互联网网上聊天中的人际知觉的研究
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摘要
本研究在过去人际知觉研究的基础上，以Funder的现实的精确性模型为主要的理论依据，以84位在校大学生和研究生为被试，以卡特尔的16种人格特质为人格评价特质，采用自编的网上聊天的调查问卷以及人格特质特征的评价量表，考察了互联网网上聊天中的人际知觉的特点，其中主要包括网上聊天的人际知觉的精确性、元精确性、影响精确性和元精确性的因素(性别、与性别相关的刻板印象、知觉者和知觉对象的人格特点、网上聊天内容的真实程度、特质的可观察性、社会期望值以及只凭言语内容来推断某种特质的难易程度)、自评和他评以及元知觉间的相互差异、影响聊天者受喜欢程度的因素。主要的研究结果如下：
(1)互联网网上聊天的人际知觉在某些人格特质上是具有一定的精确性的。其中内在的特质比外显的特质在网上聊天中更容易被精确地判断。在面对面的交流中被判断的精确性最高的外向这种特质，在网上聊天中被判断的精确性最低。(2)网上聊天的人际知觉在某些人格特质上是具有一定的元精确性的，而且在这种情况下元知觉的形成过程与自我判断模型更吻合。(3)知觉者和知觉对象的人格特点对人际知觉的精确性和元精确性都有一定的影响；网上聊天内容的真实程度越高，判断的精确性和元精确性也越高；与面对面的交流不同的是，特质的可观察性越高，人际知觉的精确性和元精确性反而越低；特质的社会期望值对精确性有一定的影响，但对元精确性没有明显的影响；虽然精确性和元精确性并没有表现出明显的性别效应，但与性别相关的刻板印象在网上聊天的人际知觉中仍然存在。(4)自评和他评的差异显示，被试在聪慧性和有恒性上存在自我抬高的现象。自评和元知觉的差异显示在网上聊天中人们可能表现得比真实的自己更外向。(5)网上聊天中人们受聊天对象喜欢的程度受其人格特质中的乐群性、紧张性以及先前的网上聊天经验的影响。
Based on past researches on interpersonal perception and D.C Funder's Realistic
Accuracy Model, this research examined the characteristics of interpersonal perception in internet chatting, including accuracy of interpersonal perception(self-other agreement),meta-accuracy, moderators of accuracy and meta-accuracy,the differences among self-ratings,other-ratings and metaperception, and moderators of likability. 84 undergraduate and graduate students interacted in internet by OICQ one to one for thirty minutes, then completed a self-edit internet chatting questionaire including ratings on cattell's 16 personality traits and so on. The results showed that:
(1) In internet chatting, perceivers were able to judge targets's some personality traits with some extent accuracy. Unlike researches using face to face interaction , inner traits tended to be judged more easily than outer traits in internet chatting, and extraversion was judged least accurately in internet chatting. (2) Participants were able to achieve some extent accuracy in metaperception on most personality traits and the results implied that the process of metaperception tended to match self-judgment model. (3) Perceivers and targets' personality characteristics had moderate effect on both accuracy and meta-accuracy; Participants whose content of internet chatting was more true were judged more accuratly, and had more accurate metaperception; Unlike researches using face to face interaction, traits' observability had negative effect on accuacy and meta-accuracy; Traits' desirability tended to reduce the accuracy and had no significant effect on meta-accuracy; Though gender had no significant effect on
accuracy and meta-accuracy, there were noteworthy sex differences in the content of interpersonal perception. (4) The differences between self-ratings and other-ratings indicated that participants elevated themselves on intelligence and conscientiousness. The differences between self-ratings and metaperception suggested that participants may present themselves more extrovert in internet chatting than in their real life. (5) Participants' personality trait extroversion,nervousness and prior internet chatting experience were effective moderate predictors of their likability.
(1)互联网网上聊天的人际知觉在某些人格特质上是具有一定的精确性的。其中内在的特质比外显的特质在网上聊天中更容易被精确地判断。在面对面的交流中被判断的精确性最高的外向这种特质，在网上聊天中被判断的精确性最低。(2)网上聊天的人际知觉在某些人格特质上是具有一定的元精确性的，而且在这种情况下元知觉的形成过程与自我判断模型更吻合。(3)知觉者和知觉对象的人格特点对人际知觉的精确性和元精确性都有一定的影响；网上聊天内容的真实程度越高，判断的精确性和元精确性也越高；与面对面的交流不同的是，特质的可观察性越高，人际知觉的精确性和元精确性反而越低；特质的社会期望值对精确性有一定的影响，但对元精确性没有明显的影响；虽然精确性和元精确性并没有表现出明显的性别效应，但与性别相关的刻板印象在网上聊天的人际知觉中仍然存在。(4)自评和他评的差异显示，被试在聪慧性和有恒性上存在自我抬高的现象。自评和元知觉的差异显示在网上聊天中人们可能表现得比真实的自己更外向。(5)网上聊天中人们受聊天对象喜欢的程度受其人格特质中的乐群性、紧张性以及先前的网上聊天经验的影响。
Based on past researches on interpersonal perception and D.C Funder's Realistic
Accuracy Model, this research examined the characteristics of interpersonal perception in internet chatting, including accuracy of interpersonal perception(self-other agreement),meta-accuracy, moderators of accuracy and meta-accuracy,the differences among self-ratings,other-ratings and metaperception, and moderators of likability. 84 undergraduate and graduate students interacted in internet by OICQ one to one for thirty minutes, then completed a self-edit internet chatting questionaire including ratings on cattell's 16 personality traits and so on. The results showed that:
(1) In internet chatting, perceivers were able to judge targets's some personality traits with some extent accuracy. Unlike researches using face to face interaction , inner traits tended to be judged more easily than outer traits in internet chatting, and extraversion was judged least accurately in internet chatting. (2) Participants were able to achieve some extent accuracy in metaperception on most personality traits and the results implied that the process of metaperception tended to match self-judgment model. (3) Perceivers and targets' personality characteristics had moderate effect on both accuracy and meta-accuracy; Participants whose content of internet chatting was more true were judged more accuratly, and had more accurate metaperception; Unlike researches using face to face interaction, traits' observability had negative effect on accuacy and meta-accuracy; Traits' desirability tended to reduce the accuracy and had no significant effect on meta-accuracy; Though gender had no significant effect on
accuracy and meta-accuracy, there were noteworthy sex differences in the content of interpersonal perception. (4) The differences between self-ratings and other-ratings indicated that participants elevated themselves on intelligence and conscientiousness. The differences between self-ratings and metaperception suggested that participants may present themselves more extrovert in internet chatting than in their real life. (5) Participants' personality trait extroversion,nervousness and prior internet chatting experience were effective moderate predictors of their likability.
引文
中国互联网发展的宏观概况．http://www.cnnic.net.en/develst/2003-1/4-1.shtml/.
Adam N. Joinson(2001). Serf-disclosure in Computer-mediated communication: The role of serf-awareness and visual anonymity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31, 177-192.
Alkert, R. M., & Panter, A. T(1988). Extraversion and the ability to decode nonverbal communication. Personality and Individual Differences, 9,965-972.
Allport, G. W.(1937). Personality: A psychological interpretation. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Ambaby, N., Hallaban, M, Rosenthal, R.(1995). On Judging and Being Judged Accurately in Zero-Acquaintance Situations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,69,518-529.
Bem, D.J.(1972) Self-perception theory. In L.Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology(vol. 6, pp. 1-62).New York: Academic Press.
Bemieri, F.J.,Zuckerman, M., Koestner, R, & Rosenthal, R.(1994). Measuring person perception accuracy: Another look at self-other agreement Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20,367-378
Borkenau, P.,& Liebler, A.(1992). Traits inferences: Sources of validity at zero acquaintance.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 645-657.
Borkenau, P.,& Liebler, A.(1993). Convergence of stranger ratings of personality and intelligence with serf-ratings, partner ratings, and measured intelligence. Journal of Personality,61,477-496.
Cheek, J. M.(1982). Aggregation, moderator variables, and the validity of personality tests: A peer-rating study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43,1254-1269.
Colvin, C.R.(1993). Judgable people: Personality, behavior, and competing explanations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64,861-873
David A. Kenny(1991). A General Model of Consensus and Accuracy in Interpersonal Perception, Psychological Review, 98(2), 155-163
David K. Marcus & Sarah J. Lehman (2002). Are There Sex Differences in Interpersonal Perception at Zero Acquaintance? A Social Relations Analysis. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 190-207.
Depanlo, B. M., Kenny, D. A., Hoover, C. W., Webb, W., & Oliver, P.V.(1987). Accuracy of person perception: Do people know what kinds of impressions they convey?. Journal of personality and Social Psychology, 52, 303-325.
Dindia K. Allen M.(1992). Sex differences in serf-disclosure: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 112: 106-124.
Funder, D. C. (1955). On the accuracy of personality judgment, A realistic approach, Psychological Review, 102,652-670
Funder, D. C. (1980). On seeing ourselves as others see us: serf-other agreement and discrepancy in personality ratings. Journal of Personality, 48, 473-493
Funder, D. C. (1987). Errors and mistakes: Evaluating the accuracy of social judgment. Psychological Bulletin, 101,75-90
Funder, D. C. (1989). Accuracy in personality judgment and the dancing bear. In D. Buss & N. Cantor(Eds.), Personality research for the 1990's (pp.210-223).
Funder, D. C. (1995). On the Accuracy of Personality Judgment: A Realistic Approach. Psychological Review, 102, 652-670.
Funder, D. C., & Colvin, C. R.(1995). Congruence of self and others' judgments of personality. In R. Hogan, J. Johnson, & S.Briggs(Eds.), Handbook of Personality Psychology. San Diego, CA:Academic Press.
Funder, D.C., & Sneed, C. (1993). Behavioral manifestations of personality: An ecological approach to judgmental accuracy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 479-490.
Funder, D.C., & West, S. G. (1993a). Consensus, self-other agreement, and accuracy in personality judgment: An introduction. Journal of Personality, 61,457-476
Funder, D.C., Kolar, D.C. & Blackman, M. C. (1995). Agreement among judges of personality: interpersonal relations, similarity, and acquaintanceship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 409-418
Funder, D.C.,& Colvin, C.R.(1988). Friends and Strangers: Acquaintanceship, agreement, and the accuracy of personality judgments. Journal of Personality and social psychology, 55,149-158.
Gage, N.L., & Cronbach, L. J.(1955). Conceptual and methodological problems in interpersonal perception. Psychological Review, 62,411-422
Gangestad, S. W., Simpson, J. A., Differential accuracy in person perception across traits: Examination of a functional hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 688-698.
Gifford, R., & Hine, D. W. (1994). The role of verbal behavior in the encoding and decoding of interpersonal dispositions, Journal of Research in Personality, 28, 115-132
Hinton, P. R.(1993). The psychology of interpersonal perception. London;New York: Routledge.
John, O. P., & Robins, R. W.(1994a). Accuracy and bias in self-perception: Individual differences in self-enhancement and narcissism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 206-219
John, O. P., & Robins, R. W.(1994b). Determinants of interjudge agreement on personality traits: The Big Five domains, observability, evaluativeness, and the unique perspective of the self. Journal of personality, 61, 521-551
Jussim, L.(1993). Accuracy in interpersonal expectations: A reflection-construction analysis of current and classic research. Journal of Personality, 61,637-668.
Kane, J. S., & Lawler, E. E., Ⅲ(1978). Methods of peer assessment. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 555-586
Kenny, D. A.(1991). A general model of consensus and accuracy in interpersonal perception. Psychological Review, 92,155-163.
Kenny, Interpersonal Perception, http://users.rcn.com/dakenny/kenny.htm
Kenrick, D. T., & Stringfield, D. O.(1980). Personality traits and the eye of beholder: Crossing some traditional philosphical boundaries in the research for consistency in all of the people. Psychological Review, 87, 88-104.
Koestner, R., Bernieri, F.,& Zuckerman, M.(1989). Trait-specific versus person-specific
moderators of cross-situational consistency. Journal of Personality, 57,1-16.
Levesque, M. L., & Kenny, D. A.(1993). Accuracy of behavioral predictions at zero acquaintance:A social relations analysis, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1178-1187.
Malloy, T. E. & Kenny, D. A. (1997). Interpersonal Perception and Metaperception in Nonoverlapping Social Groups, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 390-398.
Marcus, D. K., & Lehman, S. J.(2002). Are there sex differences in interpersonal perception at zero acquaintance? A social relations analysis. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 190-207.
Mark Cook. (1979). Perceiving Others: the psychology of interpersonal perception. London: Methuen.
Markey, P.M. & Wells, S. M. (2002) Interpersonal perception in internet Chat rooms. Journal of Research in personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 134-146.
Matheson K, Zanna MP(1988). The impact of Computer-mediated Communication on self-awareness. Computers in Human Behavior 4:221-233
McCrae, R. R.(1994). The counterpoint of personality assessment: Self-reports and observer ratings. Assessment, 1, 159-172.
McKenna KYA, Bargh J(2000). Plan 9 from cyberspace: The implications of the internet for personality and social Psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review 4:57-75
Melinda C. Blackman, & David C.Funder(1998). The Effect of information on Counsensus and Accuracy in Personality judgment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 34, 149-158.
Norman, W. T., & Goldberg, L.R.(1966). Raters, ratees, and randomness in personality structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 681-691.
Park, B., & Judd, C. M.(1989). Agreement on initial impressions: Differences due to perceivers, trait dimensions, and target behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56,493-505.
Parks MR. Floyd K. (1996). Making friends in cyberspace. Journal of Journal of Computer-mediated Communication(4). Retrieved 10 December from the world-wide web: http://jmc.huji.ac.il/voll/issue4/parks.htm/
Paunonen, S. V. (1989). Consensus in personality judgments: Moderating effects of target-rater acquaintanceship and behavior observability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 823-833.
Paunonen, S. V. (1991). On the accuracy of ratings of personality by strangers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61,471-477.
Schneider, D. J., Hastorf, A. H., & Ellsworth, P. C.(1979). Person perception (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Sedikides, C. (1993). Assessment, enhancement, and verification determinants of the self-evaluation process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,65,317-338.
Shrauger, J. S.,& Osberg, T. M. (1981). The relative accuracy of self-predictions and judgments by others in psychological assessment. Psychological Bulletin,90,322-351.
Swann, W. B., Jr.(1984). Quest for accuracy in person perception: A matter of pragmatics. Psychological Review, 91,457-477.
Taft, R. (1966). Accuracy of empathic judgments of acquaintances and stranger. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 600-604.
The 16PF Questionnaire: Global Factors- Definitions. www.Ipat.com/global factor sdef. html
Thomas, G., Fletcher, G. J. O., & Lange, C. (1997). On-line empathic accuracy in marital interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72,839-850.
Watson, D.(1989). Strangers' ratings of the five robust personality factors: Evidence of a surprising convergence with self-report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57,120-128.
Whitty T. M.(2002). Liar, liar! An examination of how open, supportive and honest people are in chat rooms. Computer in Human behavior, 18, 343-352.
Zuckerman, M.,Koestner, R.,DeBoy, T.,Garcia, T., Maresca, B.C.,& Sartoris, J. M.(1988). To predict some of the people some of the time: A reexamination of the moderator variable approach in personality theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,54,1006-1019.
Adam N. Joinson(2001). Serf-disclosure in Computer-mediated communication: The role of serf-awareness and visual anonymity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31, 177-192.
Alkert, R. M., & Panter, A. T(1988). Extraversion and the ability to decode nonverbal communication. Personality and Individual Differences, 9,965-972.
Allport, G. W.(1937). Personality: A psychological interpretation. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Ambaby, N., Hallaban, M, Rosenthal, R.(1995). On Judging and Being Judged Accurately in Zero-Acquaintance Situations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,69,518-529.
Bem, D.J.(1972) Self-perception theory. In L.Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology(vol. 6, pp. 1-62).New York: Academic Press.
Bemieri, F.J.,Zuckerman, M., Koestner, R, & Rosenthal, R.(1994). Measuring person perception accuracy: Another look at self-other agreement Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20,367-378
Borkenau, P.,& Liebler, A.(1992). Traits inferences: Sources of validity at zero acquaintance.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 645-657.
Borkenau, P.,& Liebler, A.(1993). Convergence of stranger ratings of personality and intelligence with serf-ratings, partner ratings, and measured intelligence. Journal of Personality,61,477-496.
Cheek, J. M.(1982). Aggregation, moderator variables, and the validity of personality tests: A peer-rating study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43,1254-1269.
Colvin, C.R.(1993). Judgable people: Personality, behavior, and competing explanations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64,861-873
David A. Kenny(1991). A General Model of Consensus and Accuracy in Interpersonal Perception, Psychological Review, 98(2), 155-163
David K. Marcus & Sarah J. Lehman (2002). Are There Sex Differences in Interpersonal Perception at Zero Acquaintance? A Social Relations Analysis. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 190-207.
Depanlo, B. M., Kenny, D. A., Hoover, C. W., Webb, W., & Oliver, P.V.(1987). Accuracy of person perception: Do people know what kinds of impressions they convey?. Journal of personality and Social Psychology, 52, 303-325.
Dindia K. Allen M.(1992). Sex differences in serf-disclosure: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 112: 106-124.
Funder, D. C. (1955). On the accuracy of personality judgment, A realistic approach, Psychological Review, 102,652-670
Funder, D. C. (1980). On seeing ourselves as others see us: serf-other agreement and discrepancy in personality ratings. Journal of Personality, 48, 473-493
Funder, D. C. (1987). Errors and mistakes: Evaluating the accuracy of social judgment. Psychological Bulletin, 101,75-90
Funder, D. C. (1989). Accuracy in personality judgment and the dancing bear. In D. Buss & N. Cantor(Eds.), Personality research for the 1990's (pp.210-223).
Funder, D. C. (1995). On the Accuracy of Personality Judgment: A Realistic Approach. Psychological Review, 102, 652-670.
Funder, D. C., & Colvin, C. R.(1995). Congruence of self and others' judgments of personality. In R. Hogan, J. Johnson, & S.Briggs(Eds.), Handbook of Personality Psychology. San Diego, CA:Academic Press.
Funder, D.C., & Sneed, C. (1993). Behavioral manifestations of personality: An ecological approach to judgmental accuracy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 479-490.
Funder, D.C., & West, S. G. (1993a). Consensus, self-other agreement, and accuracy in personality judgment: An introduction. Journal of Personality, 61,457-476
Funder, D.C., Kolar, D.C. & Blackman, M. C. (1995). Agreement among judges of personality: interpersonal relations, similarity, and acquaintanceship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 409-418
Funder, D.C.,& Colvin, C.R.(1988). Friends and Strangers: Acquaintanceship, agreement, and the accuracy of personality judgments. Journal of Personality and social psychology, 55,149-158.
Gage, N.L., & Cronbach, L. J.(1955). Conceptual and methodological problems in interpersonal perception. Psychological Review, 62,411-422
Gangestad, S. W., Simpson, J. A., Differential accuracy in person perception across traits: Examination of a functional hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 688-698.
Gifford, R., & Hine, D. W. (1994). The role of verbal behavior in the encoding and decoding of interpersonal dispositions, Journal of Research in Personality, 28, 115-132
Hinton, P. R.(1993). The psychology of interpersonal perception. London;New York: Routledge.
John, O. P., & Robins, R. W.(1994a). Accuracy and bias in self-perception: Individual differences in self-enhancement and narcissism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 206-219
John, O. P., & Robins, R. W.(1994b). Determinants of interjudge agreement on personality traits: The Big Five domains, observability, evaluativeness, and the unique perspective of the self. Journal of personality, 61, 521-551
Jussim, L.(1993). Accuracy in interpersonal expectations: A reflection-construction analysis of current and classic research. Journal of Personality, 61,637-668.
Kane, J. S., & Lawler, E. E., Ⅲ(1978). Methods of peer assessment. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 555-586
Kenny, D. A.(1991). A general model of consensus and accuracy in interpersonal perception. Psychological Review, 92,155-163.
Kenny, Interpersonal Perception, http://users.rcn.com/dakenny/kenny.htm
Kenrick, D. T., & Stringfield, D. O.(1980). Personality traits and the eye of beholder: Crossing some traditional philosphical boundaries in the research for consistency in all of the people. Psychological Review, 87, 88-104.
Koestner, R., Bernieri, F.,& Zuckerman, M.(1989). Trait-specific versus person-specific
moderators of cross-situational consistency. Journal of Personality, 57,1-16.
Levesque, M. L., & Kenny, D. A.(1993). Accuracy of behavioral predictions at zero acquaintance:A social relations analysis, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1178-1187.
Malloy, T. E. & Kenny, D. A. (1997). Interpersonal Perception and Metaperception in Nonoverlapping Social Groups, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 390-398.
Marcus, D. K., & Lehman, S. J.(2002). Are there sex differences in interpersonal perception at zero acquaintance? A social relations analysis. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 190-207.
Mark Cook. (1979). Perceiving Others: the psychology of interpersonal perception. London: Methuen.
Markey, P.M. & Wells, S. M. (2002) Interpersonal perception in internet Chat rooms. Journal of Research in personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 134-146.
Matheson K, Zanna MP(1988). The impact of Computer-mediated Communication on self-awareness. Computers in Human Behavior 4:221-233
McCrae, R. R.(1994). The counterpoint of personality assessment: Self-reports and observer ratings. Assessment, 1, 159-172.
McKenna KYA, Bargh J(2000). Plan 9 from cyberspace: The implications of the internet for personality and social Psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review 4:57-75
Melinda C. Blackman, & David C.Funder(1998). The Effect of information on Counsensus and Accuracy in Personality judgment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 34, 149-158.
Norman, W. T., & Goldberg, L.R.(1966). Raters, ratees, and randomness in personality structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 681-691.
Park, B., & Judd, C. M.(1989). Agreement on initial impressions: Differences due to perceivers, trait dimensions, and target behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56,493-505.
Parks MR. Floyd K. (1996). Making friends in cyberspace. Journal of Journal of Computer-mediated Communication(4). Retrieved 10 December from the world-wide web: http://jmc.huji.ac.il/voll/issue4/parks.htm/
Paunonen, S. V. (1989). Consensus in personality judgments: Moderating effects of target-rater acquaintanceship and behavior observability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 823-833.
Paunonen, S. V. (1991). On the accuracy of ratings of personality by strangers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61,471-477.
Schneider, D. J., Hastorf, A. H., & Ellsworth, P. C.(1979). Person perception (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Sedikides, C. (1993). Assessment, enhancement, and verification determinants of the self-evaluation process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,65,317-338.
Shrauger, J. S.,& Osberg, T. M. (1981). The relative accuracy of self-predictions and judgments by others in psychological assessment. Psychological Bulletin,90,322-351.
Swann, W. B., Jr.(1984). Quest for accuracy in person perception: A matter of pragmatics. Psychological Review, 91,457-477.
Taft, R. (1966). Accuracy of empathic judgments of acquaintances and stranger. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 600-604.
The 16PF Questionnaire: Global Factors- Definitions. www.Ipat.com/global factor sdef. html
Thomas, G., Fletcher, G. J. O., & Lange, C. (1997). On-line empathic accuracy in marital interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72,839-850.
Watson, D.(1989). Strangers' ratings of the five robust personality factors: Evidence of a surprising convergence with self-report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57,120-128.
Whitty T. M.(2002). Liar, liar! An examination of how open, supportive and honest people are in chat rooms. Computer in Human behavior, 18, 343-352.
Zuckerman, M.,Koestner, R.,DeBoy, T.,Garcia, T., Maresca, B.C.,& Sartoris, J. M.(1988). To predict some of the people some of the time: A reexamination of the moderator variable approach in personality theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,54,1006-1019.