学生对教学调节策略的公平知觉
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摘要
本研究以199名中小学生为被试，采用访谈法和问卷法研究了学生对教学调节策略的公平知觉及其影响因素。同时调查了课堂中教师教学调节策略的运用情况。结果表明：
(1)学生对教学调节策略的公平知觉存在差异，帮助是学生认为最公平的教学调节策略，其次是丰富。不同年级的学生对加速和等待两种教学调节策略的公平知觉存在差异，高中二年级学生与低年级学生相比认为加速更加公平，而等待更加不公平。
(2)随着年龄的增长，学生的公平观念也在发生变化。9岁左右的学生(小学三年级学生)对公平的理解多处于水平二阶段，强调工作的量的分配是非常重要的，常以外在指标作为判断标准。11至15岁的学生(小学五年级至初中三年级的学生)对公平的理解多处于水平三阶段，已经意识到学习是学校中分配的最重要的利益，大家应该学习一样的知识，平等的学习是公平的。17岁左右的学生(高中二年级学生)对公平的理解多数处于水平五阶段，认为教师可以有差别地对待能力不同的学生，这样才是公平的，忽视学生差异的教学调节策略被认为是不公平的。
(3)学优生、中等生和学困生对教学调节策略的公平知觉存在差异。学优生和中等生认为加速的教学调节策略更为公平，认为等待的教学调节策略更为不公平。中等生和学困生认为在课堂上运用帮助的教学调节策略更为公平。
(4)虽然学生认为帮助的教学调节策略最为公平，但教师很少在课堂上采用这种教学调节策略。
Through interviews and questionnaires, the students' perception of fairness to teaching practices was studied. The results showed that:
(1) When every practice was paired with every other practice, students' choice of the fairer practice indicated that helping was the fairest at all grades, and the next was enrichment. Eleven graders saw acceleration as fairer than the youngers and waiting as less fair.
(2) Content analysis of students' justifications showed that fairness meant different things at different ages. 9 years old students (3 graders) emphasized the equality in the amount of schoolwork completed and their conceptions of fairness were at level 2. 11 to 15 years old students (5 to 9 graders) believed that learning was the most important good to be distributed in school and everyone should learn the same material equally well: simple equality of learning was fair. Their conceptions of fairness were at level 3. 17 years old students believed that those capable students could learn more than others and their conceptions of fairness were at level 5.
(3) The perceptions of fairness of students (mathematically gifted, normal and disable students) to teaching practices were different. Gifted and normal students saw acceleration as more fair and waiting as less fair than disable ones. Normal and disable students saw helping as more fair than gifted ones.
(4) Although all graders believed that helping was the fairest practice, the teachers seldom used it.
(1)学生对教学调节策略的公平知觉存在差异，帮助是学生认为最公平的教学调节策略，其次是丰富。不同年级的学生对加速和等待两种教学调节策略的公平知觉存在差异，高中二年级学生与低年级学生相比认为加速更加公平，而等待更加不公平。
(2)随着年龄的增长，学生的公平观念也在发生变化。9岁左右的学生(小学三年级学生)对公平的理解多处于水平二阶段，强调工作的量的分配是非常重要的，常以外在指标作为判断标准。11至15岁的学生(小学五年级至初中三年级的学生)对公平的理解多处于水平三阶段，已经意识到学习是学校中分配的最重要的利益，大家应该学习一样的知识，平等的学习是公平的。17岁左右的学生(高中二年级学生)对公平的理解多数处于水平五阶段，认为教师可以有差别地对待能力不同的学生，这样才是公平的，忽视学生差异的教学调节策略被认为是不公平的。
(3)学优生、中等生和学困生对教学调节策略的公平知觉存在差异。学优生和中等生认为加速的教学调节策略更为公平，认为等待的教学调节策略更为不公平。中等生和学困生认为在课堂上运用帮助的教学调节策略更为公平。
(4)虽然学生认为帮助的教学调节策略最为公平，但教师很少在课堂上采用这种教学调节策略。
Through interviews and questionnaires, the students' perception of fairness to teaching practices was studied. The results showed that:
(1) When every practice was paired with every other practice, students' choice of the fairer practice indicated that helping was the fairest at all grades, and the next was enrichment. Eleven graders saw acceleration as fairer than the youngers and waiting as less fair.
(2) Content analysis of students' justifications showed that fairness meant different things at different ages. 9 years old students (3 graders) emphasized the equality in the amount of schoolwork completed and their conceptions of fairness were at level 2. 11 to 15 years old students (5 to 9 graders) believed that learning was the most important good to be distributed in school and everyone should learn the same material equally well: simple equality of learning was fair. Their conceptions of fairness were at level 3. 17 years old students believed that those capable students could learn more than others and their conceptions of fairness were at level 5.
(3) The perceptions of fairness of students (mathematically gifted, normal and disable students) to teaching practices were different. Gifted and normal students saw acceleration as more fair and waiting as less fair than disable ones. Normal and disable students saw helping as more fair than gifted ones.
(4) Although all graders believed that helping was the fairest practice, the teachers seldom used it.
引文
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[2] Greenberg, J.(1990). Organizational Justice: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Journal of Management, 16, 399-432
[3] Gilliland, S.W. (1993). The perceived fairness of selection systems: An organizational justice perspective. Academy of Management Review, 18, 694-734
[4] Quinones, M. A. (1995). Pretraining Context Effects: Training Assignment as Feedback. Journal of Applfed Psychology, 80, 226-238
[5] Greenberg, J. (1987). Reactions to procedural injustice in payment distributions: Do the ends justify the means? Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 55-61
[6] Tyler, T. R. (1994). Psychological models of justice motive: Antecedents of distributive and procedural justice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 850-863
[7] Moorman, R. H.(1991). Relationship between organizational justice and organizational citizenship behaviors: Do fairness perceptions influence employee citizenship?Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 845-855
[8] Konovsky, M. A., & Cropanzano, R. (1991). Perceived fairness of employee drug testing as a predictor of employee attitudes and job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 698-707
[9] Schappe, & Stephen P. (1998).The influence of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and fairness perceptions on organizational citizenship behavior. The Journal
of Psychology, 132, 277-290
[10] Skarlicki, D. P., & Folger, R. (1997). Retaliation in the workplace: The roles of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 434-443
[11] Greenberg, J. (1990). Employee theft as a reaction to underpayment inequity: The hidden costs of pay cuts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 561-568
[12] van Knippenberg, B., van Knippenberg, D., Blaauw, E., & Vermunt, R.(1999). Relational considerations in the use of influence tactics. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29, 806-819
[13] Vaughn, S., Schumm, J.S., Niarhos, F.J. & Gordon., J. (1993). Students' Perceptions of Two Hypothetical Teachers' Instructional Adaptations for Low Achievers. The Elementary School Journal, 94, 87-102
[14] Elisha Babad. (1990). Measuring and Changing Teachers' Differential Behavior As Perceived by Students and Teachers. Journal oF Educational Psychology, 82, 683-690
[15] Marshall, H.H., & Weinstein, R.S. (1986). Classroom context of studentperceived diffrential teacher treatment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 441-453
[16] Brattesani, K.A., Weinstein, R.S., & Marshall, H.H. (1984). Students perceptions of differential teacher treatment as moderators of teacher expectation effects. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 236-274
[17] Polloway, E.A.,Bursuck, W.D.,Jayanthi, M.,Epstein, M.H.,&Nel son, J.S. (1996). Treatment acceptability: Determining appropriate interventions within inclusive classrooms. Intervention in School and Clinic, 31, 133-144
[18] Thorkildsen, T. A. (1989). Justice in the classroom: Thestudent's view. Child Development, 60, 323-334
[19] Thorkildsen, T. A. (1993). Those who can, tutor: High-ability students' conceptions of fair ways to organize learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 182-190
[20] Bursuck, William D.; Munk, Dennis D. Olson, Mary M. (1999). The Fairness of report card grading adaptations: What do students with and without learning disabilities Think? Remedial and Special Education, 20, 84-92
[21] Weiner, Kukla. (1970).An attributional analysis of achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 15:1-20
[22] Weiner, B(1994). Ability versus effort revisited: The moral determinants of achievement evahation and achievement as a moral system. Educational Psychologist, 1994, Vol. 29, No. 1,pp163-172
[23] Farwell and Weiner. (1996). Self-perception of fairness in individual and group contexts. Personality and Social Bulletin.1996, Vol. 22, pp. 867-881
[24] Thorkildsen, T. A., Nolen, S., & Fournier, J. (1994). What is fair? Children's critiques of practices that influence motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86(4): 475-486
[25] Piaget J. The Moral Judgment of the Child. New York: Free Press, 1965
[26] Kohlberg, L. (1975). The Cognitive-Developmental Approach to Moral Education. Phi Delta Kappan, (6), 670-677
[27] 李伯黍等人．少年儿童公正观念发展调查．心理科学通讯，1983，(1)：15-21
[28] 方富熹 王文忠．小学儿童奖赏公平性的认知发展．心理学报，1994，26(4)：354-361
[29] Vaughn, S., Schumm, J. S., Niarhos, F. J., &Daughterty, T. (1993). What do students think when teachers make adaptations? Teaching and Teacher Education, 9, 107-118
[30] Vaughn, S., Schumm, J. S., glingner, J., & Saumell, L. (1995). Students' views of instructional practices: Implications for inclusion. Learning Disability Quarterly, 18, 236-248
[31] Thorkildsen, T. A. (1989) Pluralism in children' s reasoning about social justice. Child Development, 60:965-972
[32] Thorkildsen, T. A. (1991). Defining social issues and distributing them fairly: The development of conceptions of fair testing practices. Child Development, 62, 852-862
[33] Thorkildsen, T. A. & White-McNulty, h. (2002). Developing conceptions of fair contest procedures and the Understanding of Skill and Luck. Journal of Educational Psyschology, 94, 316-326
[34] Markus, H. R. & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivtion. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253
[35] Lind, E. A., Tyler, T. R., and Huo, Y, J. (1997). Procedural context and culture: Variation in the antecedents of procedural justice judgements. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73: 767-780
[36] Farh, J., Earley, P. C., & Lin, S. (1997). Impetus for action: A cultural analysis of justice and organizational citizenship behavior in Chinese society. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42, 421-444
[37] Brockner, J., Chen, Y., & Mannix, E. A. (2000). Cultrue and procedural fairness: When the effects of what you do depend on how you do it. Administrative Science Quarterly, 45, 138-159
[38] Walzer, M. (1983). Spheres of justice: A defense of pluralism and equality. New York: Basic Books
[39] Walzer, M. (1994). Thick and thin: Moral argument at home and abroad. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press
[40] Rorty, R. (1989). Contingency, irony, and solidarity. New York: Cambridge University Press.
[41] 方晓义，陈浩莺，王永丽，林崇德．(2002)．中小学教师师德观的内隐研究．北京师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)，129：28-33
[42] Nicholls, J. G., Patashnick, M., & Mettetal, G. (1986). Conceptions of ability and intelligence. Child Development, 57, 636-645
[43] Leahy, R. L., & Hunt, T. M. (1983). A cognitive-developmental approach to the development of conceptions of intelligence. In R. L. Leahy (Ed.), The child' s construction of social inequality (pp. 135-160). New York: Academic Press
[44] 李晓东 林崇德 (2001) 个人目标取向、课堂目标结构及文化因素与学业求助策略的关系研究 2：1—6
[45] Thorkildsen, T. A., & Schmahl, C. M. (1997). Conceptions of fair learning practices among low-income African American and Latin American children: Acknowledging Diversity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 719-727
[46] 李晓东，张炳松 (1999) 自我效能、价值、课堂环境及学习成绩与学业求助的关系 心理学报 31：435-443
[47] 李晓东，张炳松 (2001)成就目标、社会目标、自我效能及学习成绩与学业求助的关系 心理科学 24：54—58
[2] Greenberg, J.(1990). Organizational Justice: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Journal of Management, 16, 399-432
[3] Gilliland, S.W. (1993). The perceived fairness of selection systems: An organizational justice perspective. Academy of Management Review, 18, 694-734
[4] Quinones, M. A. (1995). Pretraining Context Effects: Training Assignment as Feedback. Journal of Applfed Psychology, 80, 226-238
[5] Greenberg, J. (1987). Reactions to procedural injustice in payment distributions: Do the ends justify the means? Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 55-61
[6] Tyler, T. R. (1994). Psychological models of justice motive: Antecedents of distributive and procedural justice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 850-863
[7] Moorman, R. H.(1991). Relationship between organizational justice and organizational citizenship behaviors: Do fairness perceptions influence employee citizenship?Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 845-855
[8] Konovsky, M. A., & Cropanzano, R. (1991). Perceived fairness of employee drug testing as a predictor of employee attitudes and job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 698-707
[9] Schappe, & Stephen P. (1998).The influence of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and fairness perceptions on organizational citizenship behavior. The Journal
of Psychology, 132, 277-290
[10] Skarlicki, D. P., & Folger, R. (1997). Retaliation in the workplace: The roles of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 434-443
[11] Greenberg, J. (1990). Employee theft as a reaction to underpayment inequity: The hidden costs of pay cuts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 561-568
[12] van Knippenberg, B., van Knippenberg, D., Blaauw, E., & Vermunt, R.(1999). Relational considerations in the use of influence tactics. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29, 806-819
[13] Vaughn, S., Schumm, J.S., Niarhos, F.J. & Gordon., J. (1993). Students' Perceptions of Two Hypothetical Teachers' Instructional Adaptations for Low Achievers. The Elementary School Journal, 94, 87-102
[14] Elisha Babad. (1990). Measuring and Changing Teachers' Differential Behavior As Perceived by Students and Teachers. Journal oF Educational Psychology, 82, 683-690
[15] Marshall, H.H., & Weinstein, R.S. (1986). Classroom context of studentperceived diffrential teacher treatment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 441-453
[16] Brattesani, K.A., Weinstein, R.S., & Marshall, H.H. (1984). Students perceptions of differential teacher treatment as moderators of teacher expectation effects. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 236-274
[17] Polloway, E.A.,Bursuck, W.D.,Jayanthi, M.,Epstein, M.H.,&Nel son, J.S. (1996). Treatment acceptability: Determining appropriate interventions within inclusive classrooms. Intervention in School and Clinic, 31, 133-144
[18] Thorkildsen, T. A. (1989). Justice in the classroom: Thestudent's view. Child Development, 60, 323-334
[19] Thorkildsen, T. A. (1993). Those who can, tutor: High-ability students' conceptions of fair ways to organize learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 182-190
[20] Bursuck, William D.; Munk, Dennis D. Olson, Mary M. (1999). The Fairness of report card grading adaptations: What do students with and without learning disabilities Think? Remedial and Special Education, 20, 84-92
[21] Weiner, Kukla. (1970).An attributional analysis of achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 15:1-20
[22] Weiner, B(1994). Ability versus effort revisited: The moral determinants of achievement evahation and achievement as a moral system. Educational Psychologist, 1994, Vol. 29, No. 1,pp163-172
[23] Farwell and Weiner. (1996). Self-perception of fairness in individual and group contexts. Personality and Social Bulletin.1996, Vol. 22, pp. 867-881
[24] Thorkildsen, T. A., Nolen, S., & Fournier, J. (1994). What is fair? Children's critiques of practices that influence motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86(4): 475-486
[25] Piaget J. The Moral Judgment of the Child. New York: Free Press, 1965
[26] Kohlberg, L. (1975). The Cognitive-Developmental Approach to Moral Education. Phi Delta Kappan, (6), 670-677
[27] 李伯黍等人．少年儿童公正观念发展调查．心理科学通讯，1983，(1)：15-21
[28] 方富熹 王文忠．小学儿童奖赏公平性的认知发展．心理学报，1994，26(4)：354-361
[29] Vaughn, S., Schumm, J. S., Niarhos, F. J., &Daughterty, T. (1993). What do students think when teachers make adaptations? Teaching and Teacher Education, 9, 107-118
[30] Vaughn, S., Schumm, J. S., glingner, J., & Saumell, L. (1995). Students' views of instructional practices: Implications for inclusion. Learning Disability Quarterly, 18, 236-248
[31] Thorkildsen, T. A. (1989) Pluralism in children' s reasoning about social justice. Child Development, 60:965-972
[32] Thorkildsen, T. A. (1991). Defining social issues and distributing them fairly: The development of conceptions of fair testing practices. Child Development, 62, 852-862
[33] Thorkildsen, T. A. & White-McNulty, h. (2002). Developing conceptions of fair contest procedures and the Understanding of Skill and Luck. Journal of Educational Psyschology, 94, 316-326
[34] Markus, H. R. & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivtion. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253
[35] Lind, E. A., Tyler, T. R., and Huo, Y, J. (1997). Procedural context and culture: Variation in the antecedents of procedural justice judgements. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73: 767-780
[36] Farh, J., Earley, P. C., & Lin, S. (1997). Impetus for action: A cultural analysis of justice and organizational citizenship behavior in Chinese society. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42, 421-444
[37] Brockner, J., Chen, Y., & Mannix, E. A. (2000). Cultrue and procedural fairness: When the effects of what you do depend on how you do it. Administrative Science Quarterly, 45, 138-159
[38] Walzer, M. (1983). Spheres of justice: A defense of pluralism and equality. New York: Basic Books
[39] Walzer, M. (1994). Thick and thin: Moral argument at home and abroad. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press
[40] Rorty, R. (1989). Contingency, irony, and solidarity. New York: Cambridge University Press.
[41] 方晓义，陈浩莺，王永丽，林崇德．(2002)．中小学教师师德观的内隐研究．北京师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)，129：28-33
[42] Nicholls, J. G., Patashnick, M., & Mettetal, G. (1986). Conceptions of ability and intelligence. Child Development, 57, 636-645
[43] Leahy, R. L., & Hunt, T. M. (1983). A cognitive-developmental approach to the development of conceptions of intelligence. In R. L. Leahy (Ed.), The child' s construction of social inequality (pp. 135-160). New York: Academic Press
[44] 李晓东 林崇德 (2001) 个人目标取向、课堂目标结构及文化因素与学业求助策略的关系研究 2：1—6
[45] Thorkildsen, T. A., & Schmahl, C. M. (1997). Conceptions of fair learning practices among low-income African American and Latin American children: Acknowledging Diversity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 719-727
[46] 李晓东，张炳松 (1999) 自我效能、价值、课堂环境及学习成绩与学业求助的关系 心理学报 31：435-443
[47] 李晓东，张炳松 (2001)成就目标、社会目标、自我效能及学习成绩与学业求助的关系 心理科学 24：54—58