时间顺序标码的层次网络表征研究
|
摘要
任何事件都发生在某个特定的历史时间，因此在对事件编码时，就附着上了时间信
息作为其时间标记。这种标记可以是一种直接表示事件的顺序的符号，本研究称之为
顺序标码。时间顺序标码是按照层次网络的结构组织起来的。通过对这种层次网络组
织中的时间顺序标码进行检索这种特殊的推理方式，就可确定该事件在过去经历过的
事件中的顺序。因为这种时间信息的顺序标码的多层次网络组织有什么特点，以及人
们怎样在这种组织中进行进行检索加工，是人们的时间认知的一个很重要的方面，所
以本研究力图找到新的思路与视野来对之进行研究。通过本研究的结果，可以对时间
顺序标码的层次网络的组织得出如下认识：
首先，不按序呈现的时间信息的顺序标码同按序呈现的时间顺序标码以及按序呈现
的关系标码之间的效应是相同的，是人们对各个项目的先后顺序认知的主要依据。因
此，以不按序呈现的时间顺序标码为刺激材料，进行实验，既可以保持同过去的研究
之间的继承性，又可以避开语义顺序的干扰。但更重要的是，因不按序呈现顺序标码
的分布范围较广，不受工作记忆的限制，方能有效地探讨时间顺序标码的多层次的网
络组织。再者，时间顺序标码的表征是言语表征而不是空间表象表征，这说明被试没
有在心理上重新排列各个项目，而是对其标码直接进行推理判断。总而言之，这种范
型是通过推理来探讨时间顺序标码层次网络组织的有效的手段。
人们为了提高时间认知的效率，只要项目的数目达到几个时就要开始对这些时间信
息进行分组，形成组块即小组，然后再把小组结合为大组，进而组成更大的组，以至
于形成一个具有层次网络结构的组织形式。当若干的项目被结合为没有明确的边界的
小组时，若两个项目之间间隔达二个项目时，就会出现距离效应；当若干的项目被结
合为有明确的边界的小组时，两个组的项目之间就会出现越界效应；当层次网络形成
时，即对不同层次的项目之间就会出现层次效应。这些效应表明，时间顺序标码是按
照层次网络的结构组织起来的，若干项目组成一个小组，形成了高一级的层次；若干
小组组成更大的组，形成更高一级的层次。在这个层次网络结构中，高层的信息控制
着低层的信息。高层次的顺序信息也可通过连线而为低层次的项目自动继承。而在时
间顺序标码的表征中蕴涵着这种层次网络信息。因此，一旦知道一个项目的时间顺序
标码的层次网络表征，就可知道该项目同其它项目的先后关系。本研究的结果，同
Coffins和Quillian首倡的语义层次网络模型，以及Lee和Estes等人的主观时间信息的
层次网络的模型、mttenlocher等人的客观时间信息的层次网络的模型基本上是一致
。叭
的。
对两个项目的先后顺序的推理，是以对其标码的表征按层次进行直接比较的加工方
式为主，必要时也采用运算的加工方式。山于对时间顺序标码的层次网络表征的加工
是从顶层向底层逐步进行的，因此两个项目之间的距离越大，越在高层次上分开，就
只需要在越高的层次上进行加工，涉及到的层次就越少，反应时越短，反应的正确率
越高。反之，同一组块内的两个相邻的项目，因需要一直加工到最底层，涉及到的层
次最多，反应时必然最长，正确率也最低。这一结果，回答了用距离效应来对层次网
络结构的质疑。
对两个项目的先后顺序的椎理，是以对其标码的表征按层次进行直接比较的加工方
式为主，必要时也采用运算的加工方式。
在线性的时间的基础上形成的时间顺序标码层次网络组织是人为的，而且由于各个
项目的标码之间没有明确的特征上的差异，组成层次网络的依据则是各个项目的标码
在顺序上的接近性，因而就不可避免地具有自己的独特之处，这表现在对时间顺序标
码层次网络表征的加工具有自动性、内隐性和模糊性上。被试对于没有明确的层次、
组界的连续的时间顺序标码进行分组、形成层次网络的加工，都是自动进行的，而且
这种小组乃至层次网络的存在是内隐的，是没有为被试所意识到的。个体对时间顺序
标码的层次网络表征可以进行模糊的加工。这种模糊的加工导致了具有连缕性的时间
顺序标码的层次网络的模糊边界的特殊问题。当然，对时间顺序标码层次网络表征的
加工也可具有控制性、外显性和糟确性的特点，且其加工的效果分别优于自动的、内
隐的和樱糊的加工的效果。
由于对项目之间的挂近性的把扛是因人而异的，甚至于就同一个体而言，也会因其
经验或其它因景的不同而产生相当的差异，时间顾序标码的层次冈络表征的最根本的
特点就是它的主观性。即使是依据日历标码而形成的“客观的”时间顺序标码的层次
网络表征，也要受到这种主观性的制约。如果一个客观
Any event happens at a certain time, so the information of this time is attached to the code of the event as its temporal marker. If this marker is a symbol to denote the order of the event directly, it can be called temporal sequential marker in this research. Each temporal sequential marker has a hierarchical network organization information. Through searching temporal sequential markers in such hierarchical network, a special form of reasoning, the orders of events can be decided. The natures of hierarchical network structure of such temporal sequential markers, and the process of searching under such structure are very important for human cognition. Therefore, in this research, we strove to find a new paradigm and perspective to the studies of them. On the basis of the findings of this research, the following comprehension of temporal sequential markers can be gotten:
At first, temporal sequential markers with unordered display have the same effect of temporal sequential markers and relational markers with ordered display, therefore, they can be the main basis for human cognition of the order of events. Therefore, temporal sequential markers with unordered display as stimulus are most suitable for conducting successive experiments with the previous researchers, and are exempt from the disturbance of semantic orders. Temporal sequential markers with unordered display can be distributed more broadly to go beyond the limitation of working memory, so they are uniquely useful to explore structure of hierarchical network of t~emporal sequential markers. The representation of temporal sequential ~~iarkers is verbal
S
representation, and this means that the items are not rearranged in the mind by the ~ubjccts, so they axe judged directly through their markers. In general, the paradigm used in this research is a useful method to explore temporal sequential markers undei?hierarchical network structure.
Hr raising the efficiency ot the cognition of timc, the people should combine items into one chunk, this means, into a group when there are several Lens, and then, combine several smaller groups into one bigger group, and so on and so forth. This combination will lead to an organization with the hierarchical network structure. When several items are combined into groups
?without a clear boundary, the distance effect will exist between two items with an interval of other two items. When several items were combined into groups with a clear boundary, the boundary effect will exist between two items in different groups. And when a hierarchical network is formed, the hierarchical effect will exist between two items in different layers. All these effects shows that temporal sequential markers are organized in accordance with the hierarchical network structure, that means, when several items are combined into a group, a higher hierarchy is formed: when several groups are combined into a bigger group, an even higher hierarchy is formed. In this hierarchical network organization, the information of upper layers is in the control over the information of lower layers. And the items of lower layers can obtain the sequential information of upper layers. In the representation of temporal sequential markers, such hierarchical network information is comprised. Therefore, once an item抯 hierarchical network representation of temporal sequential marker is available, the order of this item with other items can be judged. At last, the findings of this research are consistent with the semantic hierarchical network model initiated by Collins and Quillian, and consistent with the hierarchical network models of subjective temporal information by Lee and Estes, and of subjective temporal information by Hut tenlocher.
The method process of direct judgment is taken mainly for the reasoning of the order of two items, but at necessary time, the process of calculation is taken also. If two items are separated by longer distance, they should be
9
divided at upper layer. Because the process of the hiera
息作为其时间标记。这种标记可以是一种直接表示事件的顺序的符号，本研究称之为
顺序标码。时间顺序标码是按照层次网络的结构组织起来的。通过对这种层次网络组
织中的时间顺序标码进行检索这种特殊的推理方式，就可确定该事件在过去经历过的
事件中的顺序。因为这种时间信息的顺序标码的多层次网络组织有什么特点，以及人
们怎样在这种组织中进行进行检索加工，是人们的时间认知的一个很重要的方面，所
以本研究力图找到新的思路与视野来对之进行研究。通过本研究的结果，可以对时间
顺序标码的层次网络的组织得出如下认识：
首先，不按序呈现的时间信息的顺序标码同按序呈现的时间顺序标码以及按序呈现
的关系标码之间的效应是相同的，是人们对各个项目的先后顺序认知的主要依据。因
此，以不按序呈现的时间顺序标码为刺激材料，进行实验，既可以保持同过去的研究
之间的继承性，又可以避开语义顺序的干扰。但更重要的是，因不按序呈现顺序标码
的分布范围较广，不受工作记忆的限制，方能有效地探讨时间顺序标码的多层次的网
络组织。再者，时间顺序标码的表征是言语表征而不是空间表象表征，这说明被试没
有在心理上重新排列各个项目，而是对其标码直接进行推理判断。总而言之，这种范
型是通过推理来探讨时间顺序标码层次网络组织的有效的手段。
人们为了提高时间认知的效率，只要项目的数目达到几个时就要开始对这些时间信
息进行分组，形成组块即小组，然后再把小组结合为大组，进而组成更大的组，以至
于形成一个具有层次网络结构的组织形式。当若干的项目被结合为没有明确的边界的
小组时，若两个项目之间间隔达二个项目时，就会出现距离效应；当若干的项目被结
合为有明确的边界的小组时，两个组的项目之间就会出现越界效应；当层次网络形成
时，即对不同层次的项目之间就会出现层次效应。这些效应表明，时间顺序标码是按
照层次网络的结构组织起来的，若干项目组成一个小组，形成了高一级的层次；若干
小组组成更大的组，形成更高一级的层次。在这个层次网络结构中，高层的信息控制
着低层的信息。高层次的顺序信息也可通过连线而为低层次的项目自动继承。而在时
间顺序标码的表征中蕴涵着这种层次网络信息。因此，一旦知道一个项目的时间顺序
标码的层次网络表征，就可知道该项目同其它项目的先后关系。本研究的结果，同
Coffins和Quillian首倡的语义层次网络模型，以及Lee和Estes等人的主观时间信息的
层次网络的模型、mttenlocher等人的客观时间信息的层次网络的模型基本上是一致
。叭
的。
对两个项目的先后顺序的推理，是以对其标码的表征按层次进行直接比较的加工方
式为主，必要时也采用运算的加工方式。山于对时间顺序标码的层次网络表征的加工
是从顶层向底层逐步进行的，因此两个项目之间的距离越大，越在高层次上分开，就
只需要在越高的层次上进行加工，涉及到的层次就越少，反应时越短，反应的正确率
越高。反之，同一组块内的两个相邻的项目，因需要一直加工到最底层，涉及到的层
次最多，反应时必然最长，正确率也最低。这一结果，回答了用距离效应来对层次网
络结构的质疑。
对两个项目的先后顺序的椎理，是以对其标码的表征按层次进行直接比较的加工方
式为主，必要时也采用运算的加工方式。
在线性的时间的基础上形成的时间顺序标码层次网络组织是人为的，而且由于各个
项目的标码之间没有明确的特征上的差异，组成层次网络的依据则是各个项目的标码
在顺序上的接近性，因而就不可避免地具有自己的独特之处，这表现在对时间顺序标
码层次网络表征的加工具有自动性、内隐性和模糊性上。被试对于没有明确的层次、
组界的连续的时间顺序标码进行分组、形成层次网络的加工，都是自动进行的，而且
这种小组乃至层次网络的存在是内隐的，是没有为被试所意识到的。个体对时间顺序
标码的层次网络表征可以进行模糊的加工。这种模糊的加工导致了具有连缕性的时间
顺序标码的层次网络的模糊边界的特殊问题。当然，对时间顺序标码层次网络表征的
加工也可具有控制性、外显性和糟确性的特点，且其加工的效果分别优于自动的、内
隐的和樱糊的加工的效果。
由于对项目之间的挂近性的把扛是因人而异的，甚至于就同一个体而言，也会因其
经验或其它因景的不同而产生相当的差异，时间顾序标码的层次冈络表征的最根本的
特点就是它的主观性。即使是依据日历标码而形成的“客观的”时间顺序标码的层次
网络表征，也要受到这种主观性的制约。如果一个客观
Any event happens at a certain time, so the information of this time is attached to the code of the event as its temporal marker. If this marker is a symbol to denote the order of the event directly, it can be called temporal sequential marker in this research. Each temporal sequential marker has a hierarchical network organization information. Through searching temporal sequential markers in such hierarchical network, a special form of reasoning, the orders of events can be decided. The natures of hierarchical network structure of such temporal sequential markers, and the process of searching under such structure are very important for human cognition. Therefore, in this research, we strove to find a new paradigm and perspective to the studies of them. On the basis of the findings of this research, the following comprehension of temporal sequential markers can be gotten:
At first, temporal sequential markers with unordered display have the same effect of temporal sequential markers and relational markers with ordered display, therefore, they can be the main basis for human cognition of the order of events. Therefore, temporal sequential markers with unordered display as stimulus are most suitable for conducting successive experiments with the previous researchers, and are exempt from the disturbance of semantic orders. Temporal sequential markers with unordered display can be distributed more broadly to go beyond the limitation of working memory, so they are uniquely useful to explore structure of hierarchical network of t~emporal sequential markers. The representation of temporal sequential ~~iarkers is verbal
S
representation, and this means that the items are not rearranged in the mind by the ~ubjccts, so they axe judged directly through their markers. In general, the paradigm used in this research is a useful method to explore temporal sequential markers undei?hierarchical network structure.
Hr raising the efficiency ot the cognition of timc, the people should combine items into one chunk, this means, into a group when there are several Lens, and then, combine several smaller groups into one bigger group, and so on and so forth. This combination will lead to an organization with the hierarchical network structure. When several items are combined into groups
?without a clear boundary, the distance effect will exist between two items with an interval of other two items. When several items were combined into groups with a clear boundary, the boundary effect will exist between two items in different groups. And when a hierarchical network is formed, the hierarchical effect will exist between two items in different layers. All these effects shows that temporal sequential markers are organized in accordance with the hierarchical network structure, that means, when several items are combined into a group, a higher hierarchy is formed: when several groups are combined into a bigger group, an even higher hierarchy is formed. In this hierarchical network organization, the information of upper layers is in the control over the information of lower layers. And the items of lower layers can obtain the sequential information of upper layers. In the representation of temporal sequential markers, such hierarchical network information is comprised. Therefore, once an item抯 hierarchical network representation of temporal sequential marker is available, the order of this item with other items can be judged. At last, the findings of this research are consistent with the semantic hierarchical network model initiated by Collins and Quillian, and consistent with the hierarchical network models of subjective temporal information by Lee and Estes, and of subjective temporal information by Hut tenlocher.
The method process of direct judgment is taken mainly for the reasoning of the order of two items, but at necessary time, the process of calculation is taken also. If two items are separated by longer distance, they should be
9
divided at upper layer. Because the process of the hiera
引文
黄巍，中国成人推理月份时间的加工模型，心理科学，1993，16(2)：84—89。
黄希庭，未来时间的心理结构，心理学报，1994，26(2)：110-126。
黄希庭、徐光国，对变化／分割模型的检验(Ⅰ)，心理学报，1997．29(3)：326-334。
黄希庭、徐光国，对变化／分割模型的检验(Ⅱ)，心理学报，1199，31(2)：135-141。
黄希庭、孙承惠，时间词义赋值特征的分析，心理学报，1991，24(3)：243-248。
黄希庭、孙承惠，模糊篇序关系在心理学研究中的应用，心理学报，1992，25(2)：135-141。
黄希庭，张进辅，李红，当代中国青年价值观与教育，四川教育出版社，1993。
黄希庭、郑涌，时间记忆的理论与实验范型，心理科学，1995，18(4)：201-205。
李伯约，时间认知标记理论的扩展，云南教育学院学报，1999，2：86-90。
李伯约，从时间知觉到时间心理学，西南师范大学学报，2000，26(6)：118-122。
李伯约，认知心理学关于时间推理研究，湖南师范大学学报，2001，30(1)：84-86。
李伯约、黄希庭，周期性时间推理研究，心理科学，2000，23(4)：479-481。
李国军，时间顺序信息加工的实验研究，心理科学，1994，16(5)：257-264。
李国军，时间顺序信息加工的实验研究，心理学报，1993，26(3)：226-231。
梁建春、黄希庭，几种时间表征的研究概况，心理科学，1999，22(1)：10-13。
柳学智，多种因素对时间连续阈限的影响，1993，心理学报，26(3)：226-231。
鲁钟义、彭聃龄，故事图式在故事理解中加工机制的初步研究，心理学报，1990，13(3)：247-254。
马谋超，心理学中的模糊集分析，贵州科技出版社，1995。
马谋超、汪培庄，心理模糊性及其模糊统计评注，心理学报，1985，8(2)，177-186。
沈政、林庶芝，认知神经科学导论，内蒙古教育出版社，1994。
舒华，心理与教育研究中的多因素实验设计，北京师范大学出版社，1994。
王甦、汪安圣，认知心理学，北京大学出版社，1992。
王振勇、黄希庭，顺序信息记忆的研究范型与加工机制，1996，心理学动态，4(1)：30-35。
王振勇、黄希庭，时间信息加工机制及其通道效应的实验研究，心理科学，1997，28(4)：345-351。
王振勇、黄希庭，时序信息的加工：自动还是控制，心理科学，1997，20(1)：23-30。
王振勇、李宏翰、黄希庭：时间记忆层次网络模型的实验检验，心理学报，1999，22(4)：383-389。
杨治良，内隐记忆的初步实验研究，心理学报，1991，23(2)：113-119。
叶阁蔚、杨治良，内隐记忆研究的新进展：任务分离范式动向，心理科学，1994，17(2)：99-103。
Ackerly, S.S. & Benton, A.L. (1947). Report of a case of bilateral frontal lobe defect. Res. Publ. Assoc. Res. Neru. Ment. Dis. 27: 479-504.
Allen, J. (1983), Maintaining knowledge about temporal intervals.Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery, 26: 832-843.
Anastasopoulou, T. & Harvery, N. (1999). Assessing sequential knowledge through performance measures: The influence of short-term sequential effects. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 52A(2), 423-448.
Anisfelf, M. & Knapp, M. (1968). Association, synonymity, and directionality in false recognition, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 77: 171-179.
Anderson, J.R. & Bower, G.H. (1972) Recognition and retrieval processes in free recall, Psychological Review, 79: 97-123.
Anderson, J.R., & Matessa, M. (1997). A production system theory of serial memory.Psychological Review, 104(4): 728-748.
Bauer, M.I., & Johnosn-Laird, P.N. (1993). How diagrams can improve reasoning.Psychological Science. 4: 372-378.
Beveh-Bengamin, M. (1990). Coding of temporal order information: An automatic process: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition,16(1):117-126.
Block, R.A. (1978). Remembered duration: Effects of event and sequence complexity, Memory & Cognition, 8: 530-544.
Block, R.A. (1978). Experiencing and remembering time: Affordances, context, and cognition, In I. Levin & D. Zakay (Eds.), Time and human cognition: A life-span perspective. Amsterdam: North-Holland. 333-363.
Braine, M.D.S., Reiser, B.J., & Rumain, B. (1984), Some empirical justification for a theory of natural propositional logic. The psychology of learning and motivation. 18: 313-371. NY: Academic.
Broadbent, D.E. (1975). The magical number seven after fifteen years. In R.A.Kennedy & A. Wilkes (Eds.), Studies in long-term memory. NY: Wiley.
Brown, S. W. (1985) . Time perception and attention: The effects of prospective versus retrospective paradigms and task demands on perceived duration. Perception & Psychophysics, 38: 115-124．
Brown, N. R., Rips., L. J. &Shevell, S. K. (1985) . The subjective dates of naturai events in very-long-term memory. Cognitive Psychology, 17: 139-177．
Buffardi, L. (1971) . Factors affecting the filled-duration illusion in the auditory, tactual, and visual modalities, Perception and Psychophysics, 10: 292-294．
Burnside, W. (1971) . Judgment of short time intervals while performing mathematical tasks. Perception & Psychophysics, 9: 404-406．
Burt, C. D. B. (1991) . Retrospective duration estimation of public events. Memory & Cognition, 19(3) : 252-262．
Burt, C. D.B. (1993) . The effect of actual event duration and event memory on the reconstruction of duration information. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 7: 63-73．
Byrne, R.M.J., & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1989) , Spatial reasoning. Journal of Memory and Language, 28: 564-575．
Ceraso, J. & Provitera, A. (1971) . Sources of error in syllogistic reasoning. Cognitive Psychology, 2: 400-410．
Chapman, I. L. & Chapman, J. R. (1959) . Atmosphere effect re-examined.
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58: 22-226．
Cheng, F., Hsu, W. & Chen, C. (1989) . Fuzzy approach to solve the recognition problem of hand-written Chinese characters. Pattern Recognition 22(2) : 133-141．
Clark, H. H. (1969) . Linguistic processes in deductive reasoning. Psychological Review, 76: 387-404．
Clark, H. H. (1973) . Space, time semantics and the child. In T. E. Moore (Ed.), Cognitive development and the acquisition of language. NY: Academic.
Cleeremans, A. & McClelland, J. (1991) . Learning the structure of event sequences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 120: 235-253．
Cohen, A., Ivry, R.I. & Keele, S. W. (1990) . Attention and structure in sequence learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition,
16: 17-30．
Collins, A.M., & Quillian, M. R. (1969) . Retrieval time from semantic memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8: 240-247．
Cooper, W. E., Paccia, J. M. & Lapointe, S. G. (1978) . Hierarchical coding in speech timing. Cognitive Psychology. 10: 154-177．
Craik, K. (1943) . The Nature of Explanation. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ.
Crepault, J. (1989) . Temps et raisonnement. Developement cognitif des processus d' inference de 1' enfant a 1'adute. Lille: Presses Universitaires de Lille.
Crowder, R. G. (1979) . Similarity and order in memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory: Vol. 13． NY: Academic. 319-353．
Curran, T. & Keele, S. W. (1993) . Attentioanl and nonattentional forms of sequence learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 19(1) : 189-202．
Dinsmore, J. (1991) , Partitioned representations. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Essens, P.J. & Povel, J. J. (1985) . Metrical and nonmetrical representations of temporal patterns. Perception and Psychophysics, 37: 1-7．
Estes, W. K. (1973) . Phonemic coding and rehearsal in short-term memory for letter strings. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12, 360-372．
Estes, W. K. (1982) . Multiple coding and processing stages: A review, In F. Klix, J. Hofmann & Evan der Meer (Eds.), Cognitive research in psychology, Berlin: VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, 14-21．
Estes, W. K. (1985) . Memory for temporal information. In J.A. Michon & J. Jackson (Eds.), Time mind and behavior. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 151-168．
Evans, J. ST. B. T. (1982) . The psychology of deductive reasoning. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Flexser, A. J. & Bower, G. H. (1974) . How frequency affects recency judgments: A model for recency discrimination. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 103: 706-716．
Fraisse, P. (1963) . The psychology of time. NY: Horper and Row.
Fraisse, P. (1984) . Perception and estimation of time. Annual Review of Psychology, 35: 1-36．
Freyd, J.J. (1987) . Dynamic mental representations. Psychological Review, 94:427-438
Friedman, W. J. (1982) . Conventional-time concepts and children. In H.W. Reese and L.P.Lipsitt (Eds.), Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 12, 267-298． NY: Academic Press.
Friedman, W. J. (1983) . Image and verbal processes in reasoning about the months of the year. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, memory, and Cognition, 9, 650-666．
Friedman, W. J. (1984) . Analog and semantic models of judgments about the month of the year. Memory and Cognition, 15, 518-520．
Friedman, W.J. (1986) . The development of children's knowledge of temporal structure. Child Development, 57, 1386-1400．
Friedman, W. J. (1989) . The representation of temporal structure in children, adolescents and adults. In I. Levin and D. Zakay (Eds.), Psychological Time: A Life Span Perspective (pp.259-304) . Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Friedman, W. J. (1990) . Memory: Remembrance of the times of things passed. About Time: Inventing the fourth Dimension. Cambridge: A Bradford Book the MIT Press.
Friedman, W. J. (1993) . Memory for time of past events. Psychological Bulletin, 113(1) : 44-66．
Friedman, W. K. & Wilkins, A. J. (1985) . Scale effects in memory for the time of events. Memory & Cognition, 13: 168-175．
Ganesan, V. (1982) . Perceptions of self, village and nation under three temporal dimension. Psychological Research Journal, 6(1) : 7-15．
Garnham, A. (1987) . Mental Models as Representations of Discourse and Text. Chichester: Ellis Horwood.
Girotto, V., Legrenzi, P., & Rizzo, A. (1991) , event controllability in counterfactual thinking. Acta Psychologica. 78: 111-133．
Glenberg, A.M. Bradley, M. M., Stevenson, J. A., Kraus, T. A., Tkachuk, M. J., Gretz,
A. L. , Fish, J.H. & Turpin, B. M. (1980) . A two-process account of long-term serial position effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6: 355-369．
Glenberg, A.M. Bradley, M. M., Kraus, T. A., & Renzaglia, G. J. (1983) . Studies of the long-term recency effect: Support for the contextually guided retrieval hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 9: 231-255．
Glenberg, A.M. & Swanson, N. G. (1986) . A temporal distinctiveness theory recency and modality effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 12: 3-15．
Golding, J. M., Maglian, J. & Hemphill, D. (1992) . WHEN: A model for answering "when" questions about future events. In T. W. Lauer, E. Peacock &. A. C. Crasser (Eds.), Questions and information systems. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc: Hillsdale, NJ. 213-229．
Goldstein, K. 1944． Mental changes due to frontal lobe damage. Journal of Psychology. 17: 187-208．
Graf, P., & Schacter, D. (1985) . Implicit and explicit memory for new associations in normal.and amnesic subjects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition. 11(3) : 501-518．
Guenther, R. K. & Linton, M. (1975) . Mechanisms of temporal coding. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory, 97: 220-229．
Guyau, J.M. (1888) . La Genese de 1' idee de temps. Paris: Felix Alcan.
Hagert, G. (1984) . Modeling mental models: experiments in cognitive modeling of spatial reasoning. In T. O'Shea (Ed.), Advances in Artificial Intelligence. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Hasher, L. & Zacks, R. T. (1979) . Automatic and effortful processes in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 108: 356-388．
Hicks, R. E., Miller, G. W., Case, G. & Bierman, K. (1977) . Concurrent processing demands and the experience of time in passing. American Journal of Psychology, 90(3) : 431-446．
Hinrichs, J.V. (1970) . A two-process memory-strength theory for judgment of recency. Psychological Review, 77: 223-233．
Hintzman, D. L., Block, R. A. & Summers, J. J. (1973) . Contextual associations and memory for serial position, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 97: 220-229．
Hintzamn, D.L, Summers, J. J. & Block, R. A. (1975) . Spacing judgments as an index of study-phase retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory, 1: 31-40．
Hirtle, S. C., & Jonides, J. (1985) . Evidence of hierarchies in cognitive maps. Memory & Cognition, 13, 208-217．
Hoosain, R. (1986) . Language, orthography and cognitive processes: Chinese perspective for the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. International Journal of Behavioral Development. 9: 507-525．
Hoosain, R. (1991) . Psycholinguistic implications for linguistic relativity: A case study of Chinese. Hillsdale. NJ: Erlbaum.
Huang, W. (1999) . Reasoning about conventional time as a function of conventional time systems. Memory & Cognition, 27(6) : 1080-1086．
Huttenlocher, J. (1968) , constructing spatial images: a strategy in reasoning. Psychological Review, 75: 286-298．
Huttenlocher, J. Hedges, L. V., & Bradburn, N.M. (1990) . Reports of elapsed time: Bounding and rounding processes in estimation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 16: 196-213．
Huttenlocher, J. Hedges, L. V., & Prohaska, V. (1988) . Hierarchical organization in ordered domain: Estimating the dates of events. Psychological Review, 95: 471-484．
Isard, S. D. (1974) , What would you have done if . . .? Theoretical Linguistics. 1: 233-255．
Isard, S. D. & Longuet-Higgins, H.C. (1971) , Modal tie-tac-toe In R. J. Bogdan &. I. Niinibuoto (Eds.), Logic, language, and probability, pp. 287-296． Dordrech: Reidel.
Jackson, J.L. (1989) . Do we really mind our time? In J.T. Fraser (Ed.), Time and mind: Interdisciplinary issues. Madison, CT: International Univerisites Press.
Jackson, J. L. (1990) . A cognitive approach to temporal information processing. In R.A. Block (Ed.), Cognitive models of psychological time, Hillsdale, NJ: 153-179．
Jackson, J. L, Michon, J. A. & Vermeeren, A. (1984) . The processing of temporal information. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 423: 603-604．
Jarrige, C. (1992) . Time, kinetic reasoning and cognitive interaction, In F. Macar, V. Pouthas, & W. J. Friedman (Eds.), Time, Action and Cognition: Towards Bridging the Gap. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 81-84．
Jiang, T., &Fang, G. (1995) . Cognitive development of conventional time (week) of primary school pupils. Paper presented at the Asian-Pacific Region Psychological Conference, Guangzhou, China.
Johnson, N. F. (1970) . The role of chunking and organization in the process of recall. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 4, pp. 171-247) . NY: Academic.
Johnson-Laird, P.N. (1983) , Mental models: Towards a cognitive science of language, inference and consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. / Cambridge: Cambridge Univ.
Johnson-Laird, P.N. (1993) . Human and Machine Thinking. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Johnson-Laird, P. N., & Byrne, R.M.J. (1991) , Deduction. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Johnson-Laird, P. N., Byrne, R. M. J., & Schaelen, W. (1992) . Propositional reasoning by model. Psychological Review. 99: 418-439．
Johnson-Laird, P.N., Byrne, R.M. J., & Tabossi, P. (1989) , Reasoning by model: the case of multiple quantification. Psychological Review. 96: 658-671．
Karawowski, W. &Mital, A. (1986) . Applications of approximate reasoning in risk analysis, In W. Karwowaski & a. Mital (Eds), Applications of fuzzy set, theory in human factors. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, 135-179．
Kelly, M. K., Miller, K. F., Fang, G. & Feng, G. (1999) . When days are numbered: Calendar structure and the development of calendar processing in English and Chinese. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 73: 289-314．
Knight, R. T. (1994) . Attention regulation and human prefrontal cortex. In Motor and Cognitive Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex: Research and Perspectives in Neurosciences, A.M. Thierry, J. Glowinski, P. Goldman-Rakic, & Y. Christen (Eds.), Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 160-173．
Kokawa, M (1975) . Experimental approach to fuzzy simulation of memorizing, forgetting id inference process, In L. A. Zadeh (Ed), Fuzzy sets and their applications to cognitive and decision processes. NY: Academic, 209-237．
Lee, C. L., & Estes, W. K. (1981) . Item and order information in short-term memory: Evidence for multilevel perturbation processes. Journal of Experimental Psych91ogy: Human Learning and Memory, 7, 149-169．
Levin, I. (1982) . The nature and development of time concepts in children: The effects of interfering cues. In W.J. Friedman (Ed.), The Developmental Psychology of Time. pp. 47-85． NY: Academic.
Levin, I., Goldstein, R., & Zelniker, T. (1984) . The role of memory and integration in early time concepts. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 37: 262-270．
Levin, I., & Simons, H. (1986) . The nature of children's and adult's concepts of time, speed and distance and their sequence in development: Analysis via a circular motion. In I. Levin & D. Zakay (Eds.), Stage and Structure. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, pp/ 77-105．
Lewandowsky, S. & Murdock, B. B. (1989) . Memory for serial order. Psychological Review, 96, 25-57．
Lewicki, P., Hill, T. & Bizot, E. (1988) . Acquisition of procedural knowledge about a pattern or stimuli that cannot be articulated. Cognitive Psychology, 20: 24-37．
Macar, F., Grondin, S. & Casini, L. (1994) . Controlled attention sharing influences time estimation. Memory & Cognition, 22(6) : 673-686．
Macnamara, J. (1986) , A border dispute: The place of logic in psychology. Cambredge, MA: Bradford Books, MIT Press.
Mamdani, E. H. (1976) . Advances in the linguistic synthesis of fuzzy controllers, International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 8: 669-678．
Mandler, J. M. (1986) , On the comprehension of temporal order. Language and Cognitive Processes. 1: 309-320．
McAndrews, M.P., & Milner, B, 1991． The frontal cortex and memory for temporal order. Neuropsychologia 29(9) : 849-859．
McNichol, D. (1978) . Initial codes for order in memory. Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 30, 681-691．
Michon, D.B. (1989) . Timing your mind and minding your time. In J. T. Fraser (Ed.), Time and mind: Interdisciplinary issues. Madison, CT: International Univerisites Press.
Michon, D. B. (1990) . How many memory systems: Evidence from aging. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 15(1) , 31-49．
Michon, J. A., Pouthas, V. & Jackson, J. L. (1988) . Guyau and the idea of time.Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Miller, K. F. & Paredes, D. (1996) . On the shoulders of giants: cultural tools and mathematical development. In R. Sternberg & T. Ben-Zeev (Eds.), The nature of mathematical thinking. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 83-117．
Milner. B. 1971． Inter hemispheric differences in the localization of psychological processes in man. Br. Med. Bull. 27: 272-277．
Milner, B., Petrides, M. & Smith, M. L. 1985． Frontal lobes and the temporal organization of memory. Hum. Neurobiol. 4: 137-142．
Montangero, J. (1977) . La notion de duree chez 1'enfant de 5 a 9 ans. Paris: Presses Univ. de France.
Montangero, J. (1984) . Perspectives actuelles sur la psychogenese du temps. Annee Psychologique, 84: 433-460．
Mori, I. (1976) . 'A cross-cultural study on children's conception of speed and duration: A comparison between Japanese and Thai children'. Japanese Psychological Research. 18: 105-112．
Moscovitch, M. 1989． Confabulation and the frontal systems: Strategic versus associative retrieval in neuropsychological theories of memory. In Varieties of Memory and Consciousness: Essays in Honour of Endel Tulving, H.L. Roedigger&RF. I.M. Craik, (Eds.), Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 133-160．
Nairne, J. S. (1990) . Similarity and long-term for order. Journal of Memory and Language, 29: 733-746．
Nairne, J. S. & Neumann, C. (1993) . Enhancing effects of similarity on long-term memory for order. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning. Memory and Cognition. 19: 329-337．
Neisser, U. (1986) . Nested structure in autobiographical memory, In D. C. Rubin
(Ed.), Autobiographical memory (pp. 71-81) . Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Newstead, S. E., Manktelow, K. I., & Evans, J.St.B.T. (1982) , The role of imagery in the representation of linear orderings. Current Psychological Research. 2, 21-32．
Nissen, M.J. & Bullemer, P. (1987) . Attentional requirements of learning: Evidence from performance measures. Cognitive Psychology, 19: 1-32．
Oakhill, J., & Garnham, A. (1985) , Referential continuity, transitivity, and the retention of relational descriptions. Language and Cognitive Processes. 1:149-162．
Ohlsson, S. (1984) . Induced strategy shifts in spatial reasoning. Acta Psychologica. 57: 46-67．
Ornstein, R. E. (1969) . On the experience of time. Middlesex, England: Penguin.
Osherson, D. (1975) , Logic and models of logical thinking. In R. J.
Falmagne (Ed.), Reasoning: Representation and process in children and adults, pp. 81-91． Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Panides, W. (1984) . The perception of the past, and future in preadolescent asthmatic children: An exploratory study. Sex Roles, 11(11-12) : 1141-1152．
Perruchet, P., Gallego, J. & Savy, I. (1991) . A critical reappraisal of the evidence for unconscious abstraction of deterministic rules in complex experimental situations. Cognitive Psychology, 22: 493-515．
Petrides, M. & Milner, B. (1982) . Deficits on subject ordered tasks after frontal-and temporal-lobe lesions in man. Neuroshychologia 20: 249-262．
Piaget, J. (1969) , The child's conception of time. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. (Originally published 1927． )
Polk, T.A., & Newell, A. (1992) . A verbal reasoning theory for categorical syllogisms. Mimeo, Department of Computer Science, Carnegie-Mellon Univ.
Pollock, J. (1989) , How to build a person: A prolegomenon. Cambridge, MA: MIT/ Bradford Books.
Poynter, W. D.(1983) . Duration Judgment and the segmentation of experience. Memory & Cognition, 11: 77-82．
Poynter, W.D. (1989) . Judging the duration of time interval: A process of
remembering segments of experience. In I. Levin, D. Zakay (Eds.), Time and human cognition: A life-span perspective. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 305-311．
Reichenbach, H. (1947) , Elements of symbolic logic. NY: Free.
Richardson, J. T. E. (1987) , The role of mental imagery in models of transitive inference. British Journal of Psychology, 78: 189-202．
Richie, D. M., & Bickhard, M.H. (1988) . The ability to perceive duration: Its relation to the development of the logical concept of time. Developmental Psychology, 24: 318-323．
Rips, L. J. (1983) , Cognitive processes in propositional reasoning. Psychological Review. 90: 38-71．
Rips, L. J. (1994) , The psychology of proof. Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books/MIT.
Robinson, J. A. (1986) . Temporal reference systems and autobiographical memory. In D. C, Rubin (Ed.), Autobiographical memory. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 159-190．
Roediger III, H. L. (1990) . Implicit memory. American Psychologist, 45(9) : 1043-1056．
Ryan, J. (1969) . Grouping and short-term memory: Different means and patterns of groups. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 21, 137-147．
Saint-Aubin, J. & Poirier, M. (1999) . Semantic similarity and immediate serial recall: is there a detrimental effect on order information?The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 52A(2) , 367-394．
Saltiel, E. (1981) . Kinetic concepts and natural reasoning: Study of comprehension of Galilean frames by science students. European Journal of Science Education, 3: 110-111．
Seymour, P. H. K. (1980a). Internal representation of the months: An experimental analysis of spatial forms. Psychological Research, 42, 255-273．
Schaeken, W., & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1993) . Mental models and temporal reasoning. Unpublished paper, Department of Psychology, Princeton Univ.
Schwartz, B.C., &Rosse, R. B. (1993) . Limits of the processing view in accounting for dissociations among memory measure in a clinical population. Memory & Cognition. 21: 63-72．
Seymour, P. H. K. (1980b). Semantic and structural coding of months. British Journal of Psychology, 71, 379-393．
Schaeken, W, Johnson-Laird, P.N. & d'Yewalle, G. (1996) . Mental models and temporal reasoning. Cognition, 60: 205-234．
Shiffrin, R. M. & Schneider, W. (1977) . Controlled and automatic human information processing: II Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory. Psychological Review, 84: 127-190．
Shimamura, A. P., Janowsky, J. S. & Squire, L.R. 1990． Memory for the temporal order of events in patients with frontal lobe lesions and amnesic patients. Neuropsychologia 28: 803-818．
Steedman, M. J. (1982) , Reference to past time. In R. J. Jarvella & W. Klein (Eds.), Speech, place, and action, pp. 125-157． London: Wiley.
Tenpenny, P. C. & Shoben, E. (1992) . Component processes and the unility of the conceptually-driven/data-driven distinction. Journal of experimental psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 18: 25-42．
Tzeng, O. J. L. & Cotton, B. (1980) . A study-phrase retrieval model of temporal coding. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory, 6: 705-716．
van Dijk, T.A., & Kintsch, W. (1983) . Strategies of Discourse Comprehension. NY: Academic.
Vroon, P. A. (1970) . Effects of presented and processed information on duration experience. Acta Psychologica, 34: 115-121．
Wagenaar, W. A. (1986) . My memory: A study of autobiographical memory over six years. Cognitive Psychology, 18: 225-252．
Werner, H. and Kaplan, B. (1963) . Symbol formation. New York: Wiley.
Wickelgren, W. A. (1964) . Size of rehearsal group and short-term.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68, 413-419．
Wickelgren, W.A. (1967) . Rehearsal grouping and the hierarchical organization of serial position cues in short-term. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 19, 97-102．
Willinghan, D. B., Nissen, M.J. & Bullemer, P. (1989) . On the development of procedural knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Learning, Memory & Cognition, 6: 1047-1060．
Winograd, E. &Soloway, R. M. (1985) . Reminding as a basis for temporal judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 11: 262-271．
Zakay, D. Nitzan, D. & Glickshn, J. (1983) . The influence of task difficulty and external tempo on subjective time estimation perception and psychophysics, 34: 451-456．
Zakay, D., Tsal, Y., Moses, M. & Shahar, I. (1994) . The role of segmentation in prospective and retrospective time estimation processes. Memory & Cognition, 22(3) : 344-351．
Polk, T.A., & Newell, A. (1992) . A verbal reasoning theory for categorical syllogisms. Mimeo, Department of Computer Science, Carnegie-Mellon Univ. Rips, L.J. (1983) . Cognitive processes in propositional reasoning. Psychology Review. 90: 38-71．
Schaeken, W., & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1993) . Mental models and temporal reasoning. Unpublished paper, Department of Psychology, Princeton Univ.
van Dijk, T.A., & Kintsch, W. (1983) . Strategies of Discourse Comprehension. NY: Academic.
黄希庭，未来时间的心理结构，心理学报，1994，26(2)：110-126。
黄希庭、徐光国，对变化／分割模型的检验(Ⅰ)，心理学报，1997．29(3)：326-334。
黄希庭、徐光国，对变化／分割模型的检验(Ⅱ)，心理学报，1199，31(2)：135-141。
黄希庭、孙承惠，时间词义赋值特征的分析，心理学报，1991，24(3)：243-248。
黄希庭、孙承惠，模糊篇序关系在心理学研究中的应用，心理学报，1992，25(2)：135-141。
黄希庭，张进辅，李红，当代中国青年价值观与教育，四川教育出版社，1993。
黄希庭、郑涌，时间记忆的理论与实验范型，心理科学，1995，18(4)：201-205。
李伯约，时间认知标记理论的扩展，云南教育学院学报，1999，2：86-90。
李伯约，从时间知觉到时间心理学，西南师范大学学报，2000，26(6)：118-122。
李伯约，认知心理学关于时间推理研究，湖南师范大学学报，2001，30(1)：84-86。
李伯约、黄希庭，周期性时间推理研究，心理科学，2000，23(4)：479-481。
李国军，时间顺序信息加工的实验研究，心理科学，1994，16(5)：257-264。
李国军，时间顺序信息加工的实验研究，心理学报，1993，26(3)：226-231。
梁建春、黄希庭，几种时间表征的研究概况，心理科学，1999，22(1)：10-13。
柳学智，多种因素对时间连续阈限的影响，1993，心理学报，26(3)：226-231。
鲁钟义、彭聃龄，故事图式在故事理解中加工机制的初步研究，心理学报，1990，13(3)：247-254。
马谋超，心理学中的模糊集分析，贵州科技出版社，1995。
马谋超、汪培庄，心理模糊性及其模糊统计评注，心理学报，1985，8(2)，177-186。
沈政、林庶芝，认知神经科学导论，内蒙古教育出版社，1994。
舒华，心理与教育研究中的多因素实验设计，北京师范大学出版社，1994。
王甦、汪安圣，认知心理学，北京大学出版社，1992。
王振勇、黄希庭，顺序信息记忆的研究范型与加工机制，1996，心理学动态，4(1)：30-35。
王振勇、黄希庭，时间信息加工机制及其通道效应的实验研究，心理科学，1997，28(4)：345-351。
王振勇、黄希庭，时序信息的加工：自动还是控制，心理科学，1997，20(1)：23-30。
王振勇、李宏翰、黄希庭：时间记忆层次网络模型的实验检验，心理学报，1999，22(4)：383-389。
杨治良，内隐记忆的初步实验研究，心理学报，1991，23(2)：113-119。
叶阁蔚、杨治良，内隐记忆研究的新进展：任务分离范式动向，心理科学，1994，17(2)：99-103。
Ackerly, S.S. & Benton, A.L. (1947). Report of a case of bilateral frontal lobe defect. Res. Publ. Assoc. Res. Neru. Ment. Dis. 27: 479-504.
Allen, J. (1983), Maintaining knowledge about temporal intervals.Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery, 26: 832-843.
Anastasopoulou, T. & Harvery, N. (1999). Assessing sequential knowledge through performance measures: The influence of short-term sequential effects. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 52A(2), 423-448.
Anisfelf, M. & Knapp, M. (1968). Association, synonymity, and directionality in false recognition, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 77: 171-179.
Anderson, J.R. & Bower, G.H. (1972) Recognition and retrieval processes in free recall, Psychological Review, 79: 97-123.
Anderson, J.R., & Matessa, M. (1997). A production system theory of serial memory.Psychological Review, 104(4): 728-748.
Bauer, M.I., & Johnosn-Laird, P.N. (1993). How diagrams can improve reasoning.Psychological Science. 4: 372-378.
Beveh-Bengamin, M. (1990). Coding of temporal order information: An automatic process: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition,16(1):117-126.
Block, R.A. (1978). Remembered duration: Effects of event and sequence complexity, Memory & Cognition, 8: 530-544.
Block, R.A. (1978). Experiencing and remembering time: Affordances, context, and cognition, In I. Levin & D. Zakay (Eds.), Time and human cognition: A life-span perspective. Amsterdam: North-Holland. 333-363.
Braine, M.D.S., Reiser, B.J., & Rumain, B. (1984), Some empirical justification for a theory of natural propositional logic. The psychology of learning and motivation. 18: 313-371. NY: Academic.
Broadbent, D.E. (1975). The magical number seven after fifteen years. In R.A.Kennedy & A. Wilkes (Eds.), Studies in long-term memory. NY: Wiley.
Brown, S. W. (1985) . Time perception and attention: The effects of prospective versus retrospective paradigms and task demands on perceived duration. Perception & Psychophysics, 38: 115-124．
Brown, N. R., Rips., L. J. &Shevell, S. K. (1985) . The subjective dates of naturai events in very-long-term memory. Cognitive Psychology, 17: 139-177．
Buffardi, L. (1971) . Factors affecting the filled-duration illusion in the auditory, tactual, and visual modalities, Perception and Psychophysics, 10: 292-294．
Burnside, W. (1971) . Judgment of short time intervals while performing mathematical tasks. Perception & Psychophysics, 9: 404-406．
Burt, C. D. B. (1991) . Retrospective duration estimation of public events. Memory & Cognition, 19(3) : 252-262．
Burt, C. D.B. (1993) . The effect of actual event duration and event memory on the reconstruction of duration information. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 7: 63-73．
Byrne, R.M.J., & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1989) , Spatial reasoning. Journal of Memory and Language, 28: 564-575．
Ceraso, J. & Provitera, A. (1971) . Sources of error in syllogistic reasoning. Cognitive Psychology, 2: 400-410．
Chapman, I. L. & Chapman, J. R. (1959) . Atmosphere effect re-examined.
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58: 22-226．
Cheng, F., Hsu, W. & Chen, C. (1989) . Fuzzy approach to solve the recognition problem of hand-written Chinese characters. Pattern Recognition 22(2) : 133-141．
Clark, H. H. (1969) . Linguistic processes in deductive reasoning. Psychological Review, 76: 387-404．
Clark, H. H. (1973) . Space, time semantics and the child. In T. E. Moore (Ed.), Cognitive development and the acquisition of language. NY: Academic.
Cleeremans, A. & McClelland, J. (1991) . Learning the structure of event sequences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 120: 235-253．
Cohen, A., Ivry, R.I. & Keele, S. W. (1990) . Attention and structure in sequence learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition,
16: 17-30．
Collins, A.M., & Quillian, M. R. (1969) . Retrieval time from semantic memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8: 240-247．
Cooper, W. E., Paccia, J. M. & Lapointe, S. G. (1978) . Hierarchical coding in speech timing. Cognitive Psychology. 10: 154-177．
Craik, K. (1943) . The Nature of Explanation. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ.
Crepault, J. (1989) . Temps et raisonnement. Developement cognitif des processus d' inference de 1' enfant a 1'adute. Lille: Presses Universitaires de Lille.
Crowder, R. G. (1979) . Similarity and order in memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory: Vol. 13． NY: Academic. 319-353．
Curran, T. & Keele, S. W. (1993) . Attentioanl and nonattentional forms of sequence learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 19(1) : 189-202．
Dinsmore, J. (1991) , Partitioned representations. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Essens, P.J. & Povel, J. J. (1985) . Metrical and nonmetrical representations of temporal patterns. Perception and Psychophysics, 37: 1-7．
Estes, W. K. (1973) . Phonemic coding and rehearsal in short-term memory for letter strings. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12, 360-372．
Estes, W. K. (1982) . Multiple coding and processing stages: A review, In F. Klix, J. Hofmann & Evan der Meer (Eds.), Cognitive research in psychology, Berlin: VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, 14-21．
Estes, W. K. (1985) . Memory for temporal information. In J.A. Michon & J. Jackson (Eds.), Time mind and behavior. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 151-168．
Evans, J. ST. B. T. (1982) . The psychology of deductive reasoning. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Flexser, A. J. & Bower, G. H. (1974) . How frequency affects recency judgments: A model for recency discrimination. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 103: 706-716．
Fraisse, P. (1963) . The psychology of time. NY: Horper and Row.
Fraisse, P. (1984) . Perception and estimation of time. Annual Review of Psychology, 35: 1-36．
Freyd, J.J. (1987) . Dynamic mental representations. Psychological Review, 94:427-438
Friedman, W. J. (1982) . Conventional-time concepts and children. In H.W. Reese and L.P.Lipsitt (Eds.), Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 12, 267-298． NY: Academic Press.
Friedman, W. J. (1983) . Image and verbal processes in reasoning about the months of the year. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, memory, and Cognition, 9, 650-666．
Friedman, W. J. (1984) . Analog and semantic models of judgments about the month of the year. Memory and Cognition, 15, 518-520．
Friedman, W.J. (1986) . The development of children's knowledge of temporal structure. Child Development, 57, 1386-1400．
Friedman, W. J. (1989) . The representation of temporal structure in children, adolescents and adults. In I. Levin and D. Zakay (Eds.), Psychological Time: A Life Span Perspective (pp.259-304) . Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Friedman, W. J. (1990) . Memory: Remembrance of the times of things passed. About Time: Inventing the fourth Dimension. Cambridge: A Bradford Book the MIT Press.
Friedman, W. J. (1993) . Memory for time of past events. Psychological Bulletin, 113(1) : 44-66．
Friedman, W. K. & Wilkins, A. J. (1985) . Scale effects in memory for the time of events. Memory & Cognition, 13: 168-175．
Ganesan, V. (1982) . Perceptions of self, village and nation under three temporal dimension. Psychological Research Journal, 6(1) : 7-15．
Garnham, A. (1987) . Mental Models as Representations of Discourse and Text. Chichester: Ellis Horwood.
Girotto, V., Legrenzi, P., & Rizzo, A. (1991) , event controllability in counterfactual thinking. Acta Psychologica. 78: 111-133．
Glenberg, A.M. Bradley, M. M., Stevenson, J. A., Kraus, T. A., Tkachuk, M. J., Gretz,
A. L. , Fish, J.H. & Turpin, B. M. (1980) . A two-process account of long-term serial position effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6: 355-369．
Glenberg, A.M. Bradley, M. M., Kraus, T. A., & Renzaglia, G. J. (1983) . Studies of the long-term recency effect: Support for the contextually guided retrieval hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 9: 231-255．
Glenberg, A.M. & Swanson, N. G. (1986) . A temporal distinctiveness theory recency and modality effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 12: 3-15．
Golding, J. M., Maglian, J. & Hemphill, D. (1992) . WHEN: A model for answering "when" questions about future events. In T. W. Lauer, E. Peacock &. A. C. Crasser (Eds.), Questions and information systems. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc: Hillsdale, NJ. 213-229．
Goldstein, K. 1944． Mental changes due to frontal lobe damage. Journal of Psychology. 17: 187-208．
Graf, P., & Schacter, D. (1985) . Implicit and explicit memory for new associations in normal.and amnesic subjects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition. 11(3) : 501-518．
Guenther, R. K. & Linton, M. (1975) . Mechanisms of temporal coding. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory, 97: 220-229．
Guyau, J.M. (1888) . La Genese de 1' idee de temps. Paris: Felix Alcan.
Hagert, G. (1984) . Modeling mental models: experiments in cognitive modeling of spatial reasoning. In T. O'Shea (Ed.), Advances in Artificial Intelligence. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Hasher, L. & Zacks, R. T. (1979) . Automatic and effortful processes in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 108: 356-388．
Hicks, R. E., Miller, G. W., Case, G. & Bierman, K. (1977) . Concurrent processing demands and the experience of time in passing. American Journal of Psychology, 90(3) : 431-446．
Hinrichs, J.V. (1970) . A two-process memory-strength theory for judgment of recency. Psychological Review, 77: 223-233．
Hintzman, D. L., Block, R. A. & Summers, J. J. (1973) . Contextual associations and memory for serial position, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 97: 220-229．
Hintzamn, D.L, Summers, J. J. & Block, R. A. (1975) . Spacing judgments as an index of study-phase retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory, 1: 31-40．
Hirtle, S. C., & Jonides, J. (1985) . Evidence of hierarchies in cognitive maps. Memory & Cognition, 13, 208-217．
Hoosain, R. (1986) . Language, orthography and cognitive processes: Chinese perspective for the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. International Journal of Behavioral Development. 9: 507-525．
Hoosain, R. (1991) . Psycholinguistic implications for linguistic relativity: A case study of Chinese. Hillsdale. NJ: Erlbaum.
Huang, W. (1999) . Reasoning about conventional time as a function of conventional time systems. Memory & Cognition, 27(6) : 1080-1086．
Huttenlocher, J. (1968) , constructing spatial images: a strategy in reasoning. Psychological Review, 75: 286-298．
Huttenlocher, J. Hedges, L. V., & Bradburn, N.M. (1990) . Reports of elapsed time: Bounding and rounding processes in estimation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 16: 196-213．
Huttenlocher, J. Hedges, L. V., & Prohaska, V. (1988) . Hierarchical organization in ordered domain: Estimating the dates of events. Psychological Review, 95: 471-484．
Isard, S. D. (1974) , What would you have done if . . .? Theoretical Linguistics. 1: 233-255．
Isard, S. D. & Longuet-Higgins, H.C. (1971) , Modal tie-tac-toe In R. J. Bogdan &. I. Niinibuoto (Eds.), Logic, language, and probability, pp. 287-296． Dordrech: Reidel.
Jackson, J.L. (1989) . Do we really mind our time? In J.T. Fraser (Ed.), Time and mind: Interdisciplinary issues. Madison, CT: International Univerisites Press.
Jackson, J. L. (1990) . A cognitive approach to temporal information processing. In R.A. Block (Ed.), Cognitive models of psychological time, Hillsdale, NJ: 153-179．
Jackson, J. L, Michon, J. A. & Vermeeren, A. (1984) . The processing of temporal information. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 423: 603-604．
Jarrige, C. (1992) . Time, kinetic reasoning and cognitive interaction, In F. Macar, V. Pouthas, & W. J. Friedman (Eds.), Time, Action and Cognition: Towards Bridging the Gap. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 81-84．
Jiang, T., &Fang, G. (1995) . Cognitive development of conventional time (week) of primary school pupils. Paper presented at the Asian-Pacific Region Psychological Conference, Guangzhou, China.
Johnson, N. F. (1970) . The role of chunking and organization in the process of recall. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 4, pp. 171-247) . NY: Academic.
Johnson-Laird, P.N. (1983) , Mental models: Towards a cognitive science of language, inference and consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. / Cambridge: Cambridge Univ.
Johnson-Laird, P.N. (1993) . Human and Machine Thinking. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Johnson-Laird, P. N., & Byrne, R.M.J. (1991) , Deduction. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Johnson-Laird, P. N., Byrne, R. M. J., & Schaelen, W. (1992) . Propositional reasoning by model. Psychological Review. 99: 418-439．
Johnson-Laird, P.N., Byrne, R.M. J., & Tabossi, P. (1989) , Reasoning by model: the case of multiple quantification. Psychological Review. 96: 658-671．
Karawowski, W. &Mital, A. (1986) . Applications of approximate reasoning in risk analysis, In W. Karwowaski & a. Mital (Eds), Applications of fuzzy set, theory in human factors. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, 135-179．
Kelly, M. K., Miller, K. F., Fang, G. & Feng, G. (1999) . When days are numbered: Calendar structure and the development of calendar processing in English and Chinese. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 73: 289-314．
Knight, R. T. (1994) . Attention regulation and human prefrontal cortex. In Motor and Cognitive Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex: Research and Perspectives in Neurosciences, A.M. Thierry, J. Glowinski, P. Goldman-Rakic, & Y. Christen (Eds.), Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 160-173．
Kokawa, M (1975) . Experimental approach to fuzzy simulation of memorizing, forgetting id inference process, In L. A. Zadeh (Ed), Fuzzy sets and their applications to cognitive and decision processes. NY: Academic, 209-237．
Lee, C. L., & Estes, W. K. (1981) . Item and order information in short-term memory: Evidence for multilevel perturbation processes. Journal of Experimental Psych91ogy: Human Learning and Memory, 7, 149-169．
Levin, I. (1982) . The nature and development of time concepts in children: The effects of interfering cues. In W.J. Friedman (Ed.), The Developmental Psychology of Time. pp. 47-85． NY: Academic.
Levin, I., Goldstein, R., & Zelniker, T. (1984) . The role of memory and integration in early time concepts. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 37: 262-270．
Levin, I., & Simons, H. (1986) . The nature of children's and adult's concepts of time, speed and distance and their sequence in development: Analysis via a circular motion. In I. Levin & D. Zakay (Eds.), Stage and Structure. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, pp/ 77-105．
Lewandowsky, S. & Murdock, B. B. (1989) . Memory for serial order. Psychological Review, 96, 25-57．
Lewicki, P., Hill, T. & Bizot, E. (1988) . Acquisition of procedural knowledge about a pattern or stimuli that cannot be articulated. Cognitive Psychology, 20: 24-37．
Macar, F., Grondin, S. & Casini, L. (1994) . Controlled attention sharing influences time estimation. Memory & Cognition, 22(6) : 673-686．
Macnamara, J. (1986) , A border dispute: The place of logic in psychology. Cambredge, MA: Bradford Books, MIT Press.
Mamdani, E. H. (1976) . Advances in the linguistic synthesis of fuzzy controllers, International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 8: 669-678．
Mandler, J. M. (1986) , On the comprehension of temporal order. Language and Cognitive Processes. 1: 309-320．
McAndrews, M.P., & Milner, B, 1991． The frontal cortex and memory for temporal order. Neuropsychologia 29(9) : 849-859．
McNichol, D. (1978) . Initial codes for order in memory. Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 30, 681-691．
Michon, D.B. (1989) . Timing your mind and minding your time. In J. T. Fraser (Ed.), Time and mind: Interdisciplinary issues. Madison, CT: International Univerisites Press.
Michon, D. B. (1990) . How many memory systems: Evidence from aging. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 15(1) , 31-49．
Michon, J. A., Pouthas, V. & Jackson, J. L. (1988) . Guyau and the idea of time.Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Miller, K. F. & Paredes, D. (1996) . On the shoulders of giants: cultural tools and mathematical development. In R. Sternberg & T. Ben-Zeev (Eds.), The nature of mathematical thinking. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 83-117．
Milner. B. 1971． Inter hemispheric differences in the localization of psychological processes in man. Br. Med. Bull. 27: 272-277．
Milner, B., Petrides, M. & Smith, M. L. 1985． Frontal lobes and the temporal organization of memory. Hum. Neurobiol. 4: 137-142．
Montangero, J. (1977) . La notion de duree chez 1'enfant de 5 a 9 ans. Paris: Presses Univ. de France.
Montangero, J. (1984) . Perspectives actuelles sur la psychogenese du temps. Annee Psychologique, 84: 433-460．
Mori, I. (1976) . 'A cross-cultural study on children's conception of speed and duration: A comparison between Japanese and Thai children'. Japanese Psychological Research. 18: 105-112．
Moscovitch, M. 1989． Confabulation and the frontal systems: Strategic versus associative retrieval in neuropsychological theories of memory. In Varieties of Memory and Consciousness: Essays in Honour of Endel Tulving, H.L. Roedigger&RF. I.M. Craik, (Eds.), Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 133-160．
Nairne, J. S. (1990) . Similarity and long-term for order. Journal of Memory and Language, 29: 733-746．
Nairne, J. S. & Neumann, C. (1993) . Enhancing effects of similarity on long-term memory for order. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning. Memory and Cognition. 19: 329-337．
Neisser, U. (1986) . Nested structure in autobiographical memory, In D. C. Rubin
(Ed.), Autobiographical memory (pp. 71-81) . Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Newstead, S. E., Manktelow, K. I., & Evans, J.St.B.T. (1982) , The role of imagery in the representation of linear orderings. Current Psychological Research. 2, 21-32．
Nissen, M.J. & Bullemer, P. (1987) . Attentional requirements of learning: Evidence from performance measures. Cognitive Psychology, 19: 1-32．
Oakhill, J., & Garnham, A. (1985) , Referential continuity, transitivity, and the retention of relational descriptions. Language and Cognitive Processes. 1:149-162．
Ohlsson, S. (1984) . Induced strategy shifts in spatial reasoning. Acta Psychologica. 57: 46-67．
Ornstein, R. E. (1969) . On the experience of time. Middlesex, England: Penguin.
Osherson, D. (1975) , Logic and models of logical thinking. In R. J.
Falmagne (Ed.), Reasoning: Representation and process in children and adults, pp. 81-91． Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Panides, W. (1984) . The perception of the past, and future in preadolescent asthmatic children: An exploratory study. Sex Roles, 11(11-12) : 1141-1152．
Perruchet, P., Gallego, J. & Savy, I. (1991) . A critical reappraisal of the evidence for unconscious abstraction of deterministic rules in complex experimental situations. Cognitive Psychology, 22: 493-515．
Petrides, M. & Milner, B. (1982) . Deficits on subject ordered tasks after frontal-and temporal-lobe lesions in man. Neuroshychologia 20: 249-262．
Piaget, J. (1969) , The child's conception of time. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. (Originally published 1927． )
Polk, T.A., & Newell, A. (1992) . A verbal reasoning theory for categorical syllogisms. Mimeo, Department of Computer Science, Carnegie-Mellon Univ.
Pollock, J. (1989) , How to build a person: A prolegomenon. Cambridge, MA: MIT/ Bradford Books.
Poynter, W. D.(1983) . Duration Judgment and the segmentation of experience. Memory & Cognition, 11: 77-82．
Poynter, W.D. (1989) . Judging the duration of time interval: A process of
remembering segments of experience. In I. Levin, D. Zakay (Eds.), Time and human cognition: A life-span perspective. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 305-311．
Reichenbach, H. (1947) , Elements of symbolic logic. NY: Free.
Richardson, J. T. E. (1987) , The role of mental imagery in models of transitive inference. British Journal of Psychology, 78: 189-202．
Richie, D. M., & Bickhard, M.H. (1988) . The ability to perceive duration: Its relation to the development of the logical concept of time. Developmental Psychology, 24: 318-323．
Rips, L. J. (1983) , Cognitive processes in propositional reasoning. Psychological Review. 90: 38-71．
Rips, L. J. (1994) , The psychology of proof. Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books/MIT.
Robinson, J. A. (1986) . Temporal reference systems and autobiographical memory. In D. C, Rubin (Ed.), Autobiographical memory. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 159-190．
Roediger III, H. L. (1990) . Implicit memory. American Psychologist, 45(9) : 1043-1056．
Ryan, J. (1969) . Grouping and short-term memory: Different means and patterns of groups. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 21, 137-147．
Saint-Aubin, J. & Poirier, M. (1999) . Semantic similarity and immediate serial recall: is there a detrimental effect on order information?The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 52A(2) , 367-394．
Saltiel, E. (1981) . Kinetic concepts and natural reasoning: Study of comprehension of Galilean frames by science students. European Journal of Science Education, 3: 110-111．
Seymour, P. H. K. (1980a). Internal representation of the months: An experimental analysis of spatial forms. Psychological Research, 42, 255-273．
Schaeken, W., & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1993) . Mental models and temporal reasoning. Unpublished paper, Department of Psychology, Princeton Univ.
Schwartz, B.C., &Rosse, R. B. (1993) . Limits of the processing view in accounting for dissociations among memory measure in a clinical population. Memory & Cognition. 21: 63-72．
Seymour, P. H. K. (1980b). Semantic and structural coding of months. British Journal of Psychology, 71, 379-393．
Schaeken, W, Johnson-Laird, P.N. & d'Yewalle, G. (1996) . Mental models and temporal reasoning. Cognition, 60: 205-234．
Shiffrin, R. M. & Schneider, W. (1977) . Controlled and automatic human information processing: II Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory. Psychological Review, 84: 127-190．
Shimamura, A. P., Janowsky, J. S. & Squire, L.R. 1990． Memory for the temporal order of events in patients with frontal lobe lesions and amnesic patients. Neuropsychologia 28: 803-818．
Steedman, M. J. (1982) , Reference to past time. In R. J. Jarvella & W. Klein (Eds.), Speech, place, and action, pp. 125-157． London: Wiley.
Tenpenny, P. C. & Shoben, E. (1992) . Component processes and the unility of the conceptually-driven/data-driven distinction. Journal of experimental psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 18: 25-42．
Tzeng, O. J. L. & Cotton, B. (1980) . A study-phrase retrieval model of temporal coding. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory, 6: 705-716．
van Dijk, T.A., & Kintsch, W. (1983) . Strategies of Discourse Comprehension. NY: Academic.
Vroon, P. A. (1970) . Effects of presented and processed information on duration experience. Acta Psychologica, 34: 115-121．
Wagenaar, W. A. (1986) . My memory: A study of autobiographical memory over six years. Cognitive Psychology, 18: 225-252．
Werner, H. and Kaplan, B. (1963) . Symbol formation. New York: Wiley.
Wickelgren, W. A. (1964) . Size of rehearsal group and short-term.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68, 413-419．
Wickelgren, W.A. (1967) . Rehearsal grouping and the hierarchical organization of serial position cues in short-term. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 19, 97-102．
Willinghan, D. B., Nissen, M.J. & Bullemer, P. (1989) . On the development of procedural knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Learning, Memory & Cognition, 6: 1047-1060．
Winograd, E. &Soloway, R. M. (1985) . Reminding as a basis for temporal judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 11: 262-271．
Zakay, D. Nitzan, D. & Glickshn, J. (1983) . The influence of task difficulty and external tempo on subjective time estimation perception and psychophysics, 34: 451-456．
Zakay, D., Tsal, Y., Moses, M. & Shahar, I. (1994) . The role of segmentation in prospective and retrospective time estimation processes. Memory & Cognition, 22(3) : 344-351．
Polk, T.A., & Newell, A. (1992) . A verbal reasoning theory for categorical syllogisms. Mimeo, Department of Computer Science, Carnegie-Mellon Univ. Rips, L.J. (1983) . Cognitive processes in propositional reasoning. Psychology Review. 90: 38-71．
Schaeken, W., & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1993) . Mental models and temporal reasoning. Unpublished paper, Department of Psychology, Princeton Univ.
van Dijk, T.A., & Kintsch, W. (1983) . Strategies of Discourse Comprehension. NY: Academic.