走向生态人文主义
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摘要
作为一位美国二战后的重要作家,库尔特·冯内古特(1922-2007)在文学批评界引起了不少争议。首先,他乐于以科幻小说的模式讲述故事的做法使得主流批评家将其视为普通的畅销小说家而不予问津。而后,虽然1969年《五号屠场》发表后,评论界开始注意到他所展现的独具一格的后现代叙事技巧,但是其作品中的悲观情绪和面对死亡和灾难时的狂笑仍然令很多学者不解。他们把他定位为黑色幽默小说家、荒诞主义作家,认为他宣传的世界观黑暗、虚无。随着更多作品的问世和他在美国青年中的威望与日俱增,更多的学者开始认真关注冯内古特,而且逐渐意识到他荒诞不经、嬉笑怒骂背后的严肃主题和教化思想。到上个世纪末至今,评论界基本达成共识,认为冯内古特是一位坚定不移的人文主义者。虽然他对人性的种种谬误口诛笔伐,不吝笔墨,但他从不放弃对人类的希望,总是去发现人性中的善与美,在荒诞、混沌的世界中探寻希望之光。
然而,即使在共识之中仍有分歧。虽然很多批评家注意到冯内古特的人文主义不同于传统的人文主义,他们却发现很难用一个名称准确地将其概括归纳。现有尝试,诸如“后现代人文主义”(David2006),“后现代主义的人文主义者”(陈世丹2010),和“厌恶人类的人文主义”(Tally2009)等等,都不能准确捕捉冯内古特对人类爱恨交织的矛盾态度。虽己逝去多年,冯内古特依然活在文学批评界,依然是那个“末日小丑”(Freese2009),一边戏卉着那些想要给他贴上万能标签的人,一边盛情邀请多元、开放的解读。
本文无意终结一切争议,而是想为现有研究增加一个新视角。动物意象一直在冯内古特研究中备受冷落,其实它们在冯内古特的小说世界无处不在。通过探究这些动物意象的作用,解码它们背后神秘的信息,并将其与冯内古特的人文主义思想相关联,我们发现,这些动物意象,无论它们是真实的还是想象的,是现实的还是隐喻的,都不仅仅是语言意义上的表现手段,不仅仅为了增添语言的表现力和表达的丰富性而存在。事实上,它们是冯内古特人道主义关怀的有机组成部分,对冯内古特实现他的人性主题具有重要作用。具体而言,关于动物角色的重要性的发掘为我们开辟了理解冯内古特人文主义思想的新途径,它向我们展示了冯内古特思想走向生态人文主义的重要趋势。
动物研究为解读动物意象提供了有力的视角和概念,同时也能帮助我们更好地理解生态人文主义。这是一个新兴的、影响力日益增强的人文学科领域,以检视人与动物的关系为核心内容,探究人类在日常生活和文化再现中对待动物的方式以及其中所体现的伦理、文化、政治等蕴含。动物研究的一个重要议题就是批判西方哲学传统中,特别是自启蒙运动以来,对动物的歧视态度和伦理压迫。这种基于物种差异的歧视被称为“物种歧视主义”,特别指人类对其他物种的压迫。一般认为,物种压迫常常与种族压迫、性别压迫、阶级压迫以及所有基于差异的压迫彼此勾连,沆瀣一气。在对传统人文主义中潜在的物种歧视主义发起拷问的过程中,动物研究与西方哲学传统中的另一支流,即反人文主义,以及当代人文主义新趋势中呈现出的“动物转向”相交汇融合。三者拥有一个共同的目标,那就是,弥补人类对大自然和其他物种所犯下的错误,实现人与自然的和解。在这一点上,他们同时指向人文主义新纪元的到来——生态人文主义。作为一个具有建设性特征的新观念,生态人文主义既有对传统人文主义中自鸣得意的人类优越论的批判,特别是对理性的崇拜和科学主义至上的思想,同时也主张发扬传统人文主义中的进步理念,比如解放、平等、正义等,并把这些理念拓展到非人类动物世界,实现所有生命体的完全解放。生态人文主义还提倡重新定义人类在宇宙以及生态共同体中的身份,以体现从征服到关爱的转变。
冯内古特的很多思想都和生态人文主义的观念相契合。首先,冯内古特强烈地意识到人类对生态环境的破坏,并不遗余力地对此进行抨击。对他早年生活以及所受影响的探究表明,冯内古特的世界观深受他与大自然亲密接触的几次经历的影响,而且他非常喜爱动物,深信动物能够提供比人类朋友更可信赖的友谊。这些有助于我们充分理解他创作中所体现的生态敏感和对动物意象的钟爱。
人性批判是冯内古特最为著名的主题,但很少有人注意到动物意象在展现这一主题中的作用。本论文的第二章便对人类的食肉行为加以剖析,以此为例揭示冯内古特对人性中的非人性的刻画。在《冠军早餐》、《戏法》、和《格拉帕哥斯群岛》中,杀食动物的情景反复出现,而且作家不惜重墨着意描写,充分表明冯内古特对这一常见行为所蕴含的道德问题的深切关注。从汉堡包生意中的冷漠,到饲养肉用小牛和活煮龙虾中的残忍、贪婪,再到对毫不设防的海岛动物毫无愧意的大肆屠杀,冯内古特为我们展现了一系列人类凶残毕露的画面。在这种原本只用来描述肉食动物的凶残面前,人性的根本定义变得岌岌可危。
孤独是冯内古特另一不变的主题。在后工业社会,人变成异化了的孤独幽灵,他们的本体安全感受到严重挑战。为了抗拒孤独,动物伴侣成为他们生存中不可或缺的内容。第三章探讨的便是动物伴侣所反映的现代人类的孤独问题。在《泰坦的女妖》、《冠军早餐》、和《玩笑》中,甚至至亲至爱的人也会反目成仇,形同陌路。夫妻关系、父子关系、兄妹关系都变得不堪一击,人们只得从宠物身上寻找人际亲密关系的替代。尽管这一视角或显细琐,但以管窥豹,后工业时代人类社会的普遍冷漠和孤独困境可见一斑。
《五号屠场》无疑是冯内古特创作生涯的巅峰。在动物问题的处理上,该作也表现出巨大的颠覆性。在这部小说中,物种边界受到严重冲击,人与动物发生身份转换。主人公比利两次被“动物化”：一次是在动物屠宰场中幸免于难,躲过了德莱斯顿轰炸,而这场轰炸无异于毫无意义的屠杀；另一次是在特拉法玛多的动物园里作为地球人样品被陈列展览。在对两次经历的描述中,作家对物种歧视主义的批判显而易见,而对现实生活中隶属于屠宰场与动物园的动物的同情也跃然纸上。与此同时,人自视为“万物的典范”的虚妄被无情地戳穿,人与动物之间那道“不可逾越的边界”变得千疮百孔、不堪一击。此外,外星球的引入制造了有效的星际视角,也赋予人一个普通物种的身份——地球人。这与生态人文主义所倡导的人作为生物共同体的普通成员身份无限接近。
尽管冯内古特对人性批判有加,但他不是反人文主义者,也不憎恨人类。相反,他对人类怀有深沉的爱,希望能够找到解决人类困境的良方。在这一点上,动物又一次为他提供援助。在《泰坦的女妖》和《格拉帕哥斯群岛》中,人类经历了现实意义上的“成为动物”。博厄斯和克鲁诺分别选择与水星上的岩洞生物和泰坦星上的蓝鸟共度余生；而在《格拉帕哥斯群岛》中,一百万年以后,人类终于摆脱巨型大脑的控制,变成了无忧无虑的两栖动物。通过选择“动物化”和回归动物王国,无论是在现实意义上还是隐喻意义上的回归,人类最终实现了精神与生态的和谐统一,享受到在大自然之中的和平、满足、和谐共存。
总之,动物在冯内古特的人性主题中举足轻重,它们能帮助我们准确理解冯内古特人文主义思想的独特品质。同样,生态人文主义有助于我们深刻理解冯内古特对人性批判与倡导并举的做法,同时有效地联接了他的人文主义关怀与他对动物以及生态危机的深切关注。然而,冯内古特本质上还是一个“人类主义者”,按照他自己的解释,也就是特别对人感兴趣的人。他对动物的同情与关注,虽然持久真诚,但更多的是以作为人性的弱点与谬误的反射而出现。遗憾的是,冯内古特在生前未能实现已然在他的思想中勃然萌发的生态人文主义之花的盛放。
As an important post-WWII American writer, Kurt Vonnegut (1922-2007) has caused much controversy among literary critics. To start with, his preference to write in the science fiction mode made mainstream critics dismiss him as another popular pulp literature writer. When Slaughterhouse-Five came out in1969, critics began to recognize the unique postmodernist narrative power he demonstrated, but the note of pessimism and the dark laughter of gallows humor in his works confused many scholars and they believed him to be mainly a black humorist and absurdist who saw the world in a dark, nihilistic vision. With more works published and his popularity with the American youth rocketing, serious critical attention to Vonnegut grew and scholars came to realize the seriousness and the moralizing urge behind the bizarre plots and the hilarity and chaos that marked his world. By the1990s and until now, scholars have generally agreed that Kurt Vonnegut is an adamant humanist who, despite his relentless satire and criticism of humanity's faults and follies, persists in seeing goodness and beauty in humanity and maintains hope against a world that is basically absurd and despairing.
However, even in this consensus there is disagreement. Whereas many scholars have noticed that Vonnegut's humanism differs from the classic humanism, they find it hard to nail it down with an appropriate name. Attempts such as "postmodern humanism"(David2006),"postmodernist humanist"(Chen2010), and "misanthropic humanism"(Tally2009) are inadequate to capture the complex love-hate sentiments Vonnegut holds for humanity. Years after his death, Vonnegut stays alive in the critical world as the "Clown of Armageddon"(Freese2009) who pokes fun at those who intend to label him with a dead name and instead encourages open and diversified interpretations.
This dissertation is not an ambitious effort to finalize the controversy, but to add to the existing Vonnegut scholarship another possible perspective. Animals have long been ignored in the studies of Vonnegut, although they abound in his fictional world. An investigation into their roles, decoding their enigmatic messages in relation to Vonnegut's predominant humanistic concerns, reveals that the animal images, be they real or imaginary, realistic or metaphorical, are more than linguistic devices used to increase forcefulness and richness of expression. They are, in effect, integral parts of Vonnegut's humanitarianism and significantly contribute to his themes of humanity. Indeed, the exploration of the significance of animal roles opens new grounds for the understanding of Vonnegut's treatment of humanism, namely, it reveals a tendency in Vonnegut's thinking toward ecological humanism.
Animal studies offers useful perspectives and concepts for the interpretation of animal images and is helpful for the understanding of ecological humanism. It is an emerging and increasingly influential field that reexamines the human-animal relationship and investigates the ethical, cultural, and political implications in the human treatment of animals, both in daily life and in the cultural representation. Central on its agenda is the critique of the Western philosophical traditions, particularly the legacy from the Enlightenment, that have been anthropocentrically prejudiced against animals and denied them ethical standing. The term speciesism is used to describe this discrimination based on the difference of species, primarily the human prejudice against the nonhuman species. It is generally believed that the oppression of species is always interlocked with oppressions of race, sex, and class, and any other discrimination based on difference. In its interrogation of speciesism inherent in classic humanism, animal studies converges with the anti-humanist tradition in the Western philosophy and the "animal turn" manifest in the contemporary development of humanism. Sharing a common goal to remedy the wrongs human beings have done to nature and other species and to realize the reconciliation between humans and nature, these intellectual trends all point to the advent of a new era of humanism-ecological humanism, a constructive concept that denounces the overweening assumption of human supremacy in classic humanism, its cult of reason and scientism in particular, but at the same time advocates the extension of the aspirations in classic humanism such as liberty, justice, and equality to the nonhuman world so as to realize the full emancipation of all living beings and proposes a redefinition of the human identity in the universe and the ecological community, so as to display the transformation from mastery to kinship.
Much of Vonnegut's thinking is consensual with the concepts of ecological humanism. First of all, he is strongly aware of the ecological destruction caused by human beings and condemns it at every opportunity. An investigation into his earlier experiences and the influences on him shows us a Vonnegut whose worldview was deeply affected by his experiences in nature and who had strong affection for animals, believing that animals offer more trustworthy and unconditional friendship than humans. All this lays foundation for our understanding of his ecological sensibility and the fondness of animal images in his writing.
Critique of humanity is one of the most well-known themes of Vonnegut, but little importance is attached to the roles of animals in bearing out this theme. In Chapter Two, the issue of meat-eating is explored as a case of humanity's inhumanity. In Breakfast of Champions, Hocus Pocus, and Galapagos, killing animals for food is a common recurrent motif. The deliberation with which Vonnegut describes the killing scenes indicates his deep concern over the moral implications in this common practice. From the callousness in the hamburger business, the avarice and cruelty in raising the veal calf and boiling the lobster alive, to the shameless carnage of trusting island creatures, Vonnegut presents us a series of pictures where the ferocity in humanity is exposed with growing intensity. In view of such ferocity that used to be ascribed only to animal predators, the fundamental definition of humanity becomes seriously challenged.
Loneliness is another constant concern for Vonnegut. In the post-industrial society, humans become pathetic creatures that are alienated and lonely; their sense of ontological security is highly at stake. To combat loneliness and maintain sanity, animal companions become indispensable. Chapter Three deals with the theme of human loneliness as reflected in the animal companionship. In The Sirens of Titan, Breakfast of Champions, and Slapstick, even people of the closest relation, such as wife and husband, father and son, brother and sister, can be estranged and hostile to each other. Pets have to be relied on for the replacement of interpersonal intimacy. Trivial as this perspective may seem, it represents the widespread apathy and the human predicament of loneliness in the post-industrial society.
Slaughterhouse-Five is undoubtedly the summit of Vonnegut's literary career. In terms of animal treatment, it is also one of the most daring. In the novel, the boundary of species is radically blurred by the transposition of the human with the animal. Billy Pilgrim becomes twice "animalized":first as a survivor in the slaughterhouse from the senseless slaughtering that the Dresden firebombing essentially is, then as a sample of the Earthlings exhibited in the Tralfamadore zoo. In both experiences, critique of speciesism is obvious and sympathy for the condition of the real animals that are normally in the slaughterhouse and the zoo is evoked. Meanwhile, the human hubris as the "paragon of animals" is deflated and the fragility and porosity of the "insuperable line" between humans and animals is made apparent. In addition, the introduction of an extraterrestrial planet creates an effective interplanetary perspective and renders humans a humbled species identity as the "Earthlings". This is very close to the eco-humanist proposition of biotic citizenship.
In spite of all his bitter criticism of humanity, however, Vonnegut is not a pessimist, nor is he a misanthrope. He fosters profound love for humanity and wishes to find solutions for the human predicament. Animals come to his rescue again. In The Sirens of Titan and Galapagos, human characters undergo a literalized process of "becoming animal". Boaz and Chrono respectively choose to live with the harmonium and bluebirds in The Sirens of Titan, while in Galapagos, after a million years' evolution, humans eventually do away with the manipulating big brain and become joyous amphibians. In the choice of animalizing and return to the animal kingdom, literally or metaphorically, human beings finally achieve the ecological and spiritual integrity that consists in peace, contentment, and harmony with themselves and with their environment.
To conclude, animals play important roles in Vonnegut's treatment of the humanistic themes and help define the special quality of Vonnegut's humanism. Ecological humanism, in return, helps further our understanding of Vonnegut's simultaneous attack and advocacy of humanity. It also offers a conjuncture where his humanistic concerns conjoin his strong sensibility for animals and for the ecological destruction. Still, Vonnegut is primarily a "humanist", which, according to his explanation, means one who is especially interested in humans. His sympathy for the animals, sincere and constant as it is, mainly expresses itself in the reflection of humanity's weaknesses and follies. Unfortunately, he did not live to the full bloom of the ecological humanism that is burgeoning so refreshingly in his thought.
然而,即使在共识之中仍有分歧。虽然很多批评家注意到冯内古特的人文主义不同于传统的人文主义,他们却发现很难用一个名称准确地将其概括归纳。现有尝试,诸如“后现代人文主义”(David2006),“后现代主义的人文主义者”(陈世丹2010),和“厌恶人类的人文主义”(Tally2009)等等,都不能准确捕捉冯内古特对人类爱恨交织的矛盾态度。虽己逝去多年,冯内古特依然活在文学批评界,依然是那个“末日小丑”(Freese2009),一边戏卉着那些想要给他贴上万能标签的人,一边盛情邀请多元、开放的解读。
本文无意终结一切争议,而是想为现有研究增加一个新视角。动物意象一直在冯内古特研究中备受冷落,其实它们在冯内古特的小说世界无处不在。通过探究这些动物意象的作用,解码它们背后神秘的信息,并将其与冯内古特的人文主义思想相关联,我们发现,这些动物意象,无论它们是真实的还是想象的,是现实的还是隐喻的,都不仅仅是语言意义上的表现手段,不仅仅为了增添语言的表现力和表达的丰富性而存在。事实上,它们是冯内古特人道主义关怀的有机组成部分,对冯内古特实现他的人性主题具有重要作用。具体而言,关于动物角色的重要性的发掘为我们开辟了理解冯内古特人文主义思想的新途径,它向我们展示了冯内古特思想走向生态人文主义的重要趋势。
动物研究为解读动物意象提供了有力的视角和概念,同时也能帮助我们更好地理解生态人文主义。这是一个新兴的、影响力日益增强的人文学科领域,以检视人与动物的关系为核心内容,探究人类在日常生活和文化再现中对待动物的方式以及其中所体现的伦理、文化、政治等蕴含。动物研究的一个重要议题就是批判西方哲学传统中,特别是自启蒙运动以来,对动物的歧视态度和伦理压迫。这种基于物种差异的歧视被称为“物种歧视主义”,特别指人类对其他物种的压迫。一般认为,物种压迫常常与种族压迫、性别压迫、阶级压迫以及所有基于差异的压迫彼此勾连,沆瀣一气。在对传统人文主义中潜在的物种歧视主义发起拷问的过程中,动物研究与西方哲学传统中的另一支流,即反人文主义,以及当代人文主义新趋势中呈现出的“动物转向”相交汇融合。三者拥有一个共同的目标,那就是,弥补人类对大自然和其他物种所犯下的错误,实现人与自然的和解。在这一点上,他们同时指向人文主义新纪元的到来——生态人文主义。作为一个具有建设性特征的新观念,生态人文主义既有对传统人文主义中自鸣得意的人类优越论的批判,特别是对理性的崇拜和科学主义至上的思想,同时也主张发扬传统人文主义中的进步理念,比如解放、平等、正义等,并把这些理念拓展到非人类动物世界,实现所有生命体的完全解放。生态人文主义还提倡重新定义人类在宇宙以及生态共同体中的身份,以体现从征服到关爱的转变。
冯内古特的很多思想都和生态人文主义的观念相契合。首先,冯内古特强烈地意识到人类对生态环境的破坏,并不遗余力地对此进行抨击。对他早年生活以及所受影响的探究表明,冯内古特的世界观深受他与大自然亲密接触的几次经历的影响,而且他非常喜爱动物,深信动物能够提供比人类朋友更可信赖的友谊。这些有助于我们充分理解他创作中所体现的生态敏感和对动物意象的钟爱。
人性批判是冯内古特最为著名的主题,但很少有人注意到动物意象在展现这一主题中的作用。本论文的第二章便对人类的食肉行为加以剖析,以此为例揭示冯内古特对人性中的非人性的刻画。在《冠军早餐》、《戏法》、和《格拉帕哥斯群岛》中,杀食动物的情景反复出现,而且作家不惜重墨着意描写,充分表明冯内古特对这一常见行为所蕴含的道德问题的深切关注。从汉堡包生意中的冷漠,到饲养肉用小牛和活煮龙虾中的残忍、贪婪,再到对毫不设防的海岛动物毫无愧意的大肆屠杀,冯内古特为我们展现了一系列人类凶残毕露的画面。在这种原本只用来描述肉食动物的凶残面前,人性的根本定义变得岌岌可危。
孤独是冯内古特另一不变的主题。在后工业社会,人变成异化了的孤独幽灵,他们的本体安全感受到严重挑战。为了抗拒孤独,动物伴侣成为他们生存中不可或缺的内容。第三章探讨的便是动物伴侣所反映的现代人类的孤独问题。在《泰坦的女妖》、《冠军早餐》、和《玩笑》中,甚至至亲至爱的人也会反目成仇,形同陌路。夫妻关系、父子关系、兄妹关系都变得不堪一击,人们只得从宠物身上寻找人际亲密关系的替代。尽管这一视角或显细琐,但以管窥豹,后工业时代人类社会的普遍冷漠和孤独困境可见一斑。
《五号屠场》无疑是冯内古特创作生涯的巅峰。在动物问题的处理上,该作也表现出巨大的颠覆性。在这部小说中,物种边界受到严重冲击,人与动物发生身份转换。主人公比利两次被“动物化”：一次是在动物屠宰场中幸免于难,躲过了德莱斯顿轰炸,而这场轰炸无异于毫无意义的屠杀；另一次是在特拉法玛多的动物园里作为地球人样品被陈列展览。在对两次经历的描述中,作家对物种歧视主义的批判显而易见,而对现实生活中隶属于屠宰场与动物园的动物的同情也跃然纸上。与此同时,人自视为“万物的典范”的虚妄被无情地戳穿,人与动物之间那道“不可逾越的边界”变得千疮百孔、不堪一击。此外,外星球的引入制造了有效的星际视角,也赋予人一个普通物种的身份——地球人。这与生态人文主义所倡导的人作为生物共同体的普通成员身份无限接近。
尽管冯内古特对人性批判有加,但他不是反人文主义者,也不憎恨人类。相反,他对人类怀有深沉的爱,希望能够找到解决人类困境的良方。在这一点上,动物又一次为他提供援助。在《泰坦的女妖》和《格拉帕哥斯群岛》中,人类经历了现实意义上的“成为动物”。博厄斯和克鲁诺分别选择与水星上的岩洞生物和泰坦星上的蓝鸟共度余生；而在《格拉帕哥斯群岛》中,一百万年以后,人类终于摆脱巨型大脑的控制,变成了无忧无虑的两栖动物。通过选择“动物化”和回归动物王国,无论是在现实意义上还是隐喻意义上的回归,人类最终实现了精神与生态的和谐统一,享受到在大自然之中的和平、满足、和谐共存。
总之,动物在冯内古特的人性主题中举足轻重,它们能帮助我们准确理解冯内古特人文主义思想的独特品质。同样,生态人文主义有助于我们深刻理解冯内古特对人性批判与倡导并举的做法,同时有效地联接了他的人文主义关怀与他对动物以及生态危机的深切关注。然而,冯内古特本质上还是一个“人类主义者”,按照他自己的解释,也就是特别对人感兴趣的人。他对动物的同情与关注,虽然持久真诚,但更多的是以作为人性的弱点与谬误的反射而出现。遗憾的是,冯内古特在生前未能实现已然在他的思想中勃然萌发的生态人文主义之花的盛放。
As an important post-WWII American writer, Kurt Vonnegut (1922-2007) has caused much controversy among literary critics. To start with, his preference to write in the science fiction mode made mainstream critics dismiss him as another popular pulp literature writer. When Slaughterhouse-Five came out in1969, critics began to recognize the unique postmodernist narrative power he demonstrated, but the note of pessimism and the dark laughter of gallows humor in his works confused many scholars and they believed him to be mainly a black humorist and absurdist who saw the world in a dark, nihilistic vision. With more works published and his popularity with the American youth rocketing, serious critical attention to Vonnegut grew and scholars came to realize the seriousness and the moralizing urge behind the bizarre plots and the hilarity and chaos that marked his world. By the1990s and until now, scholars have generally agreed that Kurt Vonnegut is an adamant humanist who, despite his relentless satire and criticism of humanity's faults and follies, persists in seeing goodness and beauty in humanity and maintains hope against a world that is basically absurd and despairing.
However, even in this consensus there is disagreement. Whereas many scholars have noticed that Vonnegut's humanism differs from the classic humanism, they find it hard to nail it down with an appropriate name. Attempts such as "postmodern humanism"(David2006),"postmodernist humanist"(Chen2010), and "misanthropic humanism"(Tally2009) are inadequate to capture the complex love-hate sentiments Vonnegut holds for humanity. Years after his death, Vonnegut stays alive in the critical world as the "Clown of Armageddon"(Freese2009) who pokes fun at those who intend to label him with a dead name and instead encourages open and diversified interpretations.
This dissertation is not an ambitious effort to finalize the controversy, but to add to the existing Vonnegut scholarship another possible perspective. Animals have long been ignored in the studies of Vonnegut, although they abound in his fictional world. An investigation into their roles, decoding their enigmatic messages in relation to Vonnegut's predominant humanistic concerns, reveals that the animal images, be they real or imaginary, realistic or metaphorical, are more than linguistic devices used to increase forcefulness and richness of expression. They are, in effect, integral parts of Vonnegut's humanitarianism and significantly contribute to his themes of humanity. Indeed, the exploration of the significance of animal roles opens new grounds for the understanding of Vonnegut's treatment of humanism, namely, it reveals a tendency in Vonnegut's thinking toward ecological humanism.
Animal studies offers useful perspectives and concepts for the interpretation of animal images and is helpful for the understanding of ecological humanism. It is an emerging and increasingly influential field that reexamines the human-animal relationship and investigates the ethical, cultural, and political implications in the human treatment of animals, both in daily life and in the cultural representation. Central on its agenda is the critique of the Western philosophical traditions, particularly the legacy from the Enlightenment, that have been anthropocentrically prejudiced against animals and denied them ethical standing. The term speciesism is used to describe this discrimination based on the difference of species, primarily the human prejudice against the nonhuman species. It is generally believed that the oppression of species is always interlocked with oppressions of race, sex, and class, and any other discrimination based on difference. In its interrogation of speciesism inherent in classic humanism, animal studies converges with the anti-humanist tradition in the Western philosophy and the "animal turn" manifest in the contemporary development of humanism. Sharing a common goal to remedy the wrongs human beings have done to nature and other species and to realize the reconciliation between humans and nature, these intellectual trends all point to the advent of a new era of humanism-ecological humanism, a constructive concept that denounces the overweening assumption of human supremacy in classic humanism, its cult of reason and scientism in particular, but at the same time advocates the extension of the aspirations in classic humanism such as liberty, justice, and equality to the nonhuman world so as to realize the full emancipation of all living beings and proposes a redefinition of the human identity in the universe and the ecological community, so as to display the transformation from mastery to kinship.
Much of Vonnegut's thinking is consensual with the concepts of ecological humanism. First of all, he is strongly aware of the ecological destruction caused by human beings and condemns it at every opportunity. An investigation into his earlier experiences and the influences on him shows us a Vonnegut whose worldview was deeply affected by his experiences in nature and who had strong affection for animals, believing that animals offer more trustworthy and unconditional friendship than humans. All this lays foundation for our understanding of his ecological sensibility and the fondness of animal images in his writing.
Critique of humanity is one of the most well-known themes of Vonnegut, but little importance is attached to the roles of animals in bearing out this theme. In Chapter Two, the issue of meat-eating is explored as a case of humanity's inhumanity. In Breakfast of Champions, Hocus Pocus, and Galapagos, killing animals for food is a common recurrent motif. The deliberation with which Vonnegut describes the killing scenes indicates his deep concern over the moral implications in this common practice. From the callousness in the hamburger business, the avarice and cruelty in raising the veal calf and boiling the lobster alive, to the shameless carnage of trusting island creatures, Vonnegut presents us a series of pictures where the ferocity in humanity is exposed with growing intensity. In view of such ferocity that used to be ascribed only to animal predators, the fundamental definition of humanity becomes seriously challenged.
Loneliness is another constant concern for Vonnegut. In the post-industrial society, humans become pathetic creatures that are alienated and lonely; their sense of ontological security is highly at stake. To combat loneliness and maintain sanity, animal companions become indispensable. Chapter Three deals with the theme of human loneliness as reflected in the animal companionship. In The Sirens of Titan, Breakfast of Champions, and Slapstick, even people of the closest relation, such as wife and husband, father and son, brother and sister, can be estranged and hostile to each other. Pets have to be relied on for the replacement of interpersonal intimacy. Trivial as this perspective may seem, it represents the widespread apathy and the human predicament of loneliness in the post-industrial society.
Slaughterhouse-Five is undoubtedly the summit of Vonnegut's literary career. In terms of animal treatment, it is also one of the most daring. In the novel, the boundary of species is radically blurred by the transposition of the human with the animal. Billy Pilgrim becomes twice "animalized":first as a survivor in the slaughterhouse from the senseless slaughtering that the Dresden firebombing essentially is, then as a sample of the Earthlings exhibited in the Tralfamadore zoo. In both experiences, critique of speciesism is obvious and sympathy for the condition of the real animals that are normally in the slaughterhouse and the zoo is evoked. Meanwhile, the human hubris as the "paragon of animals" is deflated and the fragility and porosity of the "insuperable line" between humans and animals is made apparent. In addition, the introduction of an extraterrestrial planet creates an effective interplanetary perspective and renders humans a humbled species identity as the "Earthlings". This is very close to the eco-humanist proposition of biotic citizenship.
In spite of all his bitter criticism of humanity, however, Vonnegut is not a pessimist, nor is he a misanthrope. He fosters profound love for humanity and wishes to find solutions for the human predicament. Animals come to his rescue again. In The Sirens of Titan and Galapagos, human characters undergo a literalized process of "becoming animal". Boaz and Chrono respectively choose to live with the harmonium and bluebirds in The Sirens of Titan, while in Galapagos, after a million years' evolution, humans eventually do away with the manipulating big brain and become joyous amphibians. In the choice of animalizing and return to the animal kingdom, literally or metaphorically, human beings finally achieve the ecological and spiritual integrity that consists in peace, contentment, and harmony with themselves and with their environment.
To conclude, animals play important roles in Vonnegut's treatment of the humanistic themes and help define the special quality of Vonnegut's humanism. Ecological humanism, in return, helps further our understanding of Vonnegut's simultaneous attack and advocacy of humanity. It also offers a conjuncture where his humanistic concerns conjoin his strong sensibility for animals and for the ecological destruction. Still, Vonnegut is primarily a "humanist", which, according to his explanation, means one who is especially interested in humans. His sympathy for the animals, sincere and constant as it is, mainly expresses itself in the reflection of humanity's weaknesses and follies. Unfortunately, he did not live to the full bloom of the ecological humanism that is burgeoning so refreshingly in his thought.
引文
1 This statistics is based on the bibliography offered by the scholarly website of "The Vonnegut Society" (http://www.vonnegutsociety.net), with additions and modifications on basis of findings from other research. For example, four more scholarly books were published in the past three years, two biographies came out in 2011, and a collection of letters came out in 2012.
2 See the two articles by Lawler, "The Siren of Titan:Vonnegut's Metaphysical Shaggy-Dog Story" and "Vonnegut in academe (Ⅱ), in Vonnegut in America, eds. Jerome Klinkowitz & Donald L. Lawler (New York:Delacorte Press/Seymour Lawrence,1977) 188,84.
3 See Willis E. McNelly's article, "Kurt Vonnegut as Science-Fiction Writer", and his talk in the seminar "Vonnegut in Academe", both in Vonnegut in America, eds. Klinkowitz & Lawler (New York:Delacorte Press/Seymour Lawrence,1977),87-96,193. Vonnegut, Jr. (New York:University of Minnesota Press,1972) 204-220; Robert Merrill. "Vonnegut's Breakfast of Champions:The Conversion of Heliogabalus," Critique 18 (1977):99-109.
5 The three articles are:"Kurt Vonnegut and the Myths and Symbols of Meaning," (Texas Studies in Literature and Language 24 (1982):429-47); "The Heraclitean Cosmos of Kurt Bonnegut," (Papers on Langue and Literature 18 (1982):208-24); and "Vonnegut's Self-Projections:Symbolic Characters and Symbolic Fiction.(Journal of Narrative Technique 12 (1982):177-90). The former two are reprinted in Merrill's Critical Essay on Kurt Vonnegut (Boston:G. K. Hall & Co.,1990) 201-216,216-230. The page numbers are based on this reprint.
6 See "Vonnegut's Tralfamadore and Milton's Eden," Essays in Literature 13 (1986):299-312. Leonard Mustazza later extended the argument of the essay into a monograph, Forever Pursuing Genesis:the Myth of Eden in the Novels of Kurt Vonnegut (Cranbury:Associated University Presses,1990).
7 The tendency to stress the pessimistic aspect of Vonnegut persists till recent studies. For example, Josephine Hendin writes in Harvard Guide to Contemporary American Writing that Vonnegut celebrates themes of detachment and meaninglessness as devices for diminishing the emotional charge of painful experiences and offers only "passivity, acceptance, resignation, and denial" as solution to the sense of helplessness life engenders (qtd. in Broer 8).
8 At first, the translation was mainly directed at short stories and excerpts from Slaughterhouse-Five. In the mid-1980s, more novels were translated. After a curious gap between 1989 and 1997, a revival of interest appeared at the beginning of the new century and more works by Vonnegut were translated, at a much quicker pace, too. When Liu Hongtao's translation of A Man Without a Country came out in 2006, it was only one year after the publication of the English original.
9 The findings are based on four searches on the database, using three different Chinese translations of the author's name, namely,冯内古特,冯尼古特,冯尼格特,as well as the English name.
10 张子清,《反映当代美国社会的一面哈哈镜——试评冯尼古特及其小说的思想性与艺术性》,载于《当代外国文学》1980年第2期。英文标题为笔者翻译。
11 See Li Chunping(李春萍),'A Spiritual Ecological Interpretation of Slaughterhouse-Five", MA thesis of Northeastern Normal University,2009; Wu Zhenzhen (武真真), "Revelation of Destruction:An Ecological Interpretation of Kurt Vonnegut's Cat's Cradle", MA thesis of Zhenzhou University,2011.
12 In most works of animal studies, scholars tend to use "nonhuman animals" to distinguish them from human beings, as they believe humans are animals as well. I agree with them, but for convenience's sake, I use the word "animal" in its everyday sense to refer to nonhuman animals. For purposes of emphasis, contrast, or rhetoric effects, I will use the term "nonhuman animal" or "nonhuman" to denote other animals.
13 I think this proud assertion is dubious because it is much undermined by the following lines of the same soliloquy: "and yet, to me, what is this quintessence of dust?”The sharp letdown of tone, I think, is highly suggestive of Shakespeare's ironic view and mocking attitude toward the prevailing confidence in humanity in his time. This will be further explored in Chapter Four.
14 In the issue of animals'moral status, Lawrence was even more radical than Bentham. He denounced systematically the Cartesian view that animals were "merely for the use and purposes of man", claiming that "life, intelligence, and feeling necessarily imply rights". In these respects, he contended, animals were like people and that "the essence of justice" was not "divisible" (qtd. in Nash 24).
15 Like Benthem, Schopenhauer made the capacity for suffering key to his analysis of morality and rejects the contention that animals have no self-consciousness. He insisted that right conduct is based on compassion for all beings who can suffer. He quoted the Indian prayer in support of his belief that boundless compassion for all living beings is the firmest and surest guarantee of pure moral conduct- “May all living beings remain free from pain” (Midgley 1983:52). Nonetheless, like Voltaire and Rousseau, he was not ready yet to carry his compassion for other species to the length of abstaining from eating their meat.
16 Early movements of protest had different goals and bore names in different countries and at different times. In Great Britain, there was a vegetarian movement in 1790; in the early 19th century, the organized animal welfare movement emerged; in the Victorian era, the greatest campaign was the anti-vivisection movement. Following the examples of their British precedents, Americans had the animal welfare movement and anti-vivisection movement in the 19th century. In Australia, the movement is referred to as the animal protection movement, beginning with the 1873 formation of the Animal Protection Society of New South Wales. This animal welfare movement loss its mass appeal in both Britain and America after WWI and didn't resume its vigor and influence until the 1960s, which transformed into the animal rights movement (http://animalstudies.msu.edu/bibliography.php).
17 The Sociology Department of MSU has one of the major centers of Animal Studies in North America. The thirteen categories it offers are:animals as philosophical and ethical subjects, animals as reflexive thinkers, domestication and predation, animals as entertainment and spectacle, animals as symbols and companions, animals in science, education and therapy, animals in history, animals as food, animals in literature and ecocriticism, animals in feminism and ecofeminism, animals in religion, myth, and folktales, and conservation and human/animal conflict (http://animalstudies.msu.edu/bibliography.php).
18 Biocentric ethics distinguish intrinsic value from instrumental value by emphasizing the value a being has that is intrinsic to itself, independent of outside factors, including its use to others. The difference between intrinsic value and inherent value is still an issue of controversy. According to Joseph R. DesJardins (2006), who in turn, follows the understanding of Susan Armstrong and Richard Botzler, intrinsic value is independent of the presence of a valuer. An object has intrinsic value when it has value both in and for itself. On the other hand, inherent value requires the presence of a valuer who confers the value on the object (DesJardins 146).
19 Many people would say that animal studies is a sub-discipline of ecocriticism, and many major scholarly works of ecocriticism have a separate chapter for the animal question. But judging from the growing concentration of academic interest in the animals (no other subject in ecocriticism has attracted so much attention as an independent topic) and its highly interdisciplinary relationship with other disciplines, such as philosophy, history, anthropology, sociology, ethics, etc., I feel that animal studies is emerging as an independent discipline, but with close kinship with ecocriticism.
20 Wolfgang Giegerich lists seven forms of contact with animals for contemporary urban population. These are the first six, the seventh is "biological organism and production of evolution", quoted in Bleakley,34.
21 For the discussion of antihumanism, see Tony Davies, Humanism (London and New York:Routledge,2008 [1997]) and Kate Soper, Humanism and Anti-Humanism (London:Hutchinson and Co.,1986).
22 佘正荣,《走向“生态人文主义”》,《自然辨证法研究》,Vol.13, No.8,1997,41-45。三个阶段的中文表述为：“自然人文主义”,“科技人文主义”和“生态人文主义”。英文表述为笔者翻译。
23 Steven Fesmire, "Ecological Humanism:a Moral Image for our Emotive Culture". The Humanist. Jan/Feb 2001, Vol.61 issue 1,27-30; Roger Griffin, "Ecological Humanism and the Grounding of Utopia", New Humanist, November,2003.
24 Jame Lovelock is a British climate scientist, best known for his theory of Gaia, that the earth is a holistic, self-regulating entity, whose every part, whether animate life or inanimate matter, is mutually interrelated with every other. Lovelock believes that this ecological system will always act to maintain or restore its overall equilibrium; and if that requires the creation of conditions in which a species cannot survive, so much the worse for the species.
25 John Gray, author of Straw Dogs, believes the sojourn of humanity is no more than a minor episode in the continuing evolution of the planet and will eventually extinct long before the species that he is bent on destroying.
28 In Great Britain, philosophers such as Spinoza, John Ray, and Alexander Pope began discussing the human-animal relationship from the perspective of pantheism as early as the 17th century. By the 18th century Jeremy Bentham, John Lawrence, and Henry Salt openly castigated cruelty to animals and compared tyranny to animals with that to human beings. Martin Act, the first influential law forbidding cruelty to domestic animals appeared in 1822, and in 1876, Cruelty to Animals Act was passed to prevent laboratory cruelty, bringing the British animal welfare movement to a summit. In America, however, it was not until 1966 that the first Animal Welfare Act was passed, regulating the practice of vivisection (See Nash 1989:20-34).
29 These are animal images in Dr. Seuss books. They all look strange and bizarre, unlike any of the real animals. Significantly, Dr. Seuss (original name Theodor Seuss Geisel, renowned writer of children's books and illustrator) became an "unlikely spokesman" of environmentalism in the 1970s in his creation of a character, "the Lorax", who speaks for the trees in opposition to the Once-ler, a personification of economic growth who is bent on cutting down all the trees. It is obvious that the readers are asked to identify with the odd creature instead of the immoral woodcutter (Stoll 19-20).
30 Charles J. Shields, "Kurt Vonnegut's Prairie Adventure", (http://www.bigworldmagazine.com/kurt-vonneguts-prairie-adventure).
31 Both are coinages of Vonnegut. A "granfalloon" is a false and meaningless association of people. The Daughters of the American Revolution, citizens of a nation, General Electric, and All-Persons-Under-30 are the examples of granfalloons. A karass, on the other hand, is a true connection among persons meant to be with one another.
33 A novel written by Johann David Wyss, first published in 1812, about a Swiss family shipwrecked in the East Indies en route to Port Jackson, Australia. The story emphasizes how the family survives the storm and shipwreck and manages a living on an isolated island. They live with a lot of animals, both livestock and pets on the ship and wild animals they found on the island.
34 See Wilson, et al., "Scientific Advancements and Legislation Addressing Veal Calves in North America", (http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/vetext/inf-an/inf-an_vea195france.html).
35 See webpage http://homecooking.about.com/od/foodhistory/a/lobsterhistory.htm.
36 Leonard Mustazza explicates his understanding of the novel in the framework of Milton's Paradise Lost. "Paradise within" is Milton's term that he borrows, describing the state of happiness and serenity achieved by loving and caring for people around. See "The Sirens of Titan and the 'Paradise Within'", in Forever Pursuing Genesis,45-58).
37 Peter Freese draws a list of all the science fiction stories of Trout mentioned in the novel,17 in total. He also classifies the tales into three groups, the second of which is the narratives concerned with "tragic failures to communicate". See The Clown of Armageddon:The Novels of Kurt Vonnegut (Heidelberg:Universitatsverlag Winter,2009) 374.
38 The expression is borrowed from Lawrence R. Broer, who discusses Breakfast of Champions as Vonnegut's endeavor to survive personal depression. See Chapter 7, "Breakfast of Champions:Spiritual Crossroads", in Sanity Plea:Schizophrenia in Novels of Kurt Vonnegut (Ann Arbor:UMI Research Press,1989) 97-107.
39 See Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, "Books of the Times," The New York Times,24 September 1976, p. C19; Roger Sale, "Slapstick," The New York Times Book Review,3 October 1976, pp.3,20,21; R. Z. Sheppard, "Goodbye Indianapolis," Time,105 (25 October 1976),84.
40 Philip Armstrong gives a convincing discussion of the relationship between Crusoe and his dog in What Animals Mean in the Fiction of Modernity (New York:Routledge,2008),40-41.
41 See for his repeated admiration of the idea of the folk society in "Address to the National Institute of Arts and Letters,1971", in Wampeters, Foma and Granfalloons, pp 176-179; "Self Interview" and "Religion" in Palm Sunday,pp.116,211.
42 Vonnegut's propaganda of the idea of the artificial extended family can be found at various places, for example, in the famous Playboy interview (CKV 78-81), Palm Sunday (204-5), and Fates Worse Than Death (34).
43 In the conversation with Laurie Clancy of 1971, Vonnegut explained his popularity with college students by saying: "I suppose I talk about things that are on people's minds-a very simple-minded, sophomoric sort of thing. Why are we on earth, what's really going on, and all that, which you're supposed to stop talking about when you get older" (CKV 47).
44 Alice's oldest son, Jim has become a goat farmer on a mountain top in Jamaica. See Palm Sunday, p.97.
45 Vonnegut said in an interview, "Every mother's favorite child is the one that's delivered by natural childbirth. Sirens of Titan ws that kind of book" (CKV 35).
46 In Fates Worse Than Death, Vonnegut says, "The best work I ever wrote was Galapagos, in which I said that our big brain were making our lives unbearable" (FWTD 131). There is not the least indication that the remark is made as irony. See also his conversation with Nuwer in which he grades Galapagos A+(CKV 259). His self-grading of Sirens is A (see Palm Sunday, p.311).
47 The apparent far-sightedness of Boaz in terms of his understanding of the meaning of life and the human-animal relationship will not sound too far-fetched if we consider the possible allusion of this character to Franz Boaz (1858-1942), the German-born American anthropologist, the first professor of anthropology at Columbia University, holding that position for 37 years, and the founder of American cultural anthropology as well as its most influential thinker. It is almost certain that Vonnegut had encountered his works during his time as an anthropologist student. The character of Boaz could be Vonnegut's tribute paid to this great man. Peter Freese's brief talk on the point confirms my supposition. See The Clown of Armageddon, p.117.
48 See, for example, Allan's comment on the episode in Understanding Kurt Vonnegut. Allan is on the whole unappreciative of the novel. The episode involving Unk's and Boaz's encounters with sound-absorbing creatures on Mercury, in particular, seems to him "gratuitous exercises in fantasy rather than thematically integrated elements of a larger design" (Understanding KV 39).
49 In Fates Worse Than Death, Vonnegut remarks that his favorite smell is "what comes out of the back door of a bakery" (FWTD 15).
50 Reed refers to Vonnegut's wacky wit and irreverent imagination in the book as "Twain-like satire of human foible" in his review "God Bless You, Mr. Darwin" (Reed 1990:63). Lorrie Moore explicitly calls Vonnegut "a postmodern Mark Twain", describing his characteristics as "grumpy and sentimental, antic and religious" ("How Humans Got Flippers and Beaks", in The Critical Response to Kurt Vonnegut, ed. Leonard Mastazza,1994, p. 271).
51 See for optimistic readings in Leonard Mastazza's "A Darwinian Eden:Science and Myth in Kurt Vonnegut's Galapagos", in The Critical Response to Kurt Vonnegut, (p.279-289), Robert T. Tally, Jr.'s "Apocalypse in the Optative Mood:Galapagos, or Starting Over", in New Critical Essays on Kurt Vonnegut, ed. David Simmons,2009, p.113-133; for more pessimistic readings in Allan's Understanding Kurt Vonnegut, pp.149-158, Davis's Kurt Vonnegut's Crusade, pp.112-118, and Freese's The Clown of Armageddon, pp.582-601.
53 Anne Frank (1929-1945) was a German-born Jewish girl who died in the Auschwitz concentration camp at the age of 16. Her diary gives a detailed account of her family's experiences of hiding during the German occupation of the Netherlands in World War II. It was first published in America in 1952.
54 In his interview with Peter Reed of 1982, Vonnegut mentioned his reading of both Melville and Darwin. He did not talk much about Melville, but there is clear intertextual allusion in Bahia de Darwin to Pequod in Moby Dick, and James Wait is allegedly allusive to Confidence Man. He dwelt on his displeasure about Darwin's theory of evolution being regarded as the Bible for the theory and raises question about it. See "A Conversation with Kurt Vonnegut,1982", in The Vonnegut Chronicles, p.13.
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2 See the two articles by Lawler, "The Siren of Titan:Vonnegut's Metaphysical Shaggy-Dog Story" and "Vonnegut in academe (Ⅱ), in Vonnegut in America, eds. Jerome Klinkowitz & Donald L. Lawler (New York:Delacorte Press/Seymour Lawrence,1977) 188,84.
3 See Willis E. McNelly's article, "Kurt Vonnegut as Science-Fiction Writer", and his talk in the seminar "Vonnegut in Academe", both in Vonnegut in America, eds. Klinkowitz & Lawler (New York:Delacorte Press/Seymour Lawrence,1977),87-96,193. Vonnegut, Jr. (New York:University of Minnesota Press,1972) 204-220; Robert Merrill. "Vonnegut's Breakfast of Champions:The Conversion of Heliogabalus," Critique 18 (1977):99-109.
5 The three articles are:"Kurt Vonnegut and the Myths and Symbols of Meaning," (Texas Studies in Literature and Language 24 (1982):429-47); "The Heraclitean Cosmos of Kurt Bonnegut," (Papers on Langue and Literature 18 (1982):208-24); and "Vonnegut's Self-Projections:Symbolic Characters and Symbolic Fiction.(Journal of Narrative Technique 12 (1982):177-90). The former two are reprinted in Merrill's Critical Essay on Kurt Vonnegut (Boston:G. K. Hall & Co.,1990) 201-216,216-230. The page numbers are based on this reprint.
6 See "Vonnegut's Tralfamadore and Milton's Eden," Essays in Literature 13 (1986):299-312. Leonard Mustazza later extended the argument of the essay into a monograph, Forever Pursuing Genesis:the Myth of Eden in the Novels of Kurt Vonnegut (Cranbury:Associated University Presses,1990).
7 The tendency to stress the pessimistic aspect of Vonnegut persists till recent studies. For example, Josephine Hendin writes in Harvard Guide to Contemporary American Writing that Vonnegut celebrates themes of detachment and meaninglessness as devices for diminishing the emotional charge of painful experiences and offers only "passivity, acceptance, resignation, and denial" as solution to the sense of helplessness life engenders (qtd. in Broer 8).
8 At first, the translation was mainly directed at short stories and excerpts from Slaughterhouse-Five. In the mid-1980s, more novels were translated. After a curious gap between 1989 and 1997, a revival of interest appeared at the beginning of the new century and more works by Vonnegut were translated, at a much quicker pace, too. When Liu Hongtao's translation of A Man Without a Country came out in 2006, it was only one year after the publication of the English original.
9 The findings are based on four searches on the database, using three different Chinese translations of the author's name, namely,冯内古特,冯尼古特,冯尼格特,as well as the English name.
10 张子清,《反映当代美国社会的一面哈哈镜——试评冯尼古特及其小说的思想性与艺术性》,载于《当代外国文学》1980年第2期。英文标题为笔者翻译。
11 See Li Chunping(李春萍),'A Spiritual Ecological Interpretation of Slaughterhouse-Five", MA thesis of Northeastern Normal University,2009; Wu Zhenzhen (武真真), "Revelation of Destruction:An Ecological Interpretation of Kurt Vonnegut's Cat's Cradle", MA thesis of Zhenzhou University,2011.
12 In most works of animal studies, scholars tend to use "nonhuman animals" to distinguish them from human beings, as they believe humans are animals as well. I agree with them, but for convenience's sake, I use the word "animal" in its everyday sense to refer to nonhuman animals. For purposes of emphasis, contrast, or rhetoric effects, I will use the term "nonhuman animal" or "nonhuman" to denote other animals.
13 I think this proud assertion is dubious because it is much undermined by the following lines of the same soliloquy: "and yet, to me, what is this quintessence of dust?”The sharp letdown of tone, I think, is highly suggestive of Shakespeare's ironic view and mocking attitude toward the prevailing confidence in humanity in his time. This will be further explored in Chapter Four.
14 In the issue of animals'moral status, Lawrence was even more radical than Bentham. He denounced systematically the Cartesian view that animals were "merely for the use and purposes of man", claiming that "life, intelligence, and feeling necessarily imply rights". In these respects, he contended, animals were like people and that "the essence of justice" was not "divisible" (qtd. in Nash 24).
15 Like Benthem, Schopenhauer made the capacity for suffering key to his analysis of morality and rejects the contention that animals have no self-consciousness. He insisted that right conduct is based on compassion for all beings who can suffer. He quoted the Indian prayer in support of his belief that boundless compassion for all living beings is the firmest and surest guarantee of pure moral conduct- “May all living beings remain free from pain” (Midgley 1983:52). Nonetheless, like Voltaire and Rousseau, he was not ready yet to carry his compassion for other species to the length of abstaining from eating their meat.
16 Early movements of protest had different goals and bore names in different countries and at different times. In Great Britain, there was a vegetarian movement in 1790; in the early 19th century, the organized animal welfare movement emerged; in the Victorian era, the greatest campaign was the anti-vivisection movement. Following the examples of their British precedents, Americans had the animal welfare movement and anti-vivisection movement in the 19th century. In Australia, the movement is referred to as the animal protection movement, beginning with the 1873 formation of the Animal Protection Society of New South Wales. This animal welfare movement loss its mass appeal in both Britain and America after WWI and didn't resume its vigor and influence until the 1960s, which transformed into the animal rights movement (http://animalstudies.msu.edu/bibliography.php).
17 The Sociology Department of MSU has one of the major centers of Animal Studies in North America. The thirteen categories it offers are:animals as philosophical and ethical subjects, animals as reflexive thinkers, domestication and predation, animals as entertainment and spectacle, animals as symbols and companions, animals in science, education and therapy, animals in history, animals as food, animals in literature and ecocriticism, animals in feminism and ecofeminism, animals in religion, myth, and folktales, and conservation and human/animal conflict (http://animalstudies.msu.edu/bibliography.php).
18 Biocentric ethics distinguish intrinsic value from instrumental value by emphasizing the value a being has that is intrinsic to itself, independent of outside factors, including its use to others. The difference between intrinsic value and inherent value is still an issue of controversy. According to Joseph R. DesJardins (2006), who in turn, follows the understanding of Susan Armstrong and Richard Botzler, intrinsic value is independent of the presence of a valuer. An object has intrinsic value when it has value both in and for itself. On the other hand, inherent value requires the presence of a valuer who confers the value on the object (DesJardins 146).
19 Many people would say that animal studies is a sub-discipline of ecocriticism, and many major scholarly works of ecocriticism have a separate chapter for the animal question. But judging from the growing concentration of academic interest in the animals (no other subject in ecocriticism has attracted so much attention as an independent topic) and its highly interdisciplinary relationship with other disciplines, such as philosophy, history, anthropology, sociology, ethics, etc., I feel that animal studies is emerging as an independent discipline, but with close kinship with ecocriticism.
20 Wolfgang Giegerich lists seven forms of contact with animals for contemporary urban population. These are the first six, the seventh is "biological organism and production of evolution", quoted in Bleakley,34.
21 For the discussion of antihumanism, see Tony Davies, Humanism (London and New York:Routledge,2008 [1997]) and Kate Soper, Humanism and Anti-Humanism (London:Hutchinson and Co.,1986).
22 佘正荣,《走向“生态人文主义”》,《自然辨证法研究》,Vol.13, No.8,1997,41-45。三个阶段的中文表述为：“自然人文主义”,“科技人文主义”和“生态人文主义”。英文表述为笔者翻译。
23 Steven Fesmire, "Ecological Humanism:a Moral Image for our Emotive Culture". The Humanist. Jan/Feb 2001, Vol.61 issue 1,27-30; Roger Griffin, "Ecological Humanism and the Grounding of Utopia", New Humanist, November,2003.
24 Jame Lovelock is a British climate scientist, best known for his theory of Gaia, that the earth is a holistic, self-regulating entity, whose every part, whether animate life or inanimate matter, is mutually interrelated with every other. Lovelock believes that this ecological system will always act to maintain or restore its overall equilibrium; and if that requires the creation of conditions in which a species cannot survive, so much the worse for the species.
25 John Gray, author of Straw Dogs, believes the sojourn of humanity is no more than a minor episode in the continuing evolution of the planet and will eventually extinct long before the species that he is bent on destroying.
28 In Great Britain, philosophers such as Spinoza, John Ray, and Alexander Pope began discussing the human-animal relationship from the perspective of pantheism as early as the 17th century. By the 18th century Jeremy Bentham, John Lawrence, and Henry Salt openly castigated cruelty to animals and compared tyranny to animals with that to human beings. Martin Act, the first influential law forbidding cruelty to domestic animals appeared in 1822, and in 1876, Cruelty to Animals Act was passed to prevent laboratory cruelty, bringing the British animal welfare movement to a summit. In America, however, it was not until 1966 that the first Animal Welfare Act was passed, regulating the practice of vivisection (See Nash 1989:20-34).
29 These are animal images in Dr. Seuss books. They all look strange and bizarre, unlike any of the real animals. Significantly, Dr. Seuss (original name Theodor Seuss Geisel, renowned writer of children's books and illustrator) became an "unlikely spokesman" of environmentalism in the 1970s in his creation of a character, "the Lorax", who speaks for the trees in opposition to the Once-ler, a personification of economic growth who is bent on cutting down all the trees. It is obvious that the readers are asked to identify with the odd creature instead of the immoral woodcutter (Stoll 19-20).
30 Charles J. Shields, "Kurt Vonnegut's Prairie Adventure", (http://www.bigworldmagazine.com/kurt-vonneguts-prairie-adventure).
31 Both are coinages of Vonnegut. A "granfalloon" is a false and meaningless association of people. The Daughters of the American Revolution, citizens of a nation, General Electric, and All-Persons-Under-30 are the examples of granfalloons. A karass, on the other hand, is a true connection among persons meant to be with one another.
33 A novel written by Johann David Wyss, first published in 1812, about a Swiss family shipwrecked in the East Indies en route to Port Jackson, Australia. The story emphasizes how the family survives the storm and shipwreck and manages a living on an isolated island. They live with a lot of animals, both livestock and pets on the ship and wild animals they found on the island.
34 See Wilson, et al., "Scientific Advancements and Legislation Addressing Veal Calves in North America", (http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/vetext/inf-an/inf-an_vea195france.html).
35 See webpage http://homecooking.about.com/od/foodhistory/a/lobsterhistory.htm.
36 Leonard Mustazza explicates his understanding of the novel in the framework of Milton's Paradise Lost. "Paradise within" is Milton's term that he borrows, describing the state of happiness and serenity achieved by loving and caring for people around. See "The Sirens of Titan and the 'Paradise Within'", in Forever Pursuing Genesis,45-58).
37 Peter Freese draws a list of all the science fiction stories of Trout mentioned in the novel,17 in total. He also classifies the tales into three groups, the second of which is the narratives concerned with "tragic failures to communicate". See The Clown of Armageddon:The Novels of Kurt Vonnegut (Heidelberg:Universitatsverlag Winter,2009) 374.
38 The expression is borrowed from Lawrence R. Broer, who discusses Breakfast of Champions as Vonnegut's endeavor to survive personal depression. See Chapter 7, "Breakfast of Champions:Spiritual Crossroads", in Sanity Plea:Schizophrenia in Novels of Kurt Vonnegut (Ann Arbor:UMI Research Press,1989) 97-107.
39 See Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, "Books of the Times," The New York Times,24 September 1976, p. C19; Roger Sale, "Slapstick," The New York Times Book Review,3 October 1976, pp.3,20,21; R. Z. Sheppard, "Goodbye Indianapolis," Time,105 (25 October 1976),84.
40 Philip Armstrong gives a convincing discussion of the relationship between Crusoe and his dog in What Animals Mean in the Fiction of Modernity (New York:Routledge,2008),40-41.
41 See for his repeated admiration of the idea of the folk society in "Address to the National Institute of Arts and Letters,1971", in Wampeters, Foma and Granfalloons, pp 176-179; "Self Interview" and "Religion" in Palm Sunday,pp.116,211.
42 Vonnegut's propaganda of the idea of the artificial extended family can be found at various places, for example, in the famous Playboy interview (CKV 78-81), Palm Sunday (204-5), and Fates Worse Than Death (34).
43 In the conversation with Laurie Clancy of 1971, Vonnegut explained his popularity with college students by saying: "I suppose I talk about things that are on people's minds-a very simple-minded, sophomoric sort of thing. Why are we on earth, what's really going on, and all that, which you're supposed to stop talking about when you get older" (CKV 47).
44 Alice's oldest son, Jim has become a goat farmer on a mountain top in Jamaica. See Palm Sunday, p.97.
45 Vonnegut said in an interview, "Every mother's favorite child is the one that's delivered by natural childbirth. Sirens of Titan ws that kind of book" (CKV 35).
46 In Fates Worse Than Death, Vonnegut says, "The best work I ever wrote was Galapagos, in which I said that our big brain were making our lives unbearable" (FWTD 131). There is not the least indication that the remark is made as irony. See also his conversation with Nuwer in which he grades Galapagos A+(CKV 259). His self-grading of Sirens is A (see Palm Sunday, p.311).
47 The apparent far-sightedness of Boaz in terms of his understanding of the meaning of life and the human-animal relationship will not sound too far-fetched if we consider the possible allusion of this character to Franz Boaz (1858-1942), the German-born American anthropologist, the first professor of anthropology at Columbia University, holding that position for 37 years, and the founder of American cultural anthropology as well as its most influential thinker. It is almost certain that Vonnegut had encountered his works during his time as an anthropologist student. The character of Boaz could be Vonnegut's tribute paid to this great man. Peter Freese's brief talk on the point confirms my supposition. See The Clown of Armageddon, p.117.
48 See, for example, Allan's comment on the episode in Understanding Kurt Vonnegut. Allan is on the whole unappreciative of the novel. The episode involving Unk's and Boaz's encounters with sound-absorbing creatures on Mercury, in particular, seems to him "gratuitous exercises in fantasy rather than thematically integrated elements of a larger design" (Understanding KV 39).
49 In Fates Worse Than Death, Vonnegut remarks that his favorite smell is "what comes out of the back door of a bakery" (FWTD 15).
50 Reed refers to Vonnegut's wacky wit and irreverent imagination in the book as "Twain-like satire of human foible" in his review "God Bless You, Mr. Darwin" (Reed 1990:63). Lorrie Moore explicitly calls Vonnegut "a postmodern Mark Twain", describing his characteristics as "grumpy and sentimental, antic and religious" ("How Humans Got Flippers and Beaks", in The Critical Response to Kurt Vonnegut, ed. Leonard Mastazza,1994, p. 271).
51 See for optimistic readings in Leonard Mastazza's "A Darwinian Eden:Science and Myth in Kurt Vonnegut's Galapagos", in The Critical Response to Kurt Vonnegut, (p.279-289), Robert T. Tally, Jr.'s "Apocalypse in the Optative Mood:Galapagos, or Starting Over", in New Critical Essays on Kurt Vonnegut, ed. David Simmons,2009, p.113-133; for more pessimistic readings in Allan's Understanding Kurt Vonnegut, pp.149-158, Davis's Kurt Vonnegut's Crusade, pp.112-118, and Freese's The Clown of Armageddon, pp.582-601.
53 Anne Frank (1929-1945) was a German-born Jewish girl who died in the Auschwitz concentration camp at the age of 16. Her diary gives a detailed account of her family's experiences of hiding during the German occupation of the Netherlands in World War II. It was first published in America in 1952.
54 In his interview with Peter Reed of 1982, Vonnegut mentioned his reading of both Melville and Darwin. He did not talk much about Melville, but there is clear intertextual allusion in Bahia de Darwin to Pequod in Moby Dick, and James Wait is allegedly allusive to Confidence Man. He dwelt on his displeasure about Darwin's theory of evolution being regarded as the Bible for the theory and raises question about it. See "A Conversation with Kurt Vonnegut,1982", in The Vonnegut Chronicles, p.13.
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