第二语言习得过程中僵化现象产生的原因及其应对策略
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摘要
中介语僵化是第二语言习得过程中普遍存在的一个问题和现象。所谓中介语
就是指第二语言学习过程中学习者所使用的介于母语与目的语之间的独立的语言
体系。它以母语为出发点, 逐渐向目的语靠近。它是由第二语言习得者自己创造的、
动态的语言体系。所谓中介语僵化现象是指 “第二语言学习者中介语中的一些语
言项目、语法规则及‘次系统’的发展趋向于固定下来的状态，年龄的增长和语
言输入量的增大也不能改变中介语停滞不前的状态”。
学习者中介语不断完善的过程也就是二语习得取得进展的过程，而中介语的
僵化因其顽固性而使得语言使用不能很好地朝着目的语言的方向发展，总是停留
在中介语状态当中，成为外语学习者水平进一步提高的巨大障碍。笔者发现中国
学生特别是非英语专业研究生在语言使用中有不同程度的中介语僵化现象，僵化
因其在学生群体中存在的广泛性而成为外语教学中急需解决的一个问题。因此, 本
文对僵化的研究旨在探索能防止、打破语言僵化的有效方法, 使二语学习者最终能
接近或达到目标语水平。
本文在国外语言学家研究的基础之上，联系作者对非英语专业研究生进行的
听力、口语和基础英语的教学实践，通过个案分析、问卷调查等方法对僵化现象
进行了研究。文中收集了所教学生和所找个案口语及作文中反复出现的趋于僵化
的错误，并对这些错误进行了分析、归纳和总结，同时结合问卷调查的结果，深
入地研究了英语学习过程中产生僵化的实际原因。倡导学生运用科学的学习策略，
教师给予正确有效的指导，打破僵化局面，取得二语习得的成功。
本文认为产生僵化的主要原因是：汉语对英语的负迁移，不地道甚至错误的
语言输入，教师对错误的无效反馈，学生学习动机不强。本文原创性地提出了导
致僵化错误的根本原因是学习者对正确、地道的英语表达方式缺乏意识以及对汉
英两种语言的差异不敏感，继而导致在语言使用中频繁出现大量错误和汉化英语。
在此基础上本文提出了克服僵化的相应策略：主观上,学生应增强学习动机，
能动地输入大量地道纯正的英语表达;客观上,教师采用错误改正法这种有效反馈
帮助学生充分意识到学生自己的语言输出与英语为本族语的人的输出之间存在的
差异,英汉两种语言的差异（包括语言所承载的文化、心理因素及语言的具体表现
形式语音、语法、词汇、句法等各层面），从而增强学生分辨正确英语与错误英
语、地道英语与汉化英语的能力，从根本上减少僵化错误的数量，降低僵化错误
的程度，打破中介语僵化的局面，使之不断地朝着目标语的方向发展。
The purposes of this study were: (1) to investigate the second language learning
experiences of advanced English learners whose interlanguages have fossilized without
reaching near-native proficiency; (2) to clarify the causes of their fossilization; (3) to
advance de-fossilizing strategies. Three research questions were addressed: (1) What are
the fossilized linguistic items in Chinese learners’ IL system? (2) What factors have led
to the widespread phenomenon of fossilization among advanced English learners? (3)
Whether error correction is necessary in general? This study is based mainly on
Selinker’s theories of interlanguage and fossilization.
This investigation followed the descriptive research where case study and general
survey ways are applied. A non-English-major graduate from the author’s class
participated in this study as the subject.
It was concluded that: (1) Reappearing errors are the demonstrations of competence
fossilization. Through the analysis of learners’ reappearing errors collected in the case
study, we can discover the causes of competence fossilization. (2) The fossilized
learners are less sensitive to the forms provided in the input, as well as less able to
maintain new, target-like forms in their speaking and writings. Therefore, they could not
develop their performance toward the target language norms despite all the time spent
studying and all the amount of input they are exposed to. (3) Teachers’ corrective
feedback, i.e., error correction, is necessary in that students can improve more easily
their English proficiency if they are aware of where and what their errors are. (4)
Increasing awareness of/sensitivity to authentic L2 forms by exposing to accurate and
appropriate TL input and paying attention to particular aspects and uses of the TL is
most significant for learners to eventually overcome fossilization. (5) Learners must be
highly motivated, have high levels of self-confidence, be willing to take moderate risks,
and believe they can solve their learning problems.
就是指第二语言学习过程中学习者所使用的介于母语与目的语之间的独立的语言
体系。它以母语为出发点, 逐渐向目的语靠近。它是由第二语言习得者自己创造的、
动态的语言体系。所谓中介语僵化现象是指 “第二语言学习者中介语中的一些语
言项目、语法规则及‘次系统’的发展趋向于固定下来的状态，年龄的增长和语
言输入量的增大也不能改变中介语停滞不前的状态”。
学习者中介语不断完善的过程也就是二语习得取得进展的过程，而中介语的
僵化因其顽固性而使得语言使用不能很好地朝着目的语言的方向发展，总是停留
在中介语状态当中，成为外语学习者水平进一步提高的巨大障碍。笔者发现中国
学生特别是非英语专业研究生在语言使用中有不同程度的中介语僵化现象，僵化
因其在学生群体中存在的广泛性而成为外语教学中急需解决的一个问题。因此, 本
文对僵化的研究旨在探索能防止、打破语言僵化的有效方法, 使二语学习者最终能
接近或达到目标语水平。
本文在国外语言学家研究的基础之上，联系作者对非英语专业研究生进行的
听力、口语和基础英语的教学实践，通过个案分析、问卷调查等方法对僵化现象
进行了研究。文中收集了所教学生和所找个案口语及作文中反复出现的趋于僵化
的错误，并对这些错误进行了分析、归纳和总结，同时结合问卷调查的结果，深
入地研究了英语学习过程中产生僵化的实际原因。倡导学生运用科学的学习策略，
教师给予正确有效的指导，打破僵化局面，取得二语习得的成功。
本文认为产生僵化的主要原因是：汉语对英语的负迁移，不地道甚至错误的
语言输入，教师对错误的无效反馈，学生学习动机不强。本文原创性地提出了导
致僵化错误的根本原因是学习者对正确、地道的英语表达方式缺乏意识以及对汉
英两种语言的差异不敏感，继而导致在语言使用中频繁出现大量错误和汉化英语。
在此基础上本文提出了克服僵化的相应策略：主观上,学生应增强学习动机，
能动地输入大量地道纯正的英语表达;客观上,教师采用错误改正法这种有效反馈
帮助学生充分意识到学生自己的语言输出与英语为本族语的人的输出之间存在的
差异,英汉两种语言的差异（包括语言所承载的文化、心理因素及语言的具体表现
形式语音、语法、词汇、句法等各层面），从而增强学生分辨正确英语与错误英
语、地道英语与汉化英语的能力，从根本上减少僵化错误的数量，降低僵化错误
的程度，打破中介语僵化的局面，使之不断地朝着目标语的方向发展。
The purposes of this study were: (1) to investigate the second language learning
experiences of advanced English learners whose interlanguages have fossilized without
reaching near-native proficiency; (2) to clarify the causes of their fossilization; (3) to
advance de-fossilizing strategies. Three research questions were addressed: (1) What are
the fossilized linguistic items in Chinese learners’ IL system? (2) What factors have led
to the widespread phenomenon of fossilization among advanced English learners? (3)
Whether error correction is necessary in general? This study is based mainly on
Selinker’s theories of interlanguage and fossilization.
This investigation followed the descriptive research where case study and general
survey ways are applied. A non-English-major graduate from the author’s class
participated in this study as the subject.
It was concluded that: (1) Reappearing errors are the demonstrations of competence
fossilization. Through the analysis of learners’ reappearing errors collected in the case
study, we can discover the causes of competence fossilization. (2) The fossilized
learners are less sensitive to the forms provided in the input, as well as less able to
maintain new, target-like forms in their speaking and writings. Therefore, they could not
develop their performance toward the target language norms despite all the time spent
studying and all the amount of input they are exposed to. (3) Teachers’ corrective
feedback, i.e., error correction, is necessary in that students can improve more easily
their English proficiency if they are aware of where and what their errors are. (4)
Increasing awareness of/sensitivity to authentic L2 forms by exposing to accurate and
appropriate TL input and paying attention to particular aspects and uses of the TL is
most significant for learners to eventually overcome fossilization. (5) Learners must be
highly motivated, have high levels of self-confidence, be willing to take moderate risks,
and believe they can solve their learning problems.
引文
[1] Cohen, Andrew D. Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. Foreign
Language Teaching & Research Press, 2000.
[2] Cook, Vivian. Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition. Beijing: Foreign
Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.
[3] Cook, Vivian. Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. Beijing: Foreign
Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.
[4] Ellis, Rod. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford and New York:
Oxford University Press, 1994.
[5] Gass, Susan M., and Jacquelyn Schachter. Linguistic Perspectives on Second
Language Acquistion. London and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
[6] Green, Christopher F. The Origins and Effects of Topic-prominence in
Chinese-English Interlanguage. IRAL: International Review of Applied Linguistics
in Language Teaching, May96, Vol. 34 Issue 2, p119, 16p.
[7] Han, ZhaoHong. Fossilization: Five Central Issues. Internet, 2002.
[8] Han, ZhaoHong. Persistence of the Implicit Influence of NL: The Case of the
Pseudo-passive. Applied Linguistics 21/1: 78-105. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2000.
[9] Han, ZhaoHong. Rethink the Role of Corrective Feedback in Communicative
Language Teaching. RELC Journal. June 2002, Vol. 33, No. 1.
[10] Han, ZhaoHong, and Larry Selinker. Multiple Effects and Error Resistance: A
Longitudinal Case Study. Internet, 1996.
[11] Han, ZhaoHong, and Larry Selinker. Second Language Instruction and
Fossi1ization. Baltimore, Maryland: TESOL 2003.
[12] He, George Xiaoxi. A Linguistic Investigation of Fossilized English Speech of
Malaysian and Southern Chinese Students. (Doctoral dissertation. University of
Mississippi, 1994) UMI ProQuest Digital Dissertations-Abstract.
[13] Heath, Denis R. Language Stabilization and Fossilization in the Bilingual Setting
of South Lebanon. (Thesis for Master’s Degree. University of Texas at Arlington,
1998) UMI ProQuest Digital Dissertations-Abstract.
[14] James, Carl. Errors in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis.
Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2001.
[15] Jiang, Nan. Lexical Representation and Development in L2. Applied Linguistics
21/1:47-77
[16] Johnson, Helen. De-fossilizing ELT Journal Volume 46/2 April 1992. Oxford:
62 Causes of Fossilization in SLA and De-fossilizing Strategies
Oxford University Press 1992.
[17] Juffs, Alan. Tone, Syllable Structure and Interlanguage Phonology: Chinese
Learners’Stress Errors. IRAL, May90, Vol. 28 Issue 2, p99, 19p.
[18] LaPolla, Randy J. Grammaticalization as Fossilization of Constraints on
Interpretation: Towards a Single Theory of Communication, Cognition, and the
Development of Language. Internet, 1997.
[19] Lardiere, Donna. Case and Tense in the ‘Fossilized’ Steady State. Second
Language Research 14,1 (1998); pp. 1–26
[20] LarryLatham, Maurice, Will Mcculloch, Noonlite, and Roger. Fossilization –
Teacher Discussion Forum. Internet, 2003.
[21] Larsen-Freeman, Diane, and Michael H. Long. An Introduction to Second
Language Acquisition Research. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and
Research Press, 2000.
[22] MacWhinney, Brian. Fossilization as Incomplete Learning. Internet.
[23] Nakuma, Constancio K. A New Theoretical Account of ‘Fossilization’:
Implications for L2 Attrition Research. IRAL: International Review of Applied
Linguistics in Language Teaching, 1998, Vol. 36 Issue 3, p247, 10p.
[24] Nickel, Gerhard. The Role of Interlanguage in Foreign Language Teaching. IRAL,
Feb98, Vol. 36 Issue 1, p1, 10p.
[25] Purdy J.D. An Investigation into the Neurolinguistic Basis of Fossilization. Internet,
2001.
[26] Romaine, S. Pidgin and Creole Language. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988.
[27] Rutherford, William E. The Current State of Interlanguage. Amstrerdam: John
Benjamins, 1995.
[28] Seliger, Herbert W., and Elana Shohamy. Second Language Research Methods.
Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.
[29] Selinker, Larry. Rediscovering Interlanguage. White Plains: Longman Publishing
Group, 1992.
[30] Selinker, L., and U. Lakshamanan. Language transfer and fossilization: The
Multiple Effects Principle. 1992.
[31] Selinker, Larry and ZhaoHong Han. Fossilization: What We Think We Know.
Internet, 1996.
[32] Thep-Ackrapong, Tipa. Fossilization: A Case Study of Practical and Theoretical
Parameters. (Doctoral dissertation. Illinois State University, 1990) UMI ProQuest
Digital Dissertations-Abstract.
References 63
[33] Thomson, Greg. Leave me alone! Can’t you see I’m learning your language?
LinguaLinks Library, Version 3.5, published on CD-ROM by SIL International.
Internet, 1999.
[34] Valette, Rebecca M. Proficiency and the Prevention of Fossilization---An Editorial.
The Modern Language Journal 75 (1991).
[35] Wales, Lynn. The Benefits of Literacy Development for Fossilization ESL Learners.
[J]. ELT Journal 1993(47): 144-155.
[36] Wang, Yun-Chien. The Errors and Learning Strategies of A Chinese-speaking
Woman Learning English in the United States. (Doctoral dissertation. The
University of Texas at Austin, 1988) UMI ProQuest Digital
Dissertations-Abstract.
[37] Washburn, Gay N. Fossilization in Second Language Acquisition: A Vygotskian
Perspective. (Doctoral dissertation. University of Pennsylvania, 1992) UMI
ProQuest Digital Dissertations-Abstract and 24 Page Preview.
[38] Wei, LongXing. Unequal Election of Morphemes in Adult Second Language
Acquisition. Applied Linguistics 21/1: 106-140. Oxford: Oxford University Press
2000.
[39] White, Lydia. Second Language Acquisition: From Initial to Final State. Journal.
[40] Yip, Virginia. Interlanguage and Learnability: form Chinese to English.
Amstrerdam: John Benjamins, 1995.
[41] Zapata-Becerra, Argenis A. Overcoming Plateaus in Second Language Acquisition.
(Doctoral dissertation. University of Kansas, 1985) UMI ProQuest Digital
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(3). pp.37-43.
[43] 丰国欣. 普遍语法与二语习得相关程度研究综述 兼谈语言僵化的克服.
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Language Teaching & Research Press, 2000.
[2] Cook, Vivian. Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition. Beijing: Foreign
Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.
[3] Cook, Vivian. Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. Beijing: Foreign
Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.
[4] Ellis, Rod. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford and New York:
Oxford University Press, 1994.
[5] Gass, Susan M., and Jacquelyn Schachter. Linguistic Perspectives on Second
Language Acquistion. London and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
[6] Green, Christopher F. The Origins and Effects of Topic-prominence in
Chinese-English Interlanguage. IRAL: International Review of Applied Linguistics
in Language Teaching, May96, Vol. 34 Issue 2, p119, 16p.
[7] Han, ZhaoHong. Fossilization: Five Central Issues. Internet, 2002.
[8] Han, ZhaoHong. Persistence of the Implicit Influence of NL: The Case of the
Pseudo-passive. Applied Linguistics 21/1: 78-105. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2000.
[9] Han, ZhaoHong. Rethink the Role of Corrective Feedback in Communicative
Language Teaching. RELC Journal. June 2002, Vol. 33, No. 1.
[10] Han, ZhaoHong, and Larry Selinker. Multiple Effects and Error Resistance: A
Longitudinal Case Study. Internet, 1996.
[11] Han, ZhaoHong, and Larry Selinker. Second Language Instruction and
Fossi1ization. Baltimore, Maryland: TESOL 2003.
[12] He, George Xiaoxi. A Linguistic Investigation of Fossilized English Speech of
Malaysian and Southern Chinese Students. (Doctoral dissertation. University of
Mississippi, 1994) UMI ProQuest Digital Dissertations-Abstract.
[13] Heath, Denis R. Language Stabilization and Fossilization in the Bilingual Setting
of South Lebanon. (Thesis for Master’s Degree. University of Texas at Arlington,
1998) UMI ProQuest Digital Dissertations-Abstract.
[14] James, Carl. Errors in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis.
Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2001.
[15] Jiang, Nan. Lexical Representation and Development in L2. Applied Linguistics
21/1:47-77
[16] Johnson, Helen. De-fossilizing ELT Journal Volume 46/2 April 1992. Oxford:
62 Causes of Fossilization in SLA and De-fossilizing Strategies
Oxford University Press 1992.
[17] Juffs, Alan. Tone, Syllable Structure and Interlanguage Phonology: Chinese
Learners’Stress Errors. IRAL, May90, Vol. 28 Issue 2, p99, 19p.
[18] LaPolla, Randy J. Grammaticalization as Fossilization of Constraints on
Interpretation: Towards a Single Theory of Communication, Cognition, and the
Development of Language. Internet, 1997.
[19] Lardiere, Donna. Case and Tense in the ‘Fossilized’ Steady State. Second
Language Research 14,1 (1998); pp. 1–26
[20] LarryLatham, Maurice, Will Mcculloch, Noonlite, and Roger. Fossilization –
Teacher Discussion Forum. Internet, 2003.
[21] Larsen-Freeman, Diane, and Michael H. Long. An Introduction to Second
Language Acquisition Research. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and
Research Press, 2000.
[22] MacWhinney, Brian. Fossilization as Incomplete Learning. Internet.
[23] Nakuma, Constancio K. A New Theoretical Account of ‘Fossilization’:
Implications for L2 Attrition Research. IRAL: International Review of Applied
Linguistics in Language Teaching, 1998, Vol. 36 Issue 3, p247, 10p.
[24] Nickel, Gerhard. The Role of Interlanguage in Foreign Language Teaching. IRAL,
Feb98, Vol. 36 Issue 1, p1, 10p.
[25] Purdy J.D. An Investigation into the Neurolinguistic Basis of Fossilization. Internet,
2001.
[26] Romaine, S. Pidgin and Creole Language. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988.
[27] Rutherford, William E. The Current State of Interlanguage. Amstrerdam: John
Benjamins, 1995.
[28] Seliger, Herbert W., and Elana Shohamy. Second Language Research Methods.
Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.
[29] Selinker, Larry. Rediscovering Interlanguage. White Plains: Longman Publishing
Group, 1992.
[30] Selinker, L., and U. Lakshamanan. Language transfer and fossilization: The
Multiple Effects Principle. 1992.
[31] Selinker, Larry and ZhaoHong Han. Fossilization: What We Think We Know.
Internet, 1996.
[32] Thep-Ackrapong, Tipa. Fossilization: A Case Study of Practical and Theoretical
Parameters. (Doctoral dissertation. Illinois State University, 1990) UMI ProQuest
Digital Dissertations-Abstract.
References 63
[33] Thomson, Greg. Leave me alone! Can’t you see I’m learning your language?
LinguaLinks Library, Version 3.5, published on CD-ROM by SIL International.
Internet, 1999.
[34] Valette, Rebecca M. Proficiency and the Prevention of Fossilization---An Editorial.
The Modern Language Journal 75 (1991).
[35] Wales, Lynn. The Benefits of Literacy Development for Fossilization ESL Learners.
[J]. ELT Journal 1993(47): 144-155.
[36] Wang, Yun-Chien. The Errors and Learning Strategies of A Chinese-speaking
Woman Learning English in the United States. (Doctoral dissertation. The
University of Texas at Austin, 1988) UMI ProQuest Digital
Dissertations-Abstract.
[37] Washburn, Gay N. Fossilization in Second Language Acquisition: A Vygotskian
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