一项基于外语学习焦虑与课堂纠错关系的实证研究
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摘要
Selinker于上世纪七十年代提出了中介语假说,他认为中介语是学习者在学习第二语言过程中所产生的从其母语逐渐向目的语过渡的一个动态的语言系统,它介于母语和目的语之间,而且随着学习的发展向目的语的正确形式逐渐靠拢。在中介语发展的过程中,学习者的语言错误是不可避免的,对于学习者的错误,不能漠然置之,因为一些学习者的错误如果长期得不到纠正,这些错误就会被他们或者其他学习者当作是正确的语言输入,最后导致语言的僵化。然而Krashen和Terrel(1983)的自然教学法认为在语言发展的任何一个阶段,教师都不要把注意力放在纠正错误上,应该让学习者通过可理解输入和自然沟通的方式习得语言。教师不要急于讲究精确的语音、语法,重要的是给学生创造一个不必常常为自己的错误紧张担心的学习环境,以降低学生的焦虑,增强学生的自信心。Krashen(1985)认为焦虑作为重要的情感因素在外语学习中起着非常重要的作用。焦虑感较强者,情感屏障高,获得的输入少,从而对外语学习产生一定的阻碍;反之,则容易得到更多的输入,更加有利于外语学习。笔者认为上述观点在对待语言错误和外语学习焦虑时都只侧重了一个方面,然而在语言教学中,我们既要防止语言僵化,又要降低学习者的焦虑。基于此,本文将探讨外语学习焦虑与课堂纠错之间的关系。
本文研究的对象是湘潭大学和湖南科技大学非英语专业大一的学生,两所学校各两个班,共167人。本研究分为定量和定性两部分。定量研究部分通过问卷调查的形式调查了学生的外语学习焦虑状况,外语学习焦虑与学习成绩之间的关系,外语学习焦虑与对纠错的态度之间的关系。问卷调查的结果被输入到SPSS 13.0进行分析。定性研究部分通过访谈调查了学生对纠错方式的偏好和焦虑产生的原因。作者对访谈的结果做了详细的记录。
通过实证研究,本文得出了五个重要的结论: 1.在外语课堂上,学生存在一定程度的外语学习焦虑,但是语言水平不同的学生之间有明显的差异。2.学生对教师纠错普遍持肯定的态度,但是语言水平不同的学生之间也有差异。3.学生的焦虑状况与对教师课堂纠错的态度之间存在明显的负相关。4.学生更愿意接受重述、重复、启发等纠错方式,因为教师采用这些方式纠错引发的焦虑更少;而不愿意接受打断,要求澄清,明确指出并修改,给与原语言线索等纠错方式,因为教师采用这些方式纠错引发的焦虑更多。5.学生的外语学习焦虑产生的原因有低自尊,缺少自信,竞争意识,个性,害怕在课堂上发言,教师不恰当的纠错方式,缺少课前的准备和教师的随意点名。
最后,作者以此调查的结果为依据,对教师在外语课堂如何对待学生的错误以及如何减轻学生的外语学习焦虑提出了建议。
In 1970’s Selinker proposed interlanguage hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, interlanguage is a transitional language system evolving from native language to target language in the process of second language acquisition. It has a structurally intermediate status between native and target language and evolves toward the correct form of the target language. In the process of interlanguage development, it is inevitable for language learners to make errors. If the learners’errors are not corrected in the long run, these errors would be considered to be the correct form of language input, and in the end fossilization occurs. However, according to Krashen and Terrel’s Natural Approach (1983), language teachers should not pay much attention to correct students’errors at any given stage of language learning. The most important for them to do is to create a low anxiety environment and provide comprehensible input for the students so as to promote language acquisition. Krashen also (1985) states that anxiety is an important affective factor which plays an important role in language learning. If learners’anxiety levels are high, their affective filters would be high and they would receive less comprehensible input, and vice versa. Inspired by the two contrasting views, fear of fossilization and raised affective filter, the thesis aims to contribute to a better understanding of the relationship between foreign language anxiety and corrective feedback. The subjects of the present study are non English major freshmen in Xiangtan University and Hunan University of Science and Technology, two classes in each university (167 students altogether). This study adopts quantitative and qualitative methodologies. Quantitative research involves administering questionnaires to investigate the subjects’overall foreign language anxiety levels, the relationship between foreign language anxiety and language proficiency, the relationship between foreign language anxiety and attitude toward corrective feedback. SPSS 13.0 version is used to compute the collected data. Qualitative research involves interviewing the subjects about their preferences toward corrective feedback and the sources of anxiety. The author keeps a detailed note of the results.
There are five major findings of the empirical study: 1. There exists an average level of anxiety of non English major freshmen, but is significantly different with regard to proficiency levels. 2. Students have moderately positive attitude toward error correction, but the attitude score is different with regard to proficiency levels. 3. There exists negative correlation between students’anxiety level and their attitude toward error correction. 4. Students think that recast, repetition and elicitation are less anxiety-provoking than interruption, clarification request, explicit correction and metalinguistic feedback. 5. Various sources of anxiety are revealed from the interview such as low self esteem, lack of confidence, competitiveness, personality, speaking English in front of the class, teachers’harsh manner of correcting students’errors, lack of preparation, and uneven allocation of turns.
Accordingly, the author puts forward some suggestions on how to treat students’errors and how to improve students’language learning by alleviating students’anxiety in foreign language classroom.
本文研究的对象是湘潭大学和湖南科技大学非英语专业大一的学生,两所学校各两个班,共167人。本研究分为定量和定性两部分。定量研究部分通过问卷调查的形式调查了学生的外语学习焦虑状况,外语学习焦虑与学习成绩之间的关系,外语学习焦虑与对纠错的态度之间的关系。问卷调查的结果被输入到SPSS 13.0进行分析。定性研究部分通过访谈调查了学生对纠错方式的偏好和焦虑产生的原因。作者对访谈的结果做了详细的记录。
通过实证研究,本文得出了五个重要的结论: 1.在外语课堂上,学生存在一定程度的外语学习焦虑,但是语言水平不同的学生之间有明显的差异。2.学生对教师纠错普遍持肯定的态度,但是语言水平不同的学生之间也有差异。3.学生的焦虑状况与对教师课堂纠错的态度之间存在明显的负相关。4.学生更愿意接受重述、重复、启发等纠错方式,因为教师采用这些方式纠错引发的焦虑更少;而不愿意接受打断,要求澄清,明确指出并修改,给与原语言线索等纠错方式,因为教师采用这些方式纠错引发的焦虑更多。5.学生的外语学习焦虑产生的原因有低自尊,缺少自信,竞争意识,个性,害怕在课堂上发言,教师不恰当的纠错方式,缺少课前的准备和教师的随意点名。
最后,作者以此调查的结果为依据,对教师在外语课堂如何对待学生的错误以及如何减轻学生的外语学习焦虑提出了建议。
In 1970’s Selinker proposed interlanguage hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, interlanguage is a transitional language system evolving from native language to target language in the process of second language acquisition. It has a structurally intermediate status between native and target language and evolves toward the correct form of the target language. In the process of interlanguage development, it is inevitable for language learners to make errors. If the learners’errors are not corrected in the long run, these errors would be considered to be the correct form of language input, and in the end fossilization occurs. However, according to Krashen and Terrel’s Natural Approach (1983), language teachers should not pay much attention to correct students’errors at any given stage of language learning. The most important for them to do is to create a low anxiety environment and provide comprehensible input for the students so as to promote language acquisition. Krashen also (1985) states that anxiety is an important affective factor which plays an important role in language learning. If learners’anxiety levels are high, their affective filters would be high and they would receive less comprehensible input, and vice versa. Inspired by the two contrasting views, fear of fossilization and raised affective filter, the thesis aims to contribute to a better understanding of the relationship between foreign language anxiety and corrective feedback. The subjects of the present study are non English major freshmen in Xiangtan University and Hunan University of Science and Technology, two classes in each university (167 students altogether). This study adopts quantitative and qualitative methodologies. Quantitative research involves administering questionnaires to investigate the subjects’overall foreign language anxiety levels, the relationship between foreign language anxiety and language proficiency, the relationship between foreign language anxiety and attitude toward corrective feedback. SPSS 13.0 version is used to compute the collected data. Qualitative research involves interviewing the subjects about their preferences toward corrective feedback and the sources of anxiety. The author keeps a detailed note of the results.
There are five major findings of the empirical study: 1. There exists an average level of anxiety of non English major freshmen, but is significantly different with regard to proficiency levels. 2. Students have moderately positive attitude toward error correction, but the attitude score is different with regard to proficiency levels. 3. There exists negative correlation between students’anxiety level and their attitude toward error correction. 4. Students think that recast, repetition and elicitation are less anxiety-provoking than interruption, clarification request, explicit correction and metalinguistic feedback. 5. Various sources of anxiety are revealed from the interview such as low self esteem, lack of confidence, competitiveness, personality, speaking English in front of the class, teachers’harsh manner of correcting students’errors, lack of preparation, and uneven allocation of turns.
Accordingly, the author puts forward some suggestions on how to treat students’errors and how to improve students’language learning by alleviating students’anxiety in foreign language classroom.
引文
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Allwright, Dick & Bailey, K. Focus on the language classroom: An introduction to research for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1991.
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Ando, M. Distinctive language anxiety factors among college students: Toward the further development of mersures and theories. Doctoral dissertation. SUNY at Buffalo. 1999.
Backman, N. Two measures of affective factors as they relate to progress in adult second-language learning. Working papers on Bilingualism, 1976, 10: 100-122.
Bailey, K. M. Competitiveness and anxiety in adult second language learning: Looking at and through the diary students. In H. W. Seliger and M. H. Long (Eds.), Classroom-oriented research in second language acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. 1983
Brown, H.D. Principles of language learning and teaching, (Third Edition). Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 2002.
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Chastain, K. Developing L2 skills theory and practice. Chicago: Rand McNally College Pub. Co. 1988.
Chaudron, C. Second language classroom: research on teaching and learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1988.
Cheng et al. Asian students’ reticence revisited. System, 1999, 28: 435-446
Clement, R., Major, L.J. & Smythe, P. C. Attitude and motivation in second language acquisition: An investigation of ontario francophones. Working papers on Bilingualism, 1977,12: 1-20
Cortazzi, M.& Jin. L. Cultures of learning: language classrooms in China. In: Coleman, H. (Ed.), Society and the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1996.
Corder, S. Idiosyncratic dialects and error analysis. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 1971, 4: 149-159
Dekeyser, R. M. The effect of error correction on L2 grammar knowledge and oral proficiency. The Modern Language Journal, 1993, 77: 501-514.
Ellis, Rod. The study of second language acquisition. New York: Oxford University Press. 1994.
Ganschow, L., Sparks, R., Anderson, R., Javorshy, J., Skinner, S. & Patton, J. Differences in language performance among high-,average-,and low-anxious college foreign language learners. The Mordern Language Journal, 1994, 78: 44-51.
Gardner, R. C. & MacIntyre, D. On the measurement of affective variables in second language learning. Language Learning, 1993,43: 157-194.
Hembree, R. Correlates, causes, effects, and treatment of test anxiety. Review of educational research, 1988, 58: 47-77.
Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B. & Cope, J. Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 1986, 70: 125-132.
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Long, M. Focus on Form: A design feature in language teaching metholology. In K. de Bot, D. Coste, R. Ginsberg & C. Kramsch (Eds). Foreign language research in cross-cultural perspective. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co. 1991.
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MacIntyre, P. D. & Gardner, R. C. Language anxiety: its relationship to other anxiety and to processing in native and second language. Language Learning, 1991b, 41: 513~534.
MacIntyre, P. D. & Gardner, R. C. The effects of induced anxiety on three stages of cognitive processing in computerized vocabulary learning. Studies in second language acquisition, 1994a, 16: 1-17.
MacIntyre, P. D. & Gardner, R. C. The subtle effects of language anxiety on cognitive processing in the second language. Language learning, 1994b, 44: 283-305.
Matsuda, S. & Gobel, P. Quiet apprehension: reading and classroom anxieties. JALT Journal, 2001, 23: 227-247.
Mejias, H., Applbaum, R. L., Applbaum, S. J. & Trotter, R. T. Oral communication apprehension and Hispanics: An exploration of oral communication apprehension among Mexican students in Texas. In E. K. Horwitz & D. J. Young (Eds.), Language anxiety: from theory and research to classroom implications, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1991:87-97.
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Amy B. M. Tsui. Reticence and anxiety in second language learning. In: Bailey, K., Nunan, D.(Eds.), Voices from the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1996.
Ando, M. Distinctive language anxiety factors among college students: Toward the further development of mersures and theories. Doctoral dissertation. SUNY at Buffalo. 1999.
Backman, N. Two measures of affective factors as they relate to progress in adult second-language learning. Working papers on Bilingualism, 1976, 10: 100-122.
Bailey, K. M. Competitiveness and anxiety in adult second language learning: Looking at and through the diary students. In H. W. Seliger and M. H. Long (Eds.), Classroom-oriented research in second language acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. 1983
Brown, H.D. Principles of language learning and teaching, (Third Edition). Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 2002.
Chastain, K. Affective and ablility factors in second language learning. Language Learning, 1975, 25: 153-161
Chastain, K. Developing L2 skills theory and practice. Chicago: Rand McNally College Pub. Co. 1988.
Chaudron, C. Second language classroom: research on teaching and learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1988.
Cheng et al. Asian students’ reticence revisited. System, 1999, 28: 435-446
Clement, R., Major, L.J. & Smythe, P. C. Attitude and motivation in second language acquisition: An investigation of ontario francophones. Working papers on Bilingualism, 1977,12: 1-20
Cortazzi, M.& Jin. L. Cultures of learning: language classrooms in China. In: Coleman, H. (Ed.), Society and the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1996.
Corder, S. Idiosyncratic dialects and error analysis. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 1971, 4: 149-159
Dekeyser, R. M. The effect of error correction on L2 grammar knowledge and oral proficiency. The Modern Language Journal, 1993, 77: 501-514.
Ellis, Rod. The study of second language acquisition. New York: Oxford University Press. 1994.
Ganschow, L., Sparks, R., Anderson, R., Javorshy, J., Skinner, S. & Patton, J. Differences in language performance among high-,average-,and low-anxious college foreign language learners. The Mordern Language Journal, 1994, 78: 44-51.
Gardner, R. C. & MacIntyre, D. On the measurement of affective variables in second language learning. Language Learning, 1993,43: 157-194.
Hembree, R. Correlates, causes, effects, and treatment of test anxiety. Review of educational research, 1988, 58: 47-77.
Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B. & Cope, J. Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 1986, 70: 125-132.
Kleinmann, H. H. Avoidance behavior in adult second language acquisition. Language learning, 1977, 27: 93-107.
Krashen, S. D. & Tracy D. Terrell. The natural approach: language acquisition in the classroom. Hayward, CA: Alemany Press. 1983.
Krashen, S. D. The input hypothesis: issues and implications. New York: Longman. 1985.
Lalleman, Josine, A. The state of the art in second language acquisition research. In: Peter Jordens&Josine Lalleman(Eds.).Investigating second language acquisition. Berlin: New York:mouton de Gruyter, 1996: 3-69.
Leary, M. Understanding social anxiety: social, personality, and clinical perspective. Beverly Hills: Sage. 1982.
Lightbown, P. What have we here? Some observations on the effect of instruction on L2 learning. In Phillipson et al. (Eds.). Foreign/second language pedagogy research. Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual Matters. 1991
Lightbown, P. M. & Spada, N. How languages are learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1999.
Long, M. Focus on Form: A design feature in language teaching metholology. In K. de Bot, D. Coste, R. Ginsberg & C. Kramsch (Eds). Foreign language research in cross-cultural perspective. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co. 1991.
Long, M. The role of linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie & B. K. Bahtia (Eds.),Handbook of second language acquisition. New York: Academic Press. 1996: 413-468.
Long, M.H. & Robinson, P. Focus on form: theory, research, and practice. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition. New York: Cambridge Univeristy Press. 1998: 15-41
Lyster, Roy & Leila, Ranta. Corrective feedback and learner uptake: negotiation of form in communicative classroom. Studies in second language acquisition, 1997, 19: 37-66.
Machado, J. M. Early childhood experiences in language arts. Lima: Thomson Delmar Learning. 1985
MacIntyre, P. D. & Gardner, R.C. Anxiety and second language learning: toward a theoretical clarification. Language Learning, 1989, 39: 251-275
MacIntyre, P. D. & Gardner, R. C. Investigating language class anxiety using the focused essay technique. The Modern Language Journal, 1991a, 75: 296-304.
MacIntyre, P. D. & Gardner, R. C. Language anxiety: its relationship to other anxiety and to processing in native and second language. Language Learning, 1991b, 41: 513~534.
MacIntyre, P. D. & Gardner, R. C. The effects of induced anxiety on three stages of cognitive processing in computerized vocabulary learning. Studies in second language acquisition, 1994a, 16: 1-17.
MacIntyre, P. D. & Gardner, R. C. The subtle effects of language anxiety on cognitive processing in the second language. Language learning, 1994b, 44: 283-305.
Matsuda, S. & Gobel, P. Quiet apprehension: reading and classroom anxieties. JALT Journal, 2001, 23: 227-247.
Mejias, H., Applbaum, R. L., Applbaum, S. J. & Trotter, R. T. Oral communication apprehension and Hispanics: An exploration of oral communication apprehension among Mexican students in Texas. In E. K. Horwitz & D. J. Young (Eds.), Language anxiety: from theory and research to classroom implications, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1991:87-97.
Mings, Robert. C. Changing perspectives on the utility of error correction in second language acquisition. Foreign Language Annals, 1993, 26:171-179.
Nemser, W. Approximative systems of foreign language learners. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 1971, 4:115-123.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Bailey, P., & Daley, C. E. Cognitive, affective, personality, and demographic predictors of foreign language achievement. Journal of Educational Research, 2000, 94: 3-15.
Oxford, R. L. Anxiety and the language learner: new insights. In J. Arnold (Eds.) Affect in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1999
Price, M.L. The subjective experience of foreign language anxiety: Interviews with highly anxious students. In: Horwitz, E. K., Young, D. J. (Eds.), Language anxiety: from theory and research to classroom implications. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1991: 101-108.
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