菜地土壤温室气体氧化亚氮排放及其控制研究
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摘要
氧化亚氮(N2O)是一种重要的温室气体,它既有产生温室效应的作用,又可以破坏臭氧层。现有研究表明农业生态系统是产生N2O的主要来源。目前,关于粮食作物如水稻、小麦等生态系统中N20排放的研究较多,而关于蔬菜生产系统中N2O排放的研究较少,尤其是华中地区尚鲜见报导。因此,本文在总结国内外产生N2O的主要来源及其影响因素的研究基础上,通过室内模拟试验、原状土柱试验和大田试验,以武汉市城郊典型菜地土壤(黄棕壤)为研究对象,以小白菜、辣椒、苋菜、菠菜、萝卜和莴苣为供试蔬菜,深入探讨氮肥施用对武汉城郊菜地土壤N2O排放的影响,揭示菜地系统土壤N2O排放规律及其与环境因子如土壤水分和温度的关系。同时,在新西兰牧草地系统施用硝化抑制剂双氰胺(DCD)显著减少土壤N2O排放的基础上,研究了DCD施用至菜地系统对N2O排放的减排效果,总结提出了武汉城郊菜地控制土壤N2O排放的主要方法和措施,为蔬菜的可持续生产和土壤N2O减排提供了科学依据。主要研究结果如下：
1.采用室内培养试验和原状土柱试验研究了不同施氮水平对武汉市城郊区菜地系统土壤N2O排放的影响。室内培养试验结果表明：施氮显著提高土壤N2O排放速率和排放总量。N2O排放随着施氮量的增加而增加,N0、N1和N2处理土壤N2O排放总量分别是0.2、6.41、10.40 mg kg-1土。土柱试验研究结果表明：土壤N2O排放通量、N2O排放总量和N2O排放系数均随着施氮水平的增加而增加,土壤N2O平均年排放总量分别为0.8 kg N ha-1 (N0)、1.68 kg N ha-1 (N1)、5.44 kg N ha-1 (N2)和13.51 kg N ha-1 (N3),各施氮处理土壤N2O排放系数年平均值为0.36%(N1)、0.54%(N2)和1.21%(N3)。此外,高施氮水平(N2和N3)下土壤N2O排放通量与土壤硝态氮含量以和铵态氮含量呈显著线性关系,而在低施氮水平(N1)和未施氮处理时,土壤N2O排放通量与土壤中无机态氮含量之间无显著线性关系。同时,土壤N2O排放总量与不同施氮量间呈显著的指数函数关系。大田试验验证了土柱试验研究结果,其研究结果与土柱试验一致。
2.采用原状土柱试验和大田试验研究了种植不同种类蔬菜土壤N20排放的差异。原状土柱试验结果表明：土壤N2O平均日排放量大小排序依次为：苋菜>辣椒>萝卜>小白菜>莴苣>菠菜；除N3处理,同一施氮水平下,连续两年同一时间种植同种蔬菜(辣椒和苋菜)土壤N2O平均日排放量相似。大田试验结果表明种植辣椒期间土壤N2O平均日排放量最大,其排放量范围为2.29～55.40 g ha-1d-1,而种植菠菜期间土壤N2O平均日排放量最小,排放范围为1.43～7.86 g ha-1d-1;土壤N2O平均日排放量大小顺序依次为辣椒>萝卜>小白菜>菠菜。
3.采用室内培养试验和原状土柱试验研究了土壤水分对土壤N2O排放的影响。结果表明：土壤水分由WFPS 35%提高至WFPS 85%时,土壤N2O排放总量随着土壤水分的提高而增加,而当土壤水分为WFPS 110%时,土壤N2O排放总量反而下降。N2O排放总量最大是WFPS 85%,最小的是WFPS 35%。排放系数变化范围是0.02～3.11%(N1)和0.02～2.25%(N2)。此外,原状土柱试验结果也表明,土壤N20高排放通量集中在降雨量大的4月份至9月份,占总排放量的77%,且未施氮处理,土壤N2O排放通量与土壤水分呈极显著线性相关关系。
4.采用室内培养试验和原状土柱试验研究了土壤温度对N2O排放的影响。室内培养试验结果表明：同一施氮水平下,且当土壤水分变化较小时,土壤N2O日排放变化主要受温度的影响,士壤N2O释放速率随土壤温度的升高而增加,随着温度的降低而减小,在温度最高时达到排放峰。同一施氮水平下,当土壤水分变化较大时,N2O释放速率峰值出现在适宜的水分且温度较高时,说明土壤N2O释放速率受土壤温度和水分共同影响。原状土柱试验结果表明,土壤温度影响N2O排放季节变化规律,表现为N2O高排放通量集中在4月份至9月份,而在温度较低的冬季,各施氮处理N20的排放量都较小(<64.5μg m-2h-1),且当温度低于5℃时,N20排放通量几乎接近于0。未施氮处理下土壤N20排放通量与土壤温度呈极显著线性关系。
5.本文采用原状土柱试验研究了种植蔬菜地与裸地N2O排放差异。结果表明,裸地土壤N2O排放量远大于种植蔬菜地土壤,裸地土壤N2O平均排放通量为193μgm-2h-1,种植蔬菜后土壤N2O平均排放通量减少至60μg m-2h-1。同时,低施氮量(T1,500 kg N ha-1)下裸地N2O排放量比高施氮量(T2,750 kg N ha-1)种植蔬菜时大,即2007年10月至2008年9月试验期间,T1处理下裸地总N2O-N排放量为9.54 kg ha-1,而T2处理下总N2O-N排放量仅为4.21 kg ha-1。此外,未种植作物时裸地土壤N2O排放系数远大于种植蔬菜时,T1种植蔬菜时为0.39%,而未种植蔬菜时裸地土壤为1.76%。
6.采用原状土柱试验和大田试验研究了氮肥施用对蔬菜产量的影响及其与土壤N2O排放量的关系。试验结果表明蔬菜产量随着氮肥用量的增加先上升再下降,氮肥利用率随着施氮量的增加而降低,氮肥利用率与氮肥用量呈显著的指数函数相关关系。相反,各季蔬菜土壤N2O排放总量却随施氮量的增加而增加。因此说明适宜的氮肥施用量不仅可以保证蔬菜高产量,还会减少土壤N20排放,减轻氮肥施用对环境的影响。
7.采用土柱试验研究施用硝化抑制剂双氰胺(DCD)对减少牧草地系统土壤N2O排放的影响。结果表明：施用DCD在夏季和冬季均显著减少土壤N2O排放。夏季N2O排放总量为7.8 kg N2O-N ha-1(氮肥施用量：1000 kg N ha-1),而冬季比夏季排放量高为12.3kg N2O-N ha-1。而当施入DCD后,夏季N2O排放总量则减少至4.8kg N2O-N ha-1,冬季则减少至3.9 kg N2O-N ha-1,相当于DCD减少了40%(夏季)和69%(冬季)N2O排放。因此说明,新西兰牧草地系统中N2O在冬季的排放远高于夏季排放,同时,DCD在冬季的减排效果也远高于夏季。
8.采用原状土柱试验研究施用硝化抑制剂DCD对菜地土壤N2O排放的影响。结果表明：施用DCD显著降低菜地系统土壤N2O排放通量和N2O排放总量,施氮处理下施用DCD减少了49.33%(小白菜)和50.9%(辣椒)的土壤N2O排放；未施氮处理时,土壤N2O排放总量较低,但施用DCD依然减少了33.5%(小白菜)和33.4%(辣椒)N2O排放。同时,DCD降低了土壤N2O排放系数,小白菜未施用DCD时土壤N2O排放系数(EF)为0.15%,施DCD时则减少到0.07%,辣椒未施用DCD时土壤N2O排放系数为0.99%,施入DCD则减少到0.52%。由此说明,DCD是减少土壤N2O排放的一项有效措施。
Nitrous oxide (N2O) is an important greenhouse gas, and it can result in greenhouse effect and destruct the ozone layer. Up to now, some researches show that application of nitrogen fertilizer to agricultural system is the major source of N2O in the atmosphere. In China, many researches have been reported on N2O emissions from cereal fields, but not much studies has been done on N2O emissions from vegetable fields, especially in Central China. Therefore, based on the summary of the major sources and factors of N2O emission from soil, indoor incubation, undisturbed lysimeter and field experiments were conducted to study the N2O emission from the Wuhan suburb vegetable soils. The tested soil was Alfisols (yellow-brown soil) and sampled from Wuhan suburb. The vegetables of pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), amaranth (Amaranthus mangostanus L.), radish (Raphanus sativus L.), spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.), lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) and Chinese cabbage (Brassica Chinensis L.) were planted. The objective of this study was to reveal the effects of nitrogen fertilization on N2O emission from vegetable system, and the relationships between N2O and soil moisture, soil temperature, as well as the mitigation impacts of dicyandiamide (DCD) in reducing N2O emission from grazed grassland in New Zealand and vegetable system in Wuhan suburb, in order to provide the measures of controlling N2O emission in Wuhan suburb vegetable system, and a scientific basis for the sustainable production of vegetables. The main results were as follows.
1. Indoor incubation and undisturbed soil monolith lysimeter experiments were conducted to study the effects of nitrogen fertilizer application rates on N2O emission from vegetable soil. Indoor incubation experiment showed that nitrogen fertilization significantly increased N2O emission flux and total N2O emission. The N2O emission increased with the increasing of nitrogen application rate. Total N2O emission from three nitrogen treatments (N0, N1 and N2) were 0.2,6.41,10.40 mg kg-1 soil, respectively. Lysimeter experiment also revealed that nitrogen fertilization significantly increased N2O emission and emission factor (EF) from vegetable system. The average annul total N2O emission were 0.8 kg N ha-1 of N0,1.68 kg N ha-1 of N1,5.44 kg N ha-1 of N2 and 13.51 kg N ha-1 of N3, and the average emission factor of three nitrogen treatments (N1, N2, N3) were 0.36%,0.54% and 1.21%, respectively. In addition, N2O emission from high nitrogen treatments (N2 and N3) had a significant liner relationship with the contents of soil nitrate nitrogen and ammonium nitrogen, but they had no relationships under low level of nitrogen application rates (N0 and N1). Total N2O emission had an exponential relationship with nitrogen fertilizer application rates. The filed trial of nitrogen fertilization verified the above results.
2. Undisturbed soil monolith lysimeter and field experiments were conducted to study the N2O emission from different kinds of vegetables. The results of lysimeter experiment showed that the average of daily N2O emission ranked in the order of amaranth, pepper, radish, Chinese cabbage, lettuce and spinach. Except N3 treatment, the average of daily N2O emission from the same vegetables (amaranth and pepper) that planted in two years was similar. The results of field experiment showed that the highest average of daily N2O emission was pepper, which varied from 2.29～55.40 g ha-1d-1, while spinach had the lowest emission, which ranged from 1.43～7.86 g ha-1d-1. The average of daily N2O emission ranked in the order of pepper, radish, Chinese cabbage and spinach.
3. Indoor incubation and undisturbed soil monolith lysimeter experiments were conducted to study the effects of soil moisture on N2O emission. The results of incubation experiment revealed that the total N2O emission increased by soil moisture when soil moisture varied from WFPS 35% to WFPS 85%, but the total N2O emission decreased when soil moisture increased to WFPS 110%. The highest total N2O emission occurred when soil moisture was WFPS 85%, while the lowest one occurred when soil moisture was WFPS 35%. Emission factor varied from 0.02～3.11%(N1) and 0.02-2.25%(N2). In addition, the results from lysimeter experiment showed that the higher N2O emission occurred between April and September when most of rainfall occurred, which accounted for 77% of total N2O emission. Meanwhile, there was a liner relationship between N2O emission and soil moisture in the treatment without nitrogen fertilizer application.
4. Indoor incubation and undisturbed soil monolith lysimeter experiments were conducted to study the effects of soil temperature on N2O emission. Incubation experiment showed that N2O daily emission increased by the increase of soil temperature and the peak emission occurred at the highest temperature when soil moisture was relatively stable. However, when soil moisture changed a lot in one day, the peak emission of N2O occurred at appropriate soil moisture and relatively high soil temperature, which meant that both soil moisture and temperature affected the daily change of N2O emission in this vegetable system. Lysimeter experiment revealed that the seasonal variation of N2O emission was mainly influenced by soil temperature, and the high emissions of N2O occurred between April and September, corresponding to the warm and wet soil condition. N2O emissions were very low (<64.5μg m-2 h-1) during the late winter to early spring due to the low soil temperature, and the daily N2O emission was around background level when soil temperature was less than 5℃. Meanwhile, there was a liner relationship between N2O emission and soil temperature in no nitrogen applied treatment.
5. Undisturbed soil monolith lysimeter was used to investigate the difference of nitrous oxide (N2O) emission from the bare soil with N fertilizer application and the soil with vegetable planted. Results showed that N2O emission from the bare soil exceed those from the soil with vegetable planted. The average N2O emission flux from the bare soil was 193μg m-2 h-1, while it decreased to 60μg m-2 h-1 with the vegetables planted. Meanwhile, total N2O emission from the bare soil with lower nitrogen fertilizer applied (T1,500 kg N ha-1) (9.54 kg ha-1) was greater than that from the soil with higher nitrogen fertilizer applied (T2,750 kg N ha-1) (4.21 kg ha-1) during the experimental period (October 2007-September 2008). In addition, N2O emission factor from the bare soil (1.76%) was more than that from the soil with vegetable planted (0.39%).
6. Undisturbed soil monolith lysimeter and field experiments were used to investigate the effects of nitrogen fertilizer on vegetable yield and its relationship with N2O emission. The results showed that the yield of vegetables first increased then decreased by the elevated nitrogen fertilizer rates. But, nitrogen use efficiency decreased by the increasing nitrogen application rates. Nitrogen use efficiency had an exponential relationship with nitrogen fertilizer application rates. In contrast, total N2O emission increased by the elevated nitrogen application rates. The results suggested that there is an opportunity to reduce N fertilizer application rate in this vegetable production system, though which can reduce N2O emissions.
7. Undisturbed soil monolith lysimeter experiment was used to study the effectiveness of DCD in reducing N2O emissions under winter and summer seasons in grazed grassland in New Zealand. Results showed that DCD significant decreased N2O emission both in summer and winter seasons. Total N2O-N emissions from urine-N applied at 1000 kg N ha-1 were 7.8 kg N2O-N ha-1 in the summer season and it was much lower than that emitted during the winter season (12.3 kg N2O-N ha-1). The application of DCD reduced summer N2O-N emissions to 4.8 kg N2O-N ha-1 in summer and 3.9 kg N2O-N ha-1 in winter, representing 40% and 69% reductions, respectively. The results demonstrated that N2O emissions from animal urine-N in grazed pastures were much higher in the winter season than that in the summer season, and DCD was more effective in reducing N2O emissions in the high emitting winter season.
8. Undisturbed soil monolith lysimeter was used to investigate the effectiveness of DCD in reducing N2O emissions in vegetable system. Results showed that DCD significantly decreased total N2O emission in vegetable system. With nitrogen fertilizer applied, DCD reduced 49.3%,50.9% total N2O emission of cabbage and pepper, respectively. And in without nitrogen applied treatment, DCD also reduced 33.5%,33.4% total N2O emission. In addition, DCD decreased N2O emission factor, the emission factor decreased from 0.15% (without DCD) to 0.07% (with DCD) of cabbage, and 0.99% (without DCD) to 0.52%(with DCD) of pepper. These results demonstrated the potential of using nitrification inhibitors to mitigate N2O emissions both in grazed pasture soils and in vegetable system.
1.采用室内培养试验和原状土柱试验研究了不同施氮水平对武汉市城郊区菜地系统土壤N2O排放的影响。室内培养试验结果表明：施氮显著提高土壤N2O排放速率和排放总量。N2O排放随着施氮量的增加而增加,N0、N1和N2处理土壤N2O排放总量分别是0.2、6.41、10.40 mg kg-1土。土柱试验研究结果表明：土壤N2O排放通量、N2O排放总量和N2O排放系数均随着施氮水平的增加而增加,土壤N2O平均年排放总量分别为0.8 kg N ha-1 (N0)、1.68 kg N ha-1 (N1)、5.44 kg N ha-1 (N2)和13.51 kg N ha-1 (N3),各施氮处理土壤N2O排放系数年平均值为0.36%(N1)、0.54%(N2)和1.21%(N3)。此外,高施氮水平(N2和N3)下土壤N2O排放通量与土壤硝态氮含量以和铵态氮含量呈显著线性关系,而在低施氮水平(N1)和未施氮处理时,土壤N2O排放通量与土壤中无机态氮含量之间无显著线性关系。同时,土壤N2O排放总量与不同施氮量间呈显著的指数函数关系。大田试验验证了土柱试验研究结果,其研究结果与土柱试验一致。
2.采用原状土柱试验和大田试验研究了种植不同种类蔬菜土壤N20排放的差异。原状土柱试验结果表明：土壤N2O平均日排放量大小排序依次为：苋菜>辣椒>萝卜>小白菜>莴苣>菠菜；除N3处理,同一施氮水平下,连续两年同一时间种植同种蔬菜(辣椒和苋菜)土壤N2O平均日排放量相似。大田试验结果表明种植辣椒期间土壤N2O平均日排放量最大,其排放量范围为2.29～55.40 g ha-1d-1,而种植菠菜期间土壤N2O平均日排放量最小,排放范围为1.43～7.86 g ha-1d-1;土壤N2O平均日排放量大小顺序依次为辣椒>萝卜>小白菜>菠菜。
3.采用室内培养试验和原状土柱试验研究了土壤水分对土壤N2O排放的影响。结果表明：土壤水分由WFPS 35%提高至WFPS 85%时,土壤N2O排放总量随着土壤水分的提高而增加,而当土壤水分为WFPS 110%时,土壤N2O排放总量反而下降。N2O排放总量最大是WFPS 85%,最小的是WFPS 35%。排放系数变化范围是0.02～3.11%(N1)和0.02～2.25%(N2)。此外,原状土柱试验结果也表明,土壤N20高排放通量集中在降雨量大的4月份至9月份,占总排放量的77%,且未施氮处理,土壤N2O排放通量与土壤水分呈极显著线性相关关系。
4.采用室内培养试验和原状土柱试验研究了土壤温度对N2O排放的影响。室内培养试验结果表明：同一施氮水平下,且当土壤水分变化较小时,土壤N2O日排放变化主要受温度的影响,士壤N2O释放速率随土壤温度的升高而增加,随着温度的降低而减小,在温度最高时达到排放峰。同一施氮水平下,当土壤水分变化较大时,N2O释放速率峰值出现在适宜的水分且温度较高时,说明土壤N2O释放速率受土壤温度和水分共同影响。原状土柱试验结果表明,土壤温度影响N2O排放季节变化规律,表现为N2O高排放通量集中在4月份至9月份,而在温度较低的冬季,各施氮处理N20的排放量都较小(<64.5μg m-2h-1),且当温度低于5℃时,N20排放通量几乎接近于0。未施氮处理下土壤N20排放通量与土壤温度呈极显著线性关系。
5.本文采用原状土柱试验研究了种植蔬菜地与裸地N2O排放差异。结果表明,裸地土壤N2O排放量远大于种植蔬菜地土壤,裸地土壤N2O平均排放通量为193μgm-2h-1,种植蔬菜后土壤N2O平均排放通量减少至60μg m-2h-1。同时,低施氮量(T1,500 kg N ha-1)下裸地N2O排放量比高施氮量(T2,750 kg N ha-1)种植蔬菜时大,即2007年10月至2008年9月试验期间,T1处理下裸地总N2O-N排放量为9.54 kg ha-1,而T2处理下总N2O-N排放量仅为4.21 kg ha-1。此外,未种植作物时裸地土壤N2O排放系数远大于种植蔬菜时,T1种植蔬菜时为0.39%,而未种植蔬菜时裸地土壤为1.76%。
6.采用原状土柱试验和大田试验研究了氮肥施用对蔬菜产量的影响及其与土壤N2O排放量的关系。试验结果表明蔬菜产量随着氮肥用量的增加先上升再下降,氮肥利用率随着施氮量的增加而降低,氮肥利用率与氮肥用量呈显著的指数函数相关关系。相反,各季蔬菜土壤N2O排放总量却随施氮量的增加而增加。因此说明适宜的氮肥施用量不仅可以保证蔬菜高产量,还会减少土壤N20排放,减轻氮肥施用对环境的影响。
7.采用土柱试验研究施用硝化抑制剂双氰胺(DCD)对减少牧草地系统土壤N2O排放的影响。结果表明：施用DCD在夏季和冬季均显著减少土壤N2O排放。夏季N2O排放总量为7.8 kg N2O-N ha-1(氮肥施用量：1000 kg N ha-1),而冬季比夏季排放量高为12.3kg N2O-N ha-1。而当施入DCD后,夏季N2O排放总量则减少至4.8kg N2O-N ha-1,冬季则减少至3.9 kg N2O-N ha-1,相当于DCD减少了40%(夏季)和69%(冬季)N2O排放。因此说明,新西兰牧草地系统中N2O在冬季的排放远高于夏季排放,同时,DCD在冬季的减排效果也远高于夏季。
8.采用原状土柱试验研究施用硝化抑制剂DCD对菜地土壤N2O排放的影响。结果表明：施用DCD显著降低菜地系统土壤N2O排放通量和N2O排放总量,施氮处理下施用DCD减少了49.33%(小白菜)和50.9%(辣椒)的土壤N2O排放；未施氮处理时,土壤N2O排放总量较低,但施用DCD依然减少了33.5%(小白菜)和33.4%(辣椒)N2O排放。同时,DCD降低了土壤N2O排放系数,小白菜未施用DCD时土壤N2O排放系数(EF)为0.15%,施DCD时则减少到0.07%,辣椒未施用DCD时土壤N2O排放系数为0.99%,施入DCD则减少到0.52%。由此说明,DCD是减少土壤N2O排放的一项有效措施。
Nitrous oxide (N2O) is an important greenhouse gas, and it can result in greenhouse effect and destruct the ozone layer. Up to now, some researches show that application of nitrogen fertilizer to agricultural system is the major source of N2O in the atmosphere. In China, many researches have been reported on N2O emissions from cereal fields, but not much studies has been done on N2O emissions from vegetable fields, especially in Central China. Therefore, based on the summary of the major sources and factors of N2O emission from soil, indoor incubation, undisturbed lysimeter and field experiments were conducted to study the N2O emission from the Wuhan suburb vegetable soils. The tested soil was Alfisols (yellow-brown soil) and sampled from Wuhan suburb. The vegetables of pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), amaranth (Amaranthus mangostanus L.), radish (Raphanus sativus L.), spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.), lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) and Chinese cabbage (Brassica Chinensis L.) were planted. The objective of this study was to reveal the effects of nitrogen fertilization on N2O emission from vegetable system, and the relationships between N2O and soil moisture, soil temperature, as well as the mitigation impacts of dicyandiamide (DCD) in reducing N2O emission from grazed grassland in New Zealand and vegetable system in Wuhan suburb, in order to provide the measures of controlling N2O emission in Wuhan suburb vegetable system, and a scientific basis for the sustainable production of vegetables. The main results were as follows.
1. Indoor incubation and undisturbed soil monolith lysimeter experiments were conducted to study the effects of nitrogen fertilizer application rates on N2O emission from vegetable soil. Indoor incubation experiment showed that nitrogen fertilization significantly increased N2O emission flux and total N2O emission. The N2O emission increased with the increasing of nitrogen application rate. Total N2O emission from three nitrogen treatments (N0, N1 and N2) were 0.2,6.41,10.40 mg kg-1 soil, respectively. Lysimeter experiment also revealed that nitrogen fertilization significantly increased N2O emission and emission factor (EF) from vegetable system. The average annul total N2O emission were 0.8 kg N ha-1 of N0,1.68 kg N ha-1 of N1,5.44 kg N ha-1 of N2 and 13.51 kg N ha-1 of N3, and the average emission factor of three nitrogen treatments (N1, N2, N3) were 0.36%,0.54% and 1.21%, respectively. In addition, N2O emission from high nitrogen treatments (N2 and N3) had a significant liner relationship with the contents of soil nitrate nitrogen and ammonium nitrogen, but they had no relationships under low level of nitrogen application rates (N0 and N1). Total N2O emission had an exponential relationship with nitrogen fertilizer application rates. The filed trial of nitrogen fertilization verified the above results.
2. Undisturbed soil monolith lysimeter and field experiments were conducted to study the N2O emission from different kinds of vegetables. The results of lysimeter experiment showed that the average of daily N2O emission ranked in the order of amaranth, pepper, radish, Chinese cabbage, lettuce and spinach. Except N3 treatment, the average of daily N2O emission from the same vegetables (amaranth and pepper) that planted in two years was similar. The results of field experiment showed that the highest average of daily N2O emission was pepper, which varied from 2.29～55.40 g ha-1d-1, while spinach had the lowest emission, which ranged from 1.43～7.86 g ha-1d-1. The average of daily N2O emission ranked in the order of pepper, radish, Chinese cabbage and spinach.
3. Indoor incubation and undisturbed soil monolith lysimeter experiments were conducted to study the effects of soil moisture on N2O emission. The results of incubation experiment revealed that the total N2O emission increased by soil moisture when soil moisture varied from WFPS 35% to WFPS 85%, but the total N2O emission decreased when soil moisture increased to WFPS 110%. The highest total N2O emission occurred when soil moisture was WFPS 85%, while the lowest one occurred when soil moisture was WFPS 35%. Emission factor varied from 0.02～3.11%(N1) and 0.02-2.25%(N2). In addition, the results from lysimeter experiment showed that the higher N2O emission occurred between April and September when most of rainfall occurred, which accounted for 77% of total N2O emission. Meanwhile, there was a liner relationship between N2O emission and soil moisture in the treatment without nitrogen fertilizer application.
4. Indoor incubation and undisturbed soil monolith lysimeter experiments were conducted to study the effects of soil temperature on N2O emission. Incubation experiment showed that N2O daily emission increased by the increase of soil temperature and the peak emission occurred at the highest temperature when soil moisture was relatively stable. However, when soil moisture changed a lot in one day, the peak emission of N2O occurred at appropriate soil moisture and relatively high soil temperature, which meant that both soil moisture and temperature affected the daily change of N2O emission in this vegetable system. Lysimeter experiment revealed that the seasonal variation of N2O emission was mainly influenced by soil temperature, and the high emissions of N2O occurred between April and September, corresponding to the warm and wet soil condition. N2O emissions were very low (<64.5μg m-2 h-1) during the late winter to early spring due to the low soil temperature, and the daily N2O emission was around background level when soil temperature was less than 5℃. Meanwhile, there was a liner relationship between N2O emission and soil temperature in no nitrogen applied treatment.
5. Undisturbed soil monolith lysimeter was used to investigate the difference of nitrous oxide (N2O) emission from the bare soil with N fertilizer application and the soil with vegetable planted. Results showed that N2O emission from the bare soil exceed those from the soil with vegetable planted. The average N2O emission flux from the bare soil was 193μg m-2 h-1, while it decreased to 60μg m-2 h-1 with the vegetables planted. Meanwhile, total N2O emission from the bare soil with lower nitrogen fertilizer applied (T1,500 kg N ha-1) (9.54 kg ha-1) was greater than that from the soil with higher nitrogen fertilizer applied (T2,750 kg N ha-1) (4.21 kg ha-1) during the experimental period (October 2007-September 2008). In addition, N2O emission factor from the bare soil (1.76%) was more than that from the soil with vegetable planted (0.39%).
6. Undisturbed soil monolith lysimeter and field experiments were used to investigate the effects of nitrogen fertilizer on vegetable yield and its relationship with N2O emission. The results showed that the yield of vegetables first increased then decreased by the elevated nitrogen fertilizer rates. But, nitrogen use efficiency decreased by the increasing nitrogen application rates. Nitrogen use efficiency had an exponential relationship with nitrogen fertilizer application rates. In contrast, total N2O emission increased by the elevated nitrogen application rates. The results suggested that there is an opportunity to reduce N fertilizer application rate in this vegetable production system, though which can reduce N2O emissions.
7. Undisturbed soil monolith lysimeter experiment was used to study the effectiveness of DCD in reducing N2O emissions under winter and summer seasons in grazed grassland in New Zealand. Results showed that DCD significant decreased N2O emission both in summer and winter seasons. Total N2O-N emissions from urine-N applied at 1000 kg N ha-1 were 7.8 kg N2O-N ha-1 in the summer season and it was much lower than that emitted during the winter season (12.3 kg N2O-N ha-1). The application of DCD reduced summer N2O-N emissions to 4.8 kg N2O-N ha-1 in summer and 3.9 kg N2O-N ha-1 in winter, representing 40% and 69% reductions, respectively. The results demonstrated that N2O emissions from animal urine-N in grazed pastures were much higher in the winter season than that in the summer season, and DCD was more effective in reducing N2O emissions in the high emitting winter season.
8. Undisturbed soil monolith lysimeter was used to investigate the effectiveness of DCD in reducing N2O emissions in vegetable system. Results showed that DCD significantly decreased total N2O emission in vegetable system. With nitrogen fertilizer applied, DCD reduced 49.3%,50.9% total N2O emission of cabbage and pepper, respectively. And in without nitrogen applied treatment, DCD also reduced 33.5%,33.4% total N2O emission. In addition, DCD decreased N2O emission factor, the emission factor decreased from 0.15% (without DCD) to 0.07% (with DCD) of cabbage, and 0.99% (without DCD) to 0.52%(with DCD) of pepper. These results demonstrated the potential of using nitrification inhibitors to mitigate N2O emissions both in grazed pasture soils and in vegetable system.
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