美国公共学校运动研究
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摘要
公共学校运动是美国教育史上的关键事件,它上承殖民地时期以来新英格兰地区的教育传统,下启19世纪末之后的美国教育改革。如果进行深度追溯,当前美国教育的发展变化大多可以从公共学校运动中找到源头。只有对公共学校运动有一定的了解,才能更好地理解当前美国的教育改革与发展。
新中国成立以来,中国多次进行教育改革,并取得了举世瞩目的成就。但在发展的过程中,中国教育也积累了一些问题,并随着形势的变化面临新的挑战和困难。了解美国公共学校运动的发展变化过程,有助于更好地借鉴美国公立学校发展的经验和教训,解决当前中国基础教育中存在的一些问题。
本研究主要包括以下几方面的内容：
绪论,介绍选题缘由、文献综述、概念界定、研究内容与方法以及创新点和局限性。第一章,公共学校运动的背景。社会背景包括政治、经济、人口、宗教等因素。教育背景主要是指殖民地时期教育对公共学校运动的影响,托马斯·杰斐逊、本杰明·拉什、诺亚·韦伯斯特等建国先贤普及教育的构想,导生制、星期日学校、免费学校等普及教育的先期实践。第二章,公共学校运动的勃兴。介绍贺拉斯·曼、亨利·巴纳德等代表人物的教育思想、教育体制的创新、教育世俗化的演进、公共学校与教师队伍的变化。第三章,公共学校运动的延续。主要分析美国内战至19世纪末南北方公共学校的发展状况。第四章,公共学校运动的意义。介绍公共学校运动与近代美国教育转型——公共学校运动奠定了美国现代学校教育制度的基础,促进了各级教育的发展,并指出公共学校运动的局限；公共学校运动与当代美国教育发展——公立学校与移民同化、教育机会均等、宗教之间的关系。结语,探讨了社会共识对教育改革的重要性、学校社会功能的局限性及公共学校运动对中国基础教育改革的启示。
The Common School Movement is a critical event in American history of education. It carried on some New England traditions in the colonial period and enlightened the educational reform after the end of the19th century. What happens today in American education always has its origins in the Common School Movement if we look deep in to it. To understand the reform and development in the United States, we have to know something about the Common School Movement.
The People's Republic of China have experienced several educational reforms and made great progress after its foundation. But we still have some problems and face new challenges and difficulties in the new situation. To study the Common School Movement is helpful for us to learn experience and lessons from the development of American Public Schools, to solve the problems in China's basic education.
These are the context of the study:
Preface introduces the reason for choose the topic, the literature review, the concept definition, the context and methods, innovation points and limitations. Chapter1concerns on the background of the Common School Movement. There are social backgrounds including political, economic, demographic and religious factors. The educational backgrounds are the influence of education in the colonial period, the ideas about universal education of such American Fathers as Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Rush and Noah Webster, the preliminary practice of universal education like the Sunday school and free school which adopted the monitor system. Chapter2focuses on the rising and development of the Common School Movement, including the educational ideas of the representatives such as Horace Mann and Henry Barnard, the innovation of the educational system, the secularization of education, the changes of common schools and the teachers. Chapter3concerns on the continuance of the Common School Movement, which introduces the changes of common schools between American Civil War and the end of the19th century. Chapter4talks about the meaning of the Common School Movement. There are close connections between the Common School Movement and the modern American education transform. The Common School Movement laid a good foundation for American modern school system, promoted the development of education in all levels. There were also some limitations in the Common School Movement. The Common School Movement also influences today's American education in such areas as the relation between public schools and the assimilation of immigration, the equality of educational opportunity, religion. Conclusion discusses the importance of social consensus to educational reform, the limitation of schools' social function, and the revelation of the Common School Movement to the basic educational reform in China.
新中国成立以来,中国多次进行教育改革,并取得了举世瞩目的成就。但在发展的过程中,中国教育也积累了一些问题,并随着形势的变化面临新的挑战和困难。了解美国公共学校运动的发展变化过程,有助于更好地借鉴美国公立学校发展的经验和教训,解决当前中国基础教育中存在的一些问题。
本研究主要包括以下几方面的内容：
绪论,介绍选题缘由、文献综述、概念界定、研究内容与方法以及创新点和局限性。第一章,公共学校运动的背景。社会背景包括政治、经济、人口、宗教等因素。教育背景主要是指殖民地时期教育对公共学校运动的影响,托马斯·杰斐逊、本杰明·拉什、诺亚·韦伯斯特等建国先贤普及教育的构想,导生制、星期日学校、免费学校等普及教育的先期实践。第二章,公共学校运动的勃兴。介绍贺拉斯·曼、亨利·巴纳德等代表人物的教育思想、教育体制的创新、教育世俗化的演进、公共学校与教师队伍的变化。第三章,公共学校运动的延续。主要分析美国内战至19世纪末南北方公共学校的发展状况。第四章,公共学校运动的意义。介绍公共学校运动与近代美国教育转型——公共学校运动奠定了美国现代学校教育制度的基础,促进了各级教育的发展,并指出公共学校运动的局限；公共学校运动与当代美国教育发展——公立学校与移民同化、教育机会均等、宗教之间的关系。结语,探讨了社会共识对教育改革的重要性、学校社会功能的局限性及公共学校运动对中国基础教育改革的启示。
The Common School Movement is a critical event in American history of education. It carried on some New England traditions in the colonial period and enlightened the educational reform after the end of the19th century. What happens today in American education always has its origins in the Common School Movement if we look deep in to it. To understand the reform and development in the United States, we have to know something about the Common School Movement.
The People's Republic of China have experienced several educational reforms and made great progress after its foundation. But we still have some problems and face new challenges and difficulties in the new situation. To study the Common School Movement is helpful for us to learn experience and lessons from the development of American Public Schools, to solve the problems in China's basic education.
These are the context of the study:
Preface introduces the reason for choose the topic, the literature review, the concept definition, the context and methods, innovation points and limitations. Chapter1concerns on the background of the Common School Movement. There are social backgrounds including political, economic, demographic and religious factors. The educational backgrounds are the influence of education in the colonial period, the ideas about universal education of such American Fathers as Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Rush and Noah Webster, the preliminary practice of universal education like the Sunday school and free school which adopted the monitor system. Chapter2focuses on the rising and development of the Common School Movement, including the educational ideas of the representatives such as Horace Mann and Henry Barnard, the innovation of the educational system, the secularization of education, the changes of common schools and the teachers. Chapter3concerns on the continuance of the Common School Movement, which introduces the changes of common schools between American Civil War and the end of the19th century. Chapter4talks about the meaning of the Common School Movement. There are close connections between the Common School Movement and the modern American education transform. The Common School Movement laid a good foundation for American modern school system, promoted the development of education in all levels. There were also some limitations in the Common School Movement. The Common School Movement also influences today's American education in such areas as the relation between public schools and the assimilation of immigration, the equality of educational opportunity, religion. Conclusion discusses the importance of social consensus to educational reform, the limitation of schools' social function, and the revelation of the Common School Movement to the basic educational reform in China.
引文
① 滕大春.外国近代教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1989.329.
① [美]韦恩·厄本等.美国教育：一部历史档案[M].周晟,谢爱磊译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009.129.
② 滕大春.外国近代教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1989.329.
③ 滕大春.外国教育通史(第三卷)[M].济南：山东教育出版社,1990.366.
④ 单中惠.美国公立学校运动新论[J].教育评论,2000(3)：58-61.
⑤ [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.79.
⑥ [美]乔尔·斯普林.美国教育[M].张弛,张斌贤译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.14注.
① 贺国庆.近代欧洲对美国教育的影响[M].保定：河北大学出版社,2000.95.
② [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.157.注.
③ 参见滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.315-317;[美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译.北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.142等。
④ [美]乔尔·斯普林.美国教育[M].张弛,张斌贤译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.14注.
① Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York:McGraw-Hill,2001. 111.
② Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York:McGraw-Hill,2001. 112.
③ Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York:McGraw-Hill,2001. 113.
④ Rury, John L., Education and Social Change:contours in the history of American schooling [M]. New York:Routledge,2009.75.
① Parkerson, Donald H. and Parkerson, Jo Ann, Transition in American education:a social history of teaching[M]. New York:Routledge Falmer,2001.7.
② Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Boston, New York: Chicago, Dallas, Atlanta and San Francisco:Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.64.此外,笔者根据上下文的意思,把这里的public schools译为“公众学校”,以区别它后来“公立学校”的含义。
① Kaestle, Carl F., Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983. ⅹⅰ-ⅹⅱ.
② [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译.北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.174.
③ Rury, John L., Education and Social Change:contours in the history of American schooling[M]. New York:Routledge,2009.65这里的“公立学校体系的初级部分”是指小学阶段——笔者注。
① Rury, John L., Education and Social Change:contours in the history of American schooling[M]. New York:Routledge,2009.55.
② Parkerson, Donald H. and Parkerson, Jo Ann, Transition in American education:a social history of teaching[M]. New York:Routledge Falmer,2001.11.
③ Parkerson, Donald H. and Parkerson, Jo Ann, Transition in American education:a social history of teaching[M]. New York:Routledge Falmer,2001.7.
① Parkerson, Donald H. and Parkerson, Jo Ann, Transition in American education:a social history of teaching[M]. New York:Routledge Falmer,2001.11.
② Spring, Joel H., The American School[M].1642-2000, New York:McGraw-Hill,2001. 113.
③ Parkerson, Donald H. and Parkerson, Jo Ann, Transition in American education:a social history of teaching[M]. New York:Routledge Falmer,2001.11.
④ 滕大春.外国教育通史(第三卷)[M].济南：山东教育出版社,1990.366.373.
⑤ 参见滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.191；李素敏.美国的公共教育运动[J].现代中小学教育,1997(2)：55-58。
① 计日学费是指,在公共学校运动之前,学校根据学生上学的天数收取学费——笔者注。
① 土著美国人(Native American)即美国印第安人(American Indian)。20世纪60年代民权运动以来,为了所谓的“政治正确”,美国人开始使用“土著美国人”这个词,而尽量避免使用“印第安人”。本文在论述时一律使用“土著美国人”这个术语；对引文尊重原著表述；对英文法案名称等根据原文进行对应翻译。对印第安人还有一些其他称呼,参见邱惠林.美国原住民的称谓之争[J].四川大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2007(2)：52-59。下文出于同样的原因、使用同样的方式处理“非洲裔美国人(African-American)"和“黑人”这两个词语。
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.158.
② 刘绪贻,杨生茂.美国通史(第二卷)[M].北京：人民出版社,2002.63.
① [美]乔纳森·休斯、路易斯·P.凯恩.美国经济史(第7版)[M].邢露等译.北京：北京大学出版社,2011.159.
② 赵一凡.美国的历史文献[M].北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店,1989.51.
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.161.
② [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.89.
③ 刘绪贻,杨生茂.美国通史(第二卷)[M].北京：人民出版社,2002.159.这里的投票是指1828年总统选举投票——笔者注。
① [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.81.
② 参见美国各州加入联邦顺序和时间列表[OL], http://zh. wikipedia. org/wiki/%E7%BE%8 E%E5%9B%BD%E5%B7%9E%E4%BB%BD%E4%BE%9D%aE5%8A%AO%E5%85%A5%E8%81%94%E9%82%A6%E9% A1%BA%E5%BA%8F%E6%8E%92%E5%88%97%E5%88%97%E8%aA1%A8。另外,国内对美国各州州名的翻译不尽相同,除引文外,笔者均采用本表的译法。
① [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.90.
② [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.88.
③ [美]恩格尔曼等.剑桥美国经济史(第二卷)：漫长的19世纪[M].高德步等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.389-390.
④ [美]恩格尔曼等.剑桥美国经济史(第二卷)：漫长的19世纪[M].高德步等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.404-405.
⑤ [美]乔纳森·休斯,路易斯·P.凯恩.美国经济史(第7版)[M].邢露等译.北京：北京大学出版社,2011.167.
⑥ [美]恩格尔曼等.剑桥美国经济史(第二卷)：漫长的19世纪[M].高德步等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.411-412.
⑦ [美]亚瑟·科恩.美国高等教育通史[M].李子江译.北京：北京大学出版社,2010.49.
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.162.
② [美]恩格尔曼等.剑桥美国经济史(第二卷)：漫长的19世纪[M].高德步等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.169-170.
③ [美]恩格尔曼等.剑桥美国经济史(第二卷)：漫长的19世纪[M].高德步等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.170
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.162.
② 宿景祥.美国经济统计手册[M].北京：时事出版社,1992.6-7.
① [美]乔纳森·休斯、路易斯·P.凯恩.美国经济史(第7版)[M].邢露等译.北京：北京大学出版社,2011.112.
② [美]乔纳森·休斯、路易斯·P.凯恩.美国经济史(第7版)[M].邢露等译.北京：北京大学出版社,2011.112.
③ [美]恩格尔曼等.剑桥美国经济史(第二卷)：漫长的19世纪[M].高德步等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.235.178.
④ [美]恩格尔曼等.剑桥美国经济史(第二卷)：漫长的19世纪[M].高德步等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.235.
⑤ [美]亚瑟·科恩.美国高等教育通史[M].李子江译.北京：北京大学出版社,2010.48.
① [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.81.
② 贺国庆.近代欧洲对美国教育的影响[M].保定：河北大学出版社.2000.96-97.
① 贺国庆.近代欧洲对美国教育的影响[M].保定：河北大学出版社.2000.98.
② [美]恩格尔曼等.剑桥美国经济史(第二卷)：漫长的19世纪[M].高德步等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.236-237.
③ [美]恩格尔曼等.剑桥美国经济史(第二卷)：漫长的19世纪[M].高德步等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.171.
① 赵一凡.美国的历史文献[M].北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店,1989.47.
② 赵一凡.美国的历史文献[M].北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店,1989.49.
③ [美]亚瑟·科恩.美国高等教育通史[M].李子江译.北京：北京大学出版社,2010.51.
④ 本部分内容已经发表,参见但柳松.美国公共学校运动时期的体制外教育[J].中国校外教育,2013(3)(下)：155.
① 滕大春.美国教育史[M],人民教育出版社,1994.239-240.
② 参见Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill, 2001.87.
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.159.
② [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.89.
③ 参见Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill, 2001.90.
① 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.52.
② [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(一)：殖民地时期的历程[M].周玉军等译,北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.148.
① [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(一)：殖民地时期的历程[M].周玉军等译,北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.149.
② pring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill,2001. 103.
③ Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.14.
④ Tyack, David B., Turning Points in American Educational History[M]. Blaisdell Publishing Company,1967.15-16.
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.112.
② Pulliam, John D. and Patten, James Van, History of education in America (7th ed.) [M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.67.
③ [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.87.
① 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.66.
② Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.63.
③ Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.74.
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.112.
② Pulliam, John D., History of education in America(7th ed.) [M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999. 62-63.
③ Gutek, Gerald L., Education in the United States[M]. Prentice-Hall, Englgwood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632,1986.82.
④ [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.112.
① Cremin, Lawrence A., American Education:the Colonial Experience,1607-1783[M]. Harper & Row, Publishers,1970.440.
① Cremin, Lawrence A., American Education:the Colonial Experience,1607-1783[M]. Harper & Row, Publishers,1970.440-441.
② 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.298。霍列斯·曼即贺拉斯·曼、亨利·巴纳即的亨利·巴纳德——笔者注。
① Kaestle, Carl F., Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983.7.
② [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译.北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.120.
③ Cremin, Lawrence A., American Education:the National Experience,1783-1876[M]. Harper & Row, Publishers,1980.116-117.
④ Kaestle, Carl F., Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983.7.
① 转引自[美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.128.
② [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译.北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.122.
③ [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.166-167.
④ [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译.北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.282.
① [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译.北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.6。“这场革命”是指独立战争——笔者注。
② [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译.北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.279-280.
③ Cremin, Lawrence A., American Education:the National Experience,1783-1876[M]. Harper & Row, Publishers,1980.266-267.
④ Cremin, Lawrence A., American Education:the National Experience,1783-1876[M]. Harper & Row, Publishers,1980.261-263.
① [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译.北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.283.
② 季苹.美国公立学校的发展研究[M].北京：高等教育出版社,2002.55.
① Kaestle, Carl F., Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983.44.
② Kaestle, Carl F., Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983.45.
① 克伯雷.外国教育史料[M].任宝祥、任钟印主译.华中师范大学出版社,1990.616.
① [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.91.
② [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.160.
① 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.188.
② 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.189.
③ Kaestle, Carl F., Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983.41-42.
① [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.98.
① [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译.北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.11.
① Cremin, Lawrence A.,American Education:the National Experience,1783-1876[M]. Harper & Row, Publishers,1980.134.
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.166.
② [美]韦恩·厄本等.美国教育：一部历史档案[M].周晟,谢爱磊译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009.139-140.
① Cremin, Lawrence A., American Education:the National Experience,1783-1876[M]. Harper & Row, Publishers,1980.138.
① [美]韦恩·厄本等.美国教育：一部历史档案[M].周晟,谢爱磊译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009.141.
② [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.165.167.
③ 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.311.
① “康涅狄格州公共学校委员会”、“罗得岛州公立学校委员会”与“马萨诸塞州教育委员会”性质、功能都较为相似,只是名称有所不同而已。这些委员会负责人的名称也有“秘书”、“督察长(superintendent)"“专员(commissioner)"等名称。为叙述的方便,下文统一使用“州教育委员会”,其负责人统一使用“秘书”或“督察长”。
① [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.108.
② 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.332.
③ Pulliam, John D. and Patten, James Van, History of Education in America (7th ed.) [M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.107.
④ [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.168.
⑤ 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.328.
① 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.330.
② 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.330-331.
③ Pulliam, John D. and Patten, James Van, History of Education in America (7th ed.) [M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.107.
① Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.229-230.
② Carl F. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. (New York:Hill and Wang,1983.111-112.
③ [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.135.
① 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.265.
② [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.135.
① Bobbitt, John F., The Efficiency of the Consolidated Rural School [J]. The Elementary School Teacher, Vol.12, No.4 (Dec.,1911),169-175.
② Ornstein, Allan C., Rural/Urban School Districts Trends in Consolidation and Decentralization [J]. The Clearing House, Vol.65, No.5 (May-Jun.,1992), 322-326.
③ 参见Pulliam, John D. and Patten, James Van, History of education in America(7th ed.)[M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.155-156;滕大春.今日美国教育[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1980.76-77。
① Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.221-222.
① Carl F. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983.114-115.
② Carl F. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983.115.
① Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.177-178.
② Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.167-169.
① Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M].Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.173-174.
② 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.287-288.
① Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.180.
② Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.180-181.
① Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.181.
② Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.183-187。密尔,即mill,当时一种货币,相当于0.001美元——笔者注。
① Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.236.
② [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译,北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.174.
③ 纽约免费学校协会此时已更名为公立学校协会,参见本文第一章第二节第三部分。
④ Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.236-237.
① Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.237.
② 姚运标.美国公共教育中的宗教问题研究[M].合肥：安徽人民出版社.2006.284.
① Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill,2001. 92.
② Pulliam, John D. and Patten, James Van, History of education in America (7th ed.)[M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.131.
① Pulliam, John D. and Patten, James Van, History of education in America(7th ed.) [M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.100.
② [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译,北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.190.
③ [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译,北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.476.
① [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译,北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.421.
② Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill,2001. 141.
① Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill,2001. 141.
② 季苹.美国公立学校的发展研究[M].北京：高等教育出版社,2002.80.
③ Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill,2001. 140.
① Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill,2001. 133.
② Carl F. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983.123“整个时期”是指公共学校运动时期——笔者注。
① Carl F. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983.129.
① Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill,2001. 143.
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②刘绪贻,杨生茂.美国通史(第三卷)[M].北京：人民出版社,2002.41.
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① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.204.
① Pulliam, John D. and Patten, James Van, History of education in America(7th ed.) [M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.126.131.
② Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.264.
③ Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill,2001. 140.
④ 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.427.
① Pulliam, John D. And Patten, James Van, History of education in America(7th Ed.) [M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.136.
② 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.587.
① 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.649.
② [美]韦恩·厄本等.美国教育：一部历史档案[M].周晟,谢爱磊译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009.197.
③ [美]韦恩·厄本等.美国教育：一部历史档案[M].周晟,谢爱磊译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009.196。这里的“被解放黑奴管理署”即自由民局——笔者注。
① 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.649.650.
② 詹姆斯·M.麦克弗森.火的考验：美国南北战争及重建南部(下册)[M].刘世龙等译.北京：商务印书馆,1994.333.
③ Pulliam, John D. and Patten, James Van, History of Education in America (7th ed.) [M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.119.
④ 詹姆斯·M.麦克弗森.火的考验：美国南北战争及重建南部(下册)[M].刘世龙等译.北京：商务印书馆,1994.333.
① 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.654.
① Pulliam, John D. and Patten, James Van, History of education in America(7th ed.) [M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.123.
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② 西班牙裔美国人(Hispanic American),又称拉美裔美国人(Latino American),美国官方交替使用这两个说法,其成份十分复杂,“墨西哥人、古巴人、祖先来自西班牙和南美洲的人、讲西班牙语的黑人、有西班牙姓氏但不讲西班牙语世代在美国居住或后来移民至美国的人,这些人统统在种族上被认定是西班牙裔美国人”。参见[美]亚瑟·科恩.美国高等教育通史[M].李子江译.北京：北京大学出版社,2010.266.西班牙裔美国人的主要代表是墨西哥裔美国人。国内有人把西班牙裔美国人简称为西裔美国人。
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③ 张东辉.美国双语教育的历史演变与政策反思[J].比较教育研究,2008(6)：61-65.
① 本文选择“重要判例”,主要是依据《宗教与美国的宪法实验》一书的附录三《美国联邦最高法院涉及宗教自由的判决》,在此基础上选择与公立学校相关的、具有代表性的案例进行分析。参见[美]约翰·维特,朱尔.A.尼克尔斯.宗教与美国的宪法实验[M].袁瑜诤译.北京：中国法制出版社,2012.460-495。此外,凡是联邦最高法院审理的案件,都是上诉案件。为叙述上的简洁,本文通常不介绍上诉前各下级法院的裁决情况。
② 268 U.S.510(1925),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/268/510.htm.
① 406 U.S.205(1972),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/406/205.html.
① 330 U.S.1(1947),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/330/1.html.
② 1965年纽约州学校法的规定,地方公立学校委员会免费向该州所有7至12岁的学生出借教科书,出借对象包括教区学校的学生(parochial school pupils).参见392 U.S.236(1968),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/392/236.html.
③403 U.S.602(1971),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/403/602.html.
① 473 U.S.402(1985),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/473/402.html.
② 521 U.S.203(1997)http://laws.findlaw.com/us/521/203.html.
③ 这一规则规定,当案件有更好的解决办法,原来的判决便不再公平,此时法院可以允许当事方不遵守此判决,参见Rufo v.Inmates of Suffolk County Jail,502 U.S.367(1992), http://laws.findlaw.com/us/502/367.html.).
④ 536 U.S.639(2002)http://laws.findlaw.com/us/536/639.html.
① [美]塞缪尔·亨廷顿.我们是谁：美国国家特性面临的挑战[M].程克雄译.北京：新华出版社,2005.290.
② 万明钢,滕志妍.冲突与妥协：美国公共教育中的宗教问题[J].外国教育研究,2009(2)：39-44.
③ http://laws.findlaw.com/us/000/09/-987.html.
① 英文为：‘‘I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the republic for which it stands, one nation under God, indivisible,with liberty and justice for all".
② 310.U.S.586(1940),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/310/586.html.
③ 319 U.S.624(1943),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/319/624.html.
① 任东来等.美国宪政历程：影响美国的25个司法大案[M].北京：中国法制出版社,2004.188.
② 370 U.S.421 (1962), http://laws.findlaw.com/us/370/421.html.
③ 英文为："Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers and our Country"。
④ 374 U.S.203 (1963), http://laws.findlaw.com/us/374/203.html.
① 英文为:"Our Father, which art in heaven, Hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done, in earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us. And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. For thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory, for ever and ever. Amen."。
② 472 U.S.38 (1985), http://laws.findlaw.com/us/472/38.html.
③ 505 U.S.577 (1992), http://laws.findlaw.com/us/505/577.html.
① 530 U.S.290(2000),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/530/290.html.
② 333 U.S.203(1948),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/333/203.html.
① 496 U.S.226(1990),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/496/226.html.
② 根据《平等准入法》规定：1.学校若存在与课程无关的社团,在非教学时间使用学校的设施集会,即形成学校所提供的有限开放论坛。2.公立学校若接受联邦政府财务补助,就该提供一个有限开放论坛。学生可以公平地使用这个论坛来集会,不管这项集会的言论是宗教的或政治的,都应该受到保障。
③ 508 U.S.384(1993),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/508/384.html.
① 533 U.S.98(2001), http://laws.findlaw.com/us/533/98.html.
② 343 U.S.306 (1952) http://laws.findlaw.com/us/343/306.html.
① 万明钢,滕志妍.冲突与妥协：美国公共教育中的宗教问题[J].外国教育研究,2009(2)：39-44.
② 赵一凡.美国的历史文献[M].北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店,1989.54.
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.345.
① [美]韦恩·厄本等.美国教育：一部历史档案[M].周晟,谢爱磊译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009.438.
① [美]L迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.338.
② [美]亚瑟·科恩.美国高等教育通史[M].李子江译.北京：北京大学出版社,2010.266.
③ [美]L¨迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.350.
④ 陈迎雪.隔离、融合与多元——美国华人教育发展研究[D].河北大学博士论文,2007.82.
① 2010年以前,非洲裔美国人是人口最多的少数族裔,但多为美国本土出生,母语即为英语,因而无需实施以提高英语水平为目的的双语教育。
① [美]韦恩·厄本等.美国教育：一部历史档案[M].周晟,谢爱磊译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009.456.
① 秦梦群.美国教育法与判例[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2006.78.本文下述关于残疾儿童受教育权的论述,多参考了该书的研究,谨此致谢!
① Thomas D. Snyder, Sally A. Dillow. Digest of Education Statistics 2011[R].NCES 2012-001, U.S. Department of Education.167.
② 史静寰.当代美国教育[M].社会科学文献出版社,2001.214.
① 参见李海生.美国教育券政策面临的困境及政策启示[J].中国民办教育研究,2004-2005：167-180.
② 陈一鸣.美国教育券20多年争议未断[N].人民日报,2013-8-11(2)
③ 陈一鸣.美国教育券20多年争议未断[N].人民日报,2013-8-11(2)
④ 王晓阳.当前美国教育改革的观念与趋势[J].教育研究,2012(3)：140-145.
① 马健生,孟雅君.九十年代美国教育改革的一个新动向——特许学校运动述评[J].比较教育研究,1997(6)：52-54,51.
② 史静寰.当代美国教育[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2001.238.
① 钱满素.美国文明[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2001.前言.
② 侯建新.交融与创生：西欧文明的三个来源[J].世界历史,2011(4)：15-27.
③ 侯建新.交融与创生：西欧文明的三个来源[J].世界历史,2011(4)：15-27.
① 当前,就教育而言,我们取得的最大共识就是必须要改革；但对于如何改革,则很难有共识可言。
① Bullough, Robert V., The Forgotten Dream of American Public Education[M].Iowa State Univer-sity Press, Ames, Iowa 50010,1988.6.
① 以上数据来自中华人民共和国国家统计局网站相应年份的《国民经济和社会发展统计公报》,详见http://www. stats.gov.cn/tjsj/tjgb/ndtjgb/。需要说明的是,国民生产总值与国内生产总值是两个不同的概念。1992以前,公报中公布的是国民生产总值,从1992年开始公报中公布的是国内生产总值。不过,对一个国家来说,这两者的数值一般相差不会太大。例如,根据1992年的公报计算可以得出,1991年我国国内生产总值应为21,221亿元,而1991年国民生产总值为19,580亿元。
② 以上数据来自中华人民共和国教育部网站相应年份的《全国教育经费执行情况统计公告》,详见http://www.moe.gov.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_83/index. html。
① 我国一个流行的观点是,美国基础教育质量偏低。在笔者看来,这很大程度上是一种误解。美国基础教育更重视学习态度、学习兴趣、学习方法、探究能力、创新精神等的培养,为学生在高等教育阶段的学习打下了坚实的基础。到目前为止,我国教育仍然偏重于知识传授。仅从知识掌握的角度来评价,必然会得出美国基础教育比中国基础教育差的结论。实际上,中美基础教育各有千秋,需要相互借鉴。
① 美国也存在择校问题,主要是富裕家庭选择让子女上私立学校。美国私立学校是收取高额学费的学校,基本不占用公共教育经费。这些学校的高质量是长期以来自身发展的结果,与公用教育经费无关。此外家长择校多数是出于宗教原因。我国家长所选择的重点学校,是长期以来公共教育经费的过度倾斜造成,中国的择校问题与教育投入政策密切相关。中美两国的择校问题有本质区别。
① 数据出自《2010年中国残疾人事业发展统计公报》,详见http://www.cdpf.org.cn/2008old/ sytj/content/2011-03/24/content_30312814.htm。
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① [美]韦恩·厄本等.美国教育：一部历史档案[M].周晟,谢爱磊译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009.129.
② 滕大春.外国近代教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1989.329.
③ 滕大春.外国教育通史(第三卷)[M].济南：山东教育出版社,1990.366.
④ 单中惠.美国公立学校运动新论[J].教育评论,2000(3)：58-61.
⑤ [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.79.
⑥ [美]乔尔·斯普林.美国教育[M].张弛,张斌贤译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.14注.
① 贺国庆.近代欧洲对美国教育的影响[M].保定：河北大学出版社,2000.95.
② [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.157.注.
③ 参见滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.315-317;[美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译.北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.142等。
④ [美]乔尔·斯普林.美国教育[M].张弛,张斌贤译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.14注.
① Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York:McGraw-Hill,2001. 111.
② Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York:McGraw-Hill,2001. 112.
③ Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York:McGraw-Hill,2001. 113.
④ Rury, John L., Education and Social Change:contours in the history of American schooling [M]. New York:Routledge,2009.75.
① Parkerson, Donald H. and Parkerson, Jo Ann, Transition in American education:a social history of teaching[M]. New York:Routledge Falmer,2001.7.
② Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Boston, New York: Chicago, Dallas, Atlanta and San Francisco:Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.64.此外,笔者根据上下文的意思,把这里的public schools译为“公众学校”,以区别它后来“公立学校”的含义。
① Kaestle, Carl F., Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983. ⅹⅰ-ⅹⅱ.
② [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译.北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.174.
③ Rury, John L., Education and Social Change:contours in the history of American schooling[M]. New York:Routledge,2009.65这里的“公立学校体系的初级部分”是指小学阶段——笔者注。
① Rury, John L., Education and Social Change:contours in the history of American schooling[M]. New York:Routledge,2009.55.
② Parkerson, Donald H. and Parkerson, Jo Ann, Transition in American education:a social history of teaching[M]. New York:Routledge Falmer,2001.11.
③ Parkerson, Donald H. and Parkerson, Jo Ann, Transition in American education:a social history of teaching[M]. New York:Routledge Falmer,2001.7.
① Parkerson, Donald H. and Parkerson, Jo Ann, Transition in American education:a social history of teaching[M]. New York:Routledge Falmer,2001.11.
② Spring, Joel H., The American School[M].1642-2000, New York:McGraw-Hill,2001. 113.
③ Parkerson, Donald H. and Parkerson, Jo Ann, Transition in American education:a social history of teaching[M]. New York:Routledge Falmer,2001.11.
④ 滕大春.外国教育通史(第三卷)[M].济南：山东教育出版社,1990.366.373.
⑤ 参见滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.191；李素敏.美国的公共教育运动[J].现代中小学教育,1997(2)：55-58。
① 计日学费是指,在公共学校运动之前,学校根据学生上学的天数收取学费——笔者注。
① 土著美国人(Native American)即美国印第安人(American Indian)。20世纪60年代民权运动以来,为了所谓的“政治正确”,美国人开始使用“土著美国人”这个词,而尽量避免使用“印第安人”。本文在论述时一律使用“土著美国人”这个术语；对引文尊重原著表述；对英文法案名称等根据原文进行对应翻译。对印第安人还有一些其他称呼,参见邱惠林.美国原住民的称谓之争[J].四川大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2007(2)：52-59。下文出于同样的原因、使用同样的方式处理“非洲裔美国人(African-American)"和“黑人”这两个词语。
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.158.
② 刘绪贻,杨生茂.美国通史(第二卷)[M].北京：人民出版社,2002.63.
① [美]乔纳森·休斯、路易斯·P.凯恩.美国经济史(第7版)[M].邢露等译.北京：北京大学出版社,2011.159.
② 赵一凡.美国的历史文献[M].北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店,1989.51.
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.161.
② [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.89.
③ 刘绪贻,杨生茂.美国通史(第二卷)[M].北京：人民出版社,2002.159.这里的投票是指1828年总统选举投票——笔者注。
① [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.81.
② 参见美国各州加入联邦顺序和时间列表[OL], http://zh. wikipedia. org/wiki/%E7%BE%8 E%E5%9B%BD%E5%B7%9E%E4%BB%BD%E4%BE%9D%aE5%8A%AO%E5%85%A5%E8%81%94%E9%82%A6%E9% A1%BA%E5%BA%8F%E6%8E%92%E5%88%97%E5%88%97%E8%aA1%A8。另外,国内对美国各州州名的翻译不尽相同,除引文外,笔者均采用本表的译法。
① [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.90.
② [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.88.
③ [美]恩格尔曼等.剑桥美国经济史(第二卷)：漫长的19世纪[M].高德步等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.389-390.
④ [美]恩格尔曼等.剑桥美国经济史(第二卷)：漫长的19世纪[M].高德步等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.404-405.
⑤ [美]乔纳森·休斯,路易斯·P.凯恩.美国经济史(第7版)[M].邢露等译.北京：北京大学出版社,2011.167.
⑥ [美]恩格尔曼等.剑桥美国经济史(第二卷)：漫长的19世纪[M].高德步等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.411-412.
⑦ [美]亚瑟·科恩.美国高等教育通史[M].李子江译.北京：北京大学出版社,2010.49.
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.162.
② [美]恩格尔曼等.剑桥美国经济史(第二卷)：漫长的19世纪[M].高德步等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.169-170.
③ [美]恩格尔曼等.剑桥美国经济史(第二卷)：漫长的19世纪[M].高德步等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.170
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.162.
② 宿景祥.美国经济统计手册[M].北京：时事出版社,1992.6-7.
① [美]乔纳森·休斯、路易斯·P.凯恩.美国经济史(第7版)[M].邢露等译.北京：北京大学出版社,2011.112.
② [美]乔纳森·休斯、路易斯·P.凯恩.美国经济史(第7版)[M].邢露等译.北京：北京大学出版社,2011.112.
③ [美]恩格尔曼等.剑桥美国经济史(第二卷)：漫长的19世纪[M].高德步等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.235.178.
④ [美]恩格尔曼等.剑桥美国经济史(第二卷)：漫长的19世纪[M].高德步等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.235.
⑤ [美]亚瑟·科恩.美国高等教育通史[M].李子江译.北京：北京大学出版社,2010.48.
① [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.81.
② 贺国庆.近代欧洲对美国教育的影响[M].保定：河北大学出版社.2000.96-97.
① 贺国庆.近代欧洲对美国教育的影响[M].保定：河北大学出版社.2000.98.
② [美]恩格尔曼等.剑桥美国经济史(第二卷)：漫长的19世纪[M].高德步等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.236-237.
③ [美]恩格尔曼等.剑桥美国经济史(第二卷)：漫长的19世纪[M].高德步等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.171.
① 赵一凡.美国的历史文献[M].北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店,1989.47.
② 赵一凡.美国的历史文献[M].北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店,1989.49.
③ [美]亚瑟·科恩.美国高等教育通史[M].李子江译.北京：北京大学出版社,2010.51.
④ 本部分内容已经发表,参见但柳松.美国公共学校运动时期的体制外教育[J].中国校外教育,2013(3)(下)：155.
① 滕大春.美国教育史[M],人民教育出版社,1994.239-240.
② 参见Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill, 2001.87.
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.159.
② [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.89.
③ 参见Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill, 2001.90.
① 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.52.
② [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(一)：殖民地时期的历程[M].周玉军等译,北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.148.
① [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(一)：殖民地时期的历程[M].周玉军等译,北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.149.
② pring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill,2001. 103.
③ Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.14.
④ Tyack, David B., Turning Points in American Educational History[M]. Blaisdell Publishing Company,1967.15-16.
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.112.
② Pulliam, John D. and Patten, James Van, History of education in America (7th ed.) [M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.67.
③ [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.87.
① 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.66.
② Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.63.
③ Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.74.
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.112.
② Pulliam, John D., History of education in America(7th ed.) [M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999. 62-63.
③ Gutek, Gerald L., Education in the United States[M]. Prentice-Hall, Englgwood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632,1986.82.
④ [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.112.
① Cremin, Lawrence A., American Education:the Colonial Experience,1607-1783[M]. Harper & Row, Publishers,1970.440.
① Cremin, Lawrence A., American Education:the Colonial Experience,1607-1783[M]. Harper & Row, Publishers,1970.440-441.
② 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.298。霍列斯·曼即贺拉斯·曼、亨利·巴纳即的亨利·巴纳德——笔者注。
① Kaestle, Carl F., Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983.7.
② [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译.北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.120.
③ Cremin, Lawrence A., American Education:the National Experience,1783-1876[M]. Harper & Row, Publishers,1980.116-117.
④ Kaestle, Carl F., Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983.7.
① 转引自[美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.128.
② [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译.北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.122.
③ [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.166-167.
④ [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译.北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.282.
① [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译.北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.6。“这场革命”是指独立战争——笔者注。
② [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译.北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.279-280.
③ Cremin, Lawrence A., American Education:the National Experience,1783-1876[M]. Harper & Row, Publishers,1980.266-267.
④ Cremin, Lawrence A., American Education:the National Experience,1783-1876[M]. Harper & Row, Publishers,1980.261-263.
① [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译.北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.283.
② 季苹.美国公立学校的发展研究[M].北京：高等教育出版社,2002.55.
① Kaestle, Carl F., Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983.44.
② Kaestle, Carl F., Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983.45.
① 克伯雷.外国教育史料[M].任宝祥、任钟印主译.华中师范大学出版社,1990.616.
① [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.91.
② [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.160.
① 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.188.
② 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.189.
③ Kaestle, Carl F., Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983.41-42.
① [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.98.
① [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译.北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.11.
① Cremin, Lawrence A.,American Education:the National Experience,1783-1876[M]. Harper & Row, Publishers,1980.134.
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.166.
② [美]韦恩·厄本等.美国教育：一部历史档案[M].周晟,谢爱磊译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009.139-140.
① Cremin, Lawrence A., American Education:the National Experience,1783-1876[M]. Harper & Row, Publishers,1980.138.
① [美]韦恩·厄本等.美国教育：一部历史档案[M].周晟,谢爱磊译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009.141.
② [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.165.167.
③ 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.311.
① “康涅狄格州公共学校委员会”、“罗得岛州公立学校委员会”与“马萨诸塞州教育委员会”性质、功能都较为相似,只是名称有所不同而已。这些委员会负责人的名称也有“秘书”、“督察长(superintendent)"“专员(commissioner)"等名称。为叙述的方便,下文统一使用“州教育委员会”,其负责人统一使用“秘书”或“督察长”。
① [美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.108.
② 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.332.
③ Pulliam, John D. and Patten, James Van, History of Education in America (7th ed.) [M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.107.
④ [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.168.
⑤ 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.328.
① 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.330.
② 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.330-331.
③ Pulliam, John D. and Patten, James Van, History of Education in America (7th ed.) [M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.107.
① Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.229-230.
② Carl F. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. (New York:Hill and Wang,1983.111-112.
③ [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.135.
① 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.265.
② [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.135.
① Bobbitt, John F., The Efficiency of the Consolidated Rural School [J]. The Elementary School Teacher, Vol.12, No.4 (Dec.,1911),169-175.
② Ornstein, Allan C., Rural/Urban School Districts Trends in Consolidation and Decentralization [J]. The Clearing House, Vol.65, No.5 (May-Jun.,1992), 322-326.
③ 参见Pulliam, John D. and Patten, James Van, History of education in America(7th ed.)[M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.155-156;滕大春.今日美国教育[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1980.76-77。
① Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.221-222.
① Carl F. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983.114-115.
② Carl F. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983.115.
① Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.177-178.
② Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.167-169.
① Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M].Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.173-174.
② 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.287-288.
① Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.180.
② Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.180-181.
① Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.181.
② Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.183-187。密尔,即mill,当时一种货币,相当于0.001美元——笔者注。
① Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.236.
② [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译,北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.174.
③ 纽约免费学校协会此时已更名为公立学校协会,参见本文第一章第二节第三部分。
④ Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.236-237.
① Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.237.
② 姚运标.美国公共教育中的宗教问题研究[M].合肥：安徽人民出版社.2006.284.
① Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill,2001. 92.
② Pulliam, John D. and Patten, James Van, History of education in America (7th ed.)[M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.131.
① Pulliam, John D. and Patten, James Van, History of education in America(7th ed.) [M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.100.
② [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译,北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.190.
③ [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译,北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.476.
① [美]劳伦斯·A·克雷明.美国教育史(二)建国初期的历程[M].洪成文等译,北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.421.
② Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill,2001. 141.
① Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill,2001. 141.
② 季苹.美国公立学校的发展研究[M].北京：高等教育出版社,2002.80.
③ Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill,2001. 140.
① Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill,2001. 133.
② Carl F. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983.123“整个时期”是指公共学校运动时期——笔者注。
① Carl F. Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic:Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860[M]. New York:Hill and Wang,1983.129.
① Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill,2001. 143.
① 刘绪贻,杨生茂.美国通史(第三卷)[M].北京：人民出版社,2002.26-27.
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② 刘绪贻,杨生茂.美国通史(第三卷)[M].北京：人民出版社,2002.296.
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⑤ 詹姆斯·M.麦克弗森.火的考验：美国南北战争及重建南部(下册)[M].刘世龙等译.北京：商务印书馆,1994.205.
①[美]S.亚历山大·里帕.自由社会中的教育：美国历程(第8版)[M].於荣译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.127.
②刘绪贻,杨生茂.美国通史(第三卷)[M].北京：人民出版社,2002.41.
③刘绪贻,杨生茂.美国通史(第三卷)[M].北京：人民出版社,2002.43.
① 刘绪贻,杨生茂.美国通史(第三卷)[M].北京：人民出版社,2002.74.
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.207.
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.204.
① Pulliam, John D. and Patten, James Van, History of education in America(7th ed.) [M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.126.131.
② Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States[M]. Houghton Mifflin Company,1934.264.
③ Spring, Joel H., The American School,1642-2000[M]. New York, McGraw-Hill,2001. 140.
④ 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.427.
① Pulliam, John D. And Patten, James Van, History of education in America(7th Ed.) [M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.136.
② 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.587.
① 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.649.
② [美]韦恩·厄本等.美国教育：一部历史档案[M].周晟,谢爱磊译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009.197.
③ [美]韦恩·厄本等.美国教育：一部历史档案[M].周晟,谢爱磊译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009.196。这里的“被解放黑奴管理署”即自由民局——笔者注。
① 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.649.650.
② 詹姆斯·M.麦克弗森.火的考验：美国南北战争及重建南部(下册)[M].刘世龙等译.北京：商务印书馆,1994.333.
③ Pulliam, John D. and Patten, James Van, History of Education in America (7th ed.) [M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.119.
④ 詹姆斯·M.麦克弗森.火的考验：美国南北战争及重建南部(下册)[M].刘世龙等译.北京：商务印书馆,1994.333.
① 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,1994.654.
① Pulliam, John D. and Patten, James Van, History of education in America(7th ed.) [M]. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458,1999.123.
① 单中惠.美国公立学校运动新论[J].教育评论,2000(3)：58-61.
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.188.
② 李素敏.美国的公共教育运动[J].现代中小学教育,1997(2)：55-58.
③ 李素敏.美国的公共教育运动[J].现代中小学教育,1997(2)：55-58.
① [美]塞缪尔·亨延顿.我们是谁：美国国家特性面临的挑战[M].程克雄译.北京：新华出版社.2005.112.
② 西班牙裔美国人(Hispanic American),又称拉美裔美国人(Latino American),美国官方交替使用这两个说法,其成份十分复杂,“墨西哥人、古巴人、祖先来自西班牙和南美洲的人、讲西班牙语的黑人、有西班牙姓氏但不讲西班牙语世代在美国居住或后来移民至美国的人,这些人统统在种族上被认定是西班牙裔美国人”。参见[美]亚瑟·科恩.美国高等教育通史[M].李子江译.北京：北京大学出版社,2010.266.西班牙裔美国人的主要代表是墨西哥裔美国人。国内有人把西班牙裔美国人简称为西裔美国人。
③ 宿景祥.美国经济统计手册[M].北京：时事出版社,1992.9.
① Patricia Foxen (April 25,2011), Nationwide Growth in the Latino Population Is a Boon for the Country [OL], http://www.nclr.org/index.php/publications/nationwide_growth in_ the_latino_population_is_a_boon_for_the_country/#sthash. IADZ7bzH. dpuf.
② 王莉颖.美国双语教育立法及其双语教育发展[J].教育科学,2006(6)：87-89.
① 罗豫元.美国双语教育实施失败的因素分析[J].比较教育研究,2007(1)：60-64.
② [美]塞缪尔·亨延顿.我们是谁：美国国家特性面临的挑战[M].程克雄译.北京：新华出版社.2005.169.
③ [美]塞缪尔·亨延顿.我们是谁：美国国家特性面临的挑战[M].程克雄译.北京：新华出版社.2005.268.
① [美]塞缪尔·亨延顿.我们是谁：美国国家特性面临的挑战[M].程克雄译.北京：新华出版社.2005.212.
② [美]韦恩·厄本等.美国教育：一部历史档案[M].周晟,谢爱磊译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009.435.
③ 张东辉.美国双语教育的历史演变与政策反思[J].比较教育研究,2008(6)：61-65.
① 本文选择“重要判例”,主要是依据《宗教与美国的宪法实验》一书的附录三《美国联邦最高法院涉及宗教自由的判决》,在此基础上选择与公立学校相关的、具有代表性的案例进行分析。参见[美]约翰·维特,朱尔.A.尼克尔斯.宗教与美国的宪法实验[M].袁瑜诤译.北京：中国法制出版社,2012.460-495。此外,凡是联邦最高法院审理的案件,都是上诉案件。为叙述上的简洁,本文通常不介绍上诉前各下级法院的裁决情况。
② 268 U.S.510(1925),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/268/510.htm.
① 406 U.S.205(1972),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/406/205.html.
① 330 U.S.1(1947),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/330/1.html.
② 1965年纽约州学校法的规定,地方公立学校委员会免费向该州所有7至12岁的学生出借教科书,出借对象包括教区学校的学生(parochial school pupils).参见392 U.S.236(1968),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/392/236.html.
③403 U.S.602(1971),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/403/602.html.
① 473 U.S.402(1985),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/473/402.html.
② 521 U.S.203(1997)http://laws.findlaw.com/us/521/203.html.
③ 这一规则规定,当案件有更好的解决办法,原来的判决便不再公平,此时法院可以允许当事方不遵守此判决,参见Rufo v.Inmates of Suffolk County Jail,502 U.S.367(1992), http://laws.findlaw.com/us/502/367.html.).
④ 536 U.S.639(2002)http://laws.findlaw.com/us/536/639.html.
① [美]塞缪尔·亨廷顿.我们是谁：美国国家特性面临的挑战[M].程克雄译.北京：新华出版社,2005.290.
② 万明钢,滕志妍.冲突与妥协：美国公共教育中的宗教问题[J].外国教育研究,2009(2)：39-44.
③ http://laws.findlaw.com/us/000/09/-987.html.
① 英文为：‘‘I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the republic for which it stands, one nation under God, indivisible,with liberty and justice for all".
② 310.U.S.586(1940),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/310/586.html.
③ 319 U.S.624(1943),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/319/624.html.
① 任东来等.美国宪政历程：影响美国的25个司法大案[M].北京：中国法制出版社,2004.188.
② 370 U.S.421 (1962), http://laws.findlaw.com/us/370/421.html.
③ 英文为："Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers and our Country"。
④ 374 U.S.203 (1963), http://laws.findlaw.com/us/374/203.html.
① 英文为:"Our Father, which art in heaven, Hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done, in earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us. And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. For thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory, for ever and ever. Amen."。
② 472 U.S.38 (1985), http://laws.findlaw.com/us/472/38.html.
③ 505 U.S.577 (1992), http://laws.findlaw.com/us/505/577.html.
① 530 U.S.290(2000),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/530/290.html.
② 333 U.S.203(1948),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/333/203.html.
① 496 U.S.226(1990),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/496/226.html.
② 根据《平等准入法》规定：1.学校若存在与课程无关的社团,在非教学时间使用学校的设施集会,即形成学校所提供的有限开放论坛。2.公立学校若接受联邦政府财务补助,就该提供一个有限开放论坛。学生可以公平地使用这个论坛来集会,不管这项集会的言论是宗教的或政治的,都应该受到保障。
③ 508 U.S.384(1993),http://laws.findlaw.com/us/508/384.html.
① 533 U.S.98(2001), http://laws.findlaw.com/us/533/98.html.
② 343 U.S.306 (1952) http://laws.findlaw.com/us/343/306.html.
① 万明钢,滕志妍.冲突与妥协：美国公共教育中的宗教问题[J].外国教育研究,2009(2)：39-44.
② 赵一凡.美国的历史文献[M].北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店,1989.54.
① [美]L.迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.345.
① [美]韦恩·厄本等.美国教育：一部历史档案[M].周晟,谢爱磊译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009.438.
① [美]L迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.338.
② [美]亚瑟·科恩.美国高等教育通史[M].李子江译.北京：北京大学出版社,2010.266.
③ [美]L¨迪安·韦布.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国试验[M].陈露茜,李朝阳译.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2010.350.
④ 陈迎雪.隔离、融合与多元——美国华人教育发展研究[D].河北大学博士论文,2007.82.
① 2010年以前,非洲裔美国人是人口最多的少数族裔,但多为美国本土出生,母语即为英语,因而无需实施以提高英语水平为目的的双语教育。
① [美]韦恩·厄本等.美国教育：一部历史档案[M].周晟,谢爱磊译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009.456.
① 秦梦群.美国教育法与判例[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2006.78.本文下述关于残疾儿童受教育权的论述,多参考了该书的研究,谨此致谢!
① Thomas D. Snyder, Sally A. Dillow. Digest of Education Statistics 2011[R].NCES 2012-001, U.S. Department of Education.167.
② 史静寰.当代美国教育[M].社会科学文献出版社,2001.214.
① 参见李海生.美国教育券政策面临的困境及政策启示[J].中国民办教育研究,2004-2005：167-180.
② 陈一鸣.美国教育券20多年争议未断[N].人民日报,2013-8-11(2)
③ 陈一鸣.美国教育券20多年争议未断[N].人民日报,2013-8-11(2)
④ 王晓阳.当前美国教育改革的观念与趋势[J].教育研究,2012(3)：140-145.
① 马健生,孟雅君.九十年代美国教育改革的一个新动向——特许学校运动述评[J].比较教育研究,1997(6)：52-54,51.
② 史静寰.当代美国教育[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2001.238.
① 钱满素.美国文明[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2001.前言.
② 侯建新.交融与创生：西欧文明的三个来源[J].世界历史,2011(4)：15-27.
③ 侯建新.交融与创生：西欧文明的三个来源[J].世界历史,2011(4)：15-27.
① 当前,就教育而言,我们取得的最大共识就是必须要改革；但对于如何改革,则很难有共识可言。
① Bullough, Robert V., The Forgotten Dream of American Public Education[M].Iowa State Univer-sity Press, Ames, Iowa 50010,1988.6.
① 以上数据来自中华人民共和国国家统计局网站相应年份的《国民经济和社会发展统计公报》,详见http://www. stats.gov.cn/tjsj/tjgb/ndtjgb/。需要说明的是,国民生产总值与国内生产总值是两个不同的概念。1992以前,公报中公布的是国民生产总值,从1992年开始公报中公布的是国内生产总值。不过,对一个国家来说,这两者的数值一般相差不会太大。例如,根据1992年的公报计算可以得出,1991年我国国内生产总值应为21,221亿元,而1991年国民生产总值为19,580亿元。
② 以上数据来自中华人民共和国教育部网站相应年份的《全国教育经费执行情况统计公告》,详见http://www.moe.gov.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_83/index. html。
① 我国一个流行的观点是,美国基础教育质量偏低。在笔者看来,这很大程度上是一种误解。美国基础教育更重视学习态度、学习兴趣、学习方法、探究能力、创新精神等的培养,为学生在高等教育阶段的学习打下了坚实的基础。到目前为止,我国教育仍然偏重于知识传授。仅从知识掌握的角度来评价,必然会得出美国基础教育比中国基础教育差的结论。实际上,中美基础教育各有千秋,需要相互借鉴。
① 美国也存在择校问题,主要是富裕家庭选择让子女上私立学校。美国私立学校是收取高额学费的学校,基本不占用公共教育经费。这些学校的高质量是长期以来自身发展的结果,与公用教育经费无关。此外家长择校多数是出于宗教原因。我国家长所选择的重点学校,是长期以来公共教育经费的过度倾斜造成,中国的择校问题与教育投入政策密切相关。中美两国的择校问题有本质区别。
① 数据出自《2010年中国残疾人事业发展统计公报》,详见http://www.cdpf.org.cn/2008old/ sytj/content/2011-03/24/content_30312814.htm。
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