodenough, and P.W. Cox. (1997). Field-Dependent and Field-Independent Styles and their Educational Implication. Review of Educational Research 47
谢斯骏、张厚粲(1988)．《认知方式——一个人格维度的实验研究》．北京师范大学出版社。