英语跨代对话的话轮转换研究
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摘要
话轮转换研究是会话分析中的核心问题。自20世纪60年代早期哈维·萨克斯等人提出话轮转换的基本模式以来,国外的其他研究者也从更广泛的领域对话轮转换现象进行了考察,但其研究兴趣主要集中在机构性谈话,诸如医患对话,法庭辩论和新闻访问等。国内的研究则主要偏重于对国外研究的引进和评述,而忽略了具体的语篇分析。因此,到目前为止,对日常生活中跨代对话的话轮转换现象进行的系统研究寥寥无几。
在对前人研究进行综述的基础上,本文从《成长的烦恼》剧本中随机选出三十则跨代对话,从系统、策略和标记三个角度对其进行了语篇分析,研究结果表明,英语跨代对话中的话轮转换具有如下特点：
就话轮转换的系统而言,话轮构建呈多元化趋势,话轮分配仍以“当前说话人选择下一说话人”和“下一说话人自选”为基本手段,话轮转换规则与萨克斯等人的研究略有差异。其中,父辈短语话轮的使用以及自选时的插话远多于子辈。就话轮转换的策略而言,称谓语乃话轮发起的主要策略,“话语未完成语”和“搪塞语”乃话轮维持的主要策略,疑问句乃话轮放弃的主要策略,而固定话题接应和插入分别为话轮回应和索求的主要策略。其中,父辈称谓语的运用明显高于子辈,而后者招呼语的运用却大大高于前者。就话轮转换的标记而言,它们频现于话轮转换的全部过程,包括话轮发起、话轮维持、话轮放弃、话轮回应和话轮索求,其功能主要用于引起注意、转换话题、语义暗示、思维缓冲、信息提供、情感昭示、应答前轮、给予反馈、内容接续、语义修补以及表明态度等。其中,父辈对well, now和yes的使用比较频繁,而子辈对ok, but, I mean, so, look和yeah的运用相对较多。
本文的研究揭示了英语跨代对话中话轮转换的特点,希望对语言交际和语篇分析有一定的启示作用。
The research on turn-taking is the core study of conversation analysis. Since Harvey Sacks and his collaborators put forward the model of turn-taking in the early 1960s, other researchers abroad have tried to investigate it from a larger range of disciplines; but most of them focus on institutional discourse, such as clinical dialogue, court debate and interview etc. Many domestic researchers have concentrated on the introduction and review of foreign studies while ignoring specific discourse analysis. Hence, few systematic studies of turn-taking have been conducted in cross-generation conversations till now.
Based upon a comprehensive literature review, this paper randomly picks out thirty pieces of cross-generation conversations from the American sitcom Growing Pains and analyzes their turn-taking phenomena from the perspectives of the system, the strategies and the markers. It is found that the turn-taking in English cross-generation conversations is of the following characteristics:
In terms of turn-taking system, turn-construction presents the trend of pluralism; turn-allocation consists basically of two ways:current-speaker selection and self-selection; there exists a slight difference in turn-taking rules between cross-generation conversations and naturally occurring conversations analyzed by Sacks et al. The differentiation is that parents apply much more phrase turns and insertion in self-selection than children. In terms of turn-taking strategies, the major strategy for turn-initiating is address terms; the chief strategies for turn-holding are utterance incompletors and hesitation fillers; the principal strategy for turn-yielding is questions; and the dominating strategies for turn-responding and turn-claiming are the reaction and insertion set topics. The distinction is that parents use address terms more frequently than children while greetings less frequently than them. In terms of turn-taking markers, they are employed in all the turn-taking processes, including turn-initiating, turn-holding, turn-yielding, turn-responding and turn-claiming; and they are chiefly used for attention getting, topic shifting, suggestion, mind mitigation, information offering, emotions demonstrating, answering, feedback, continuing, repairing and attitudes showing. The difference is that parents tend to use the markers well, now and yes more while children apply ok, but, I mean, so, look and yeah much more frequently.
The research in this paper has discovered the features of turn-taking in cross-generation conversations and it is hoped to throw light on communication in sociology and discourse analysis in linguistics to a certain degree.
在对前人研究进行综述的基础上,本文从《成长的烦恼》剧本中随机选出三十则跨代对话,从系统、策略和标记三个角度对其进行了语篇分析,研究结果表明,英语跨代对话中的话轮转换具有如下特点：
就话轮转换的系统而言,话轮构建呈多元化趋势,话轮分配仍以“当前说话人选择下一说话人”和“下一说话人自选”为基本手段,话轮转换规则与萨克斯等人的研究略有差异。其中,父辈短语话轮的使用以及自选时的插话远多于子辈。就话轮转换的策略而言,称谓语乃话轮发起的主要策略,“话语未完成语”和“搪塞语”乃话轮维持的主要策略,疑问句乃话轮放弃的主要策略,而固定话题接应和插入分别为话轮回应和索求的主要策略。其中,父辈称谓语的运用明显高于子辈,而后者招呼语的运用却大大高于前者。就话轮转换的标记而言,它们频现于话轮转换的全部过程,包括话轮发起、话轮维持、话轮放弃、话轮回应和话轮索求,其功能主要用于引起注意、转换话题、语义暗示、思维缓冲、信息提供、情感昭示、应答前轮、给予反馈、内容接续、语义修补以及表明态度等。其中,父辈对well, now和yes的使用比较频繁,而子辈对ok, but, I mean, so, look和yeah的运用相对较多。
本文的研究揭示了英语跨代对话中话轮转换的特点,希望对语言交际和语篇分析有一定的启示作用。
The research on turn-taking is the core study of conversation analysis. Since Harvey Sacks and his collaborators put forward the model of turn-taking in the early 1960s, other researchers abroad have tried to investigate it from a larger range of disciplines; but most of them focus on institutional discourse, such as clinical dialogue, court debate and interview etc. Many domestic researchers have concentrated on the introduction and review of foreign studies while ignoring specific discourse analysis. Hence, few systematic studies of turn-taking have been conducted in cross-generation conversations till now.
Based upon a comprehensive literature review, this paper randomly picks out thirty pieces of cross-generation conversations from the American sitcom Growing Pains and analyzes their turn-taking phenomena from the perspectives of the system, the strategies and the markers. It is found that the turn-taking in English cross-generation conversations is of the following characteristics:
In terms of turn-taking system, turn-construction presents the trend of pluralism; turn-allocation consists basically of two ways:current-speaker selection and self-selection; there exists a slight difference in turn-taking rules between cross-generation conversations and naturally occurring conversations analyzed by Sacks et al. The differentiation is that parents apply much more phrase turns and insertion in self-selection than children. In terms of turn-taking strategies, the major strategy for turn-initiating is address terms; the chief strategies for turn-holding are utterance incompletors and hesitation fillers; the principal strategy for turn-yielding is questions; and the dominating strategies for turn-responding and turn-claiming are the reaction and insertion set topics. The distinction is that parents use address terms more frequently than children while greetings less frequently than them. In terms of turn-taking markers, they are employed in all the turn-taking processes, including turn-initiating, turn-holding, turn-yielding, turn-responding and turn-claiming; and they are chiefly used for attention getting, topic shifting, suggestion, mind mitigation, information offering, emotions demonstrating, answering, feedback, continuing, repairing and attitudes showing. The difference is that parents tend to use the markers well, now and yes more while children apply ok, but, I mean, so, look and yeah much more frequently.
The research in this paper has discovered the features of turn-taking in cross-generation conversations and it is hoped to throw light on communication in sociology and discourse analysis in linguistics to a certain degree.
引文
[1]Ball, W. J.1996. Dictionary of Link Words in English Discourse. London & Basingstoke:Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
[2]Berninger, G & C. Garvey.1981. Questions and the Allocation, Construction, and Timing of Turns in Child Discourse. In Journal of Psychotinguistic Research,10 (4). pp:375-402.
[3]Bosch, L. et al.2004. Turn taking in social talk dialogues:temporal, formal and functional aspects. Proceedings, Conference Speech and Computers SPECOM, St. Petersburg, Russia, September.
[4]Brinton, L.J.1996. Pragmatic Markers in English:grammaticalization and Discourse Functions. New York:Mouton de Gruyter.
[5 J Brown, G. & G Yule.2000. Discourse Analysis. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[6]Cowley, S. J.1998. Of Timing, Turn-Taking, and Conversations. In Journal of Psycholingitistic Research,27 (5). pp:541-571.
[7]Dooley, R & S. Levinsion.2008. Analyzing Discourse:A Manual of Basic Concepts. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[8]Duncan, S.1972. Some Signals and Rules for Taking Speaking Turns in Conversations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, (23). pp: 283-292.
[9]Duncan, S.1973. On the structure of speaker-auditor interaction during speaking turns. In Language in Society, (2). pp:161-180.
[10]Duncan, S and D. W. Fiske.1977. Face-to-Face Interaction:Research, Methods, and Theory. Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum.
[11]Fraser, B.1996. Pragmatic Markers. In Pragmatics, (6). pp:167-190.
[12]Gee, J. P.2000. An Introduction to Discourse Analysis:Theory and Method. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[13]Gumperz, J.1982. Discourse Strategies. Cambridge:Cambridge University.
[14]Halliday, M.A.K.2000. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[15]Halliday, M.A.K & Hasan R.2001. Cohesion in English. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[16]Jaszczolt. K. M.2004. Semantics and Pragmatics Meaning in Language and Discourse. Beijing:Peking University Press.
[17]Levinson, S. C.2001. Pragmatics. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[18]Martin, J. R.2004. English Text System and Structure. Beijing:Peking University Press.
[19]Mey, J.2001. Pragmatics:An introduction. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[20]Miura, I.1993. Switching Pauses in Adult-Adult and Child-Child Turn Takings:An Initial Study. In Journal of Psycholinguistic Research,22(3). pp:383-395.
[21]Peccei, J. S.2000. Pragmatics. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[22]Quirk, R. et al.1985. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. New York:Longman World Publishing Corp.
[23]Raux, A & M. Eskenazi.2009. Human Language Technologies:The 2009 Annual Conference of the North American Chapter of the ACL, PP:629-637, Boulder, Colorado, June 2009.
[24]Richards, J. J. Platt. & H. Platt.2000. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[25]Redeker, G 1991. Review Article:Linguistic Markers of Linguistic Structure. In Linguistics,29(6). pp:1139-1172.
[26]Sacks, H. et al.1974. A Simplest Systematics for the Organization of Turn-Taking in Conversation. In. Language,50(4). pp:696-735.
[27]Schegloff, E. A.2004. Overlapping talk and the organization of turn-taking for conversations, In Language in Society. (29):1-63.
[28]Schiffrin, D.1987. Discourse Markers. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
[29]Taboada, M.2006. Spontaneous and Non-spontaneous Turn-taking. In Pragmatics, 16 (2-3). pp:329-360.
[30]Wardhaugh, R.2000. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (third edition). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[31]Yan, H.2009. Pragmatics. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[32]Yule, G. 2000a. The Study of Language. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[33]Yule, G 2000b. Pragmatics. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
[34]何安平(2004),《语料库语言学与英语教学》,北京：外语教学与研究出版社。
[35]何兆熊(1989),《语用学概要》,上海：上海外语教育出版社。
[36]何兆熊(2000),《新编语用学概要》,上海：上海外语教育出版社。
[37]方经民(1993),《现代语言学方法论》,开封：河南人民出版社。
[38]胡壮麟(1994),《语篇的衔接与连贯》,上海：上海外语教育出版社。
[39]黄国文(1998),《语篇分析概要》,长沙：湖南教育出版社。
[40]黄衍(1987),话轮转替系统,《外语教学与研究》,第1期,16-23页。
[41]贾砚萍(1995),话轮转换中的技巧与英语口语教学,《外语界》,第3期,1-5页。
[42]姜望琪(2000),《语用学：理论及应用》,北京：北京大学出版社。
[43]姜望琪(2003),《当代语用学》,北京：北京大学出版社。
[44]李华东,俞东明(2001),从话轮转换看权势关系、性格刻画和情节发展,《解放军外语学院学报》,第2期,26-30页。
[45]刘虹(1992),话轮,非话轮和半话轮的区分,《外语教学与研究》,第3期,17-24页。
[46]刘虹(2004),《会话结构分析》,北京：北京大学出版社。
[47]刘森林(2007),话轮更替的语用策略,《外语教学》,第4期,34-38页。
[48]刘运同(2007),《会话分析概要》,上海：学林出版社。
[49]苗兴伟(1995),话轮转换及其对外语会话教学的启示,《外语教学》,第3期,6-11页。
[50]彭艳虹(2007),话轮转换规则与“对话”的会话含意推导,《四川外语学院学报》,第5期,87-91页。
[51]钱敏汝(2001),《篇章语用学概论》,北京：外语教学与研究出版社。
[52]冉永平(2000),话语标记语的语用学研究综述,《外语研究》,第4期,55-60页。冉永平(2003),话语标记语well的语用功能,《外国语》,3：58-63.
[53]冉永平(2006),《语用学：现象与分析》,北京：北京大学出版社。
[54]沈开木(1996),《现代汉语话语语言学》,北京：商务印书馆。
[55]孙毅兵,何瑞华(2006),从话轮和话轮转换的角度对英语自然会话和网络聊天室会话的比较,《外语与外语教学》,第2期,13-16页。
[56]王得杏(1998),《英语话语分析与跨文化交际》,北京：北京语言文化大学出版社。
[57]邢福义,吴振国(2007),《语言学概论》,武汉：华中师范大学出版社。
[58]杨连瑞(2002),话轮转换机制与英语会话能力,《山东外语教学》,第2期,22-24页。
[59]俞东明(1996),话语角色类型及其在语言交际中的转换,《外国语》,第1期,19-22页。
[60]于国栋(2008),《会话分析》,上海：上海外语教育出版社。
[61]张延国(2003),话轮及话轮转换的交际技巧,《外语教学》,第4期,23-27页。
[2]Berninger, G & C. Garvey.1981. Questions and the Allocation, Construction, and Timing of Turns in Child Discourse. In Journal of Psychotinguistic Research,10 (4). pp:375-402.
[3]Bosch, L. et al.2004. Turn taking in social talk dialogues:temporal, formal and functional aspects. Proceedings, Conference Speech and Computers SPECOM, St. Petersburg, Russia, September.
[4]Brinton, L.J.1996. Pragmatic Markers in English:grammaticalization and Discourse Functions. New York:Mouton de Gruyter.
[5 J Brown, G. & G Yule.2000. Discourse Analysis. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[6]Cowley, S. J.1998. Of Timing, Turn-Taking, and Conversations. In Journal of Psycholingitistic Research,27 (5). pp:541-571.
[7]Dooley, R & S. Levinsion.2008. Analyzing Discourse:A Manual of Basic Concepts. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[8]Duncan, S.1972. Some Signals and Rules for Taking Speaking Turns in Conversations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, (23). pp: 283-292.
[9]Duncan, S.1973. On the structure of speaker-auditor interaction during speaking turns. In Language in Society, (2). pp:161-180.
[10]Duncan, S and D. W. Fiske.1977. Face-to-Face Interaction:Research, Methods, and Theory. Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum.
[11]Fraser, B.1996. Pragmatic Markers. In Pragmatics, (6). pp:167-190.
[12]Gee, J. P.2000. An Introduction to Discourse Analysis:Theory and Method. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[13]Gumperz, J.1982. Discourse Strategies. Cambridge:Cambridge University.
[14]Halliday, M.A.K.2000. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[15]Halliday, M.A.K & Hasan R.2001. Cohesion in English. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[16]Jaszczolt. K. M.2004. Semantics and Pragmatics Meaning in Language and Discourse. Beijing:Peking University Press.
[17]Levinson, S. C.2001. Pragmatics. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[18]Martin, J. R.2004. English Text System and Structure. Beijing:Peking University Press.
[19]Mey, J.2001. Pragmatics:An introduction. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[20]Miura, I.1993. Switching Pauses in Adult-Adult and Child-Child Turn Takings:An Initial Study. In Journal of Psycholinguistic Research,22(3). pp:383-395.
[21]Peccei, J. S.2000. Pragmatics. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[22]Quirk, R. et al.1985. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. New York:Longman World Publishing Corp.
[23]Raux, A & M. Eskenazi.2009. Human Language Technologies:The 2009 Annual Conference of the North American Chapter of the ACL, PP:629-637, Boulder, Colorado, June 2009.
[24]Richards, J. J. Platt. & H. Platt.2000. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[25]Redeker, G 1991. Review Article:Linguistic Markers of Linguistic Structure. In Linguistics,29(6). pp:1139-1172.
[26]Sacks, H. et al.1974. A Simplest Systematics for the Organization of Turn-Taking in Conversation. In. Language,50(4). pp:696-735.
[27]Schegloff, E. A.2004. Overlapping talk and the organization of turn-taking for conversations, In Language in Society. (29):1-63.
[28]Schiffrin, D.1987. Discourse Markers. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
[29]Taboada, M.2006. Spontaneous and Non-spontaneous Turn-taking. In Pragmatics, 16 (2-3). pp:329-360.
[30]Wardhaugh, R.2000. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (third edition). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[31]Yan, H.2009. Pragmatics. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[32]Yule, G. 2000a. The Study of Language. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[33]Yule, G 2000b. Pragmatics. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
[34]何安平(2004),《语料库语言学与英语教学》,北京：外语教学与研究出版社。
[35]何兆熊(1989),《语用学概要》,上海：上海外语教育出版社。
[36]何兆熊(2000),《新编语用学概要》,上海：上海外语教育出版社。
[37]方经民(1993),《现代语言学方法论》,开封：河南人民出版社。
[38]胡壮麟(1994),《语篇的衔接与连贯》,上海：上海外语教育出版社。
[39]黄国文(1998),《语篇分析概要》,长沙：湖南教育出版社。
[40]黄衍(1987),话轮转替系统,《外语教学与研究》,第1期,16-23页。
[41]贾砚萍(1995),话轮转换中的技巧与英语口语教学,《外语界》,第3期,1-5页。
[42]姜望琪(2000),《语用学：理论及应用》,北京：北京大学出版社。
[43]姜望琪(2003),《当代语用学》,北京：北京大学出版社。
[44]李华东,俞东明(2001),从话轮转换看权势关系、性格刻画和情节发展,《解放军外语学院学报》,第2期,26-30页。
[45]刘虹(1992),话轮,非话轮和半话轮的区分,《外语教学与研究》,第3期,17-24页。
[46]刘虹(2004),《会话结构分析》,北京：北京大学出版社。
[47]刘森林(2007),话轮更替的语用策略,《外语教学》,第4期,34-38页。
[48]刘运同(2007),《会话分析概要》,上海：学林出版社。
[49]苗兴伟(1995),话轮转换及其对外语会话教学的启示,《外语教学》,第3期,6-11页。
[50]彭艳虹(2007),话轮转换规则与“对话”的会话含意推导,《四川外语学院学报》,第5期,87-91页。
[51]钱敏汝(2001),《篇章语用学概论》,北京：外语教学与研究出版社。
[52]冉永平(2000),话语标记语的语用学研究综述,《外语研究》,第4期,55-60页。冉永平(2003),话语标记语well的语用功能,《外国语》,3：58-63.
[53]冉永平(2006),《语用学：现象与分析》,北京：北京大学出版社。
[54]沈开木(1996),《现代汉语话语语言学》,北京：商务印书馆。
[55]孙毅兵,何瑞华(2006),从话轮和话轮转换的角度对英语自然会话和网络聊天室会话的比较,《外语与外语教学》,第2期,13-16页。
[56]王得杏(1998),《英语话语分析与跨文化交际》,北京：北京语言文化大学出版社。
[57]邢福义,吴振国(2007),《语言学概论》,武汉：华中师范大学出版社。
[58]杨连瑞(2002),话轮转换机制与英语会话能力,《山东外语教学》,第2期,22-24页。
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