极大化者和满意者的情绪体验与社会比较特征的分析研究
|
摘要
选择是每一个个体在日常生活中都会面临的问题。选择行为和选择结果都会在不同程度上，对决策者产生或深或浅、或暂时或长远的影响。逻辑上，人们认为多种多样的选择能够帮助他们更容易的做出最令其满意的选择结果。也就是说，选择越多，则效果越好，人们会更开心。拥有选择的权利总是让人心动的。但是近期研究显示，实际情况并非如此。
消费者决策行为在心理学和经济学中都是热门研究课题。决策者类型的划分也经历着变化。经济学中以完全自利和完全理性(追求极大化)为标签的“经济人”的概念，以及理性选择理论已早被证实其不合理性性；取而代之的“有限理性”假说，认为人们在实际生活中的决策行为是违反了理性选择理论所描述的情况。基于选择情境的丰富性和变化性，以及个体处理外界信息能力的有限性，决策者在实际决策环境中是无法做到所谓“完全理性”的。上述决策者类型理论从各个侧面对决策者类型进行了阐述。晚近的一项研究中，Schwartz等人(2002)制订并施测了一份极大化量表。研究认为，消费者决策类型可以划分为两种—“极大化者”和“满意者”：“极大化者”，即在决策过程中追求“最优”或“最佳”选择的人；而“满意者”，仅以“足够好”或“令人满意”作为选择标准。
消费者决策类型不同，其情绪体验也应存在差别。基于决策标准的不同，极大化者可能比满意者更多地体验后悔、抑郁和不快乐的情绪。由于很多情况下不存在“最佳的”选择，以追求“最佳”为目的的极大化者，为了确定自己的决策结果是“最佳”的，很可能需要和他人进行社会比较，来获取用以评估自己决策结果(甚至其决策能力)的信息。
本文通过施测Prof．Schwartz等人编制的极大化量表，来检验是否存在这两种决策者类型—“极大化者”和“满意者”。本研究包括三个小研究，分别采用了问卷测试和实验研究的方法，根据取得的研究结果，分析并讨论了这两种决策类型的情绪体验差别，以及社会比较对两种决策者的差异影响。所得数据运用SPSS15.0软件包进行统计处理，分别做了t检验、方差分析、Pearson相关分析、多重回归分析等。
研究结果发现：
1．决策者可以被分为“极大化者”和“满意者”两种类型；极大化者追求“最佳”选择，而满意者只要求“足够好”。极大化者与满意者之间并没有绝对的区分界限，这里只是作为两种不同决策倾向来进行讨论，也不能简单地认为一种决策倾向绝对优于(或劣于)另外一种。
2．极大化者和满意者的情绪体验存在显著差异：极大化者比满意者更易体验到后悔和抑郁情绪，而满意者比极大化者更享受决策过程及结果。
3．极大化者比满意者更具社会比较倾向。极大化者比满意者更多地利用社会比较信息，来对自己的决策行为(甚或对其自身的决策能力)进行判断和评估。极大化者的情绪和自我能力评估比满意者更易受社会比较信息的负面影响。
随着科技的发展和物质生活的丰富，人们拥有比以往任何时候更强大的选择权利，也能够更加自由地运用其选择权利，但其主观幸福感体验的报告却没有随之增长。人们理所当然认为的—富裕的人会更快乐—的想法，似乎并不那么理性。当然，富裕和快乐之间的非正相关关系，导致其产生的原因固然是多方面的，因为组成人的幸福感的因素是多元的，并非某单一因素所决定的。本研究结果试图指出，上述现象的原因之一可能在于过多的选择情境对人们产生的影响。人们对待选择结果和选择行为的态度也极大地影响着其主观情绪体验。
Choices are made by everyone every day. The choice behavior and itsconsequences can have little or great impact on the decision-makers. People logicallybelieve that all kinds of choices can help them make decisions easier, and they'll bemuch happier. In other word, the more choice, the better. It's always enchanting to ownthe rights to choose. While recent researches do not approve that.
The behavior of decision-maker has long been a study subject both in the scienceof psychology and economics. The latest research has divided decision-maker into twodifferent types—maximizers and satisficers. Maximizers seek for the utmost result fromdecision-making, whereas satisficers simply settle for good enough. I borrowed theMaximizing Scale invented by Schwartz et al., and analyzed the differences of the twotypes in emotional experience and the involvement in social comparison. The results areas follows:
1. Decision-makers can be divided into two types: maximizers and satisficers, theformer seek for the utmost result from decision-making, whereas satisficers simplysettle for good enough. There is not a distinction line between the two types; here Idiscuss the two types as two directions of tendencies.
2. There are distinctive differences in the emotional experience of maximizers andsatisficers. The data analysis shows that maximizing is positively related to depressionand regret; indicating maximizers are more exposed to the emotion of depression andregret. Still, maximizing is negatively related to happiness, indicating maximizers aretend to be unhappy and less satisfied than satisficers.
3. During the decision-making process, maximizers involve themselves more thansatisficers do in social comparison to attain information for the judgment of their action,or even of themselves as persons. Further, maximizers are more sensitive and fragile tothe negative effect of social comparison.
With the rapid development of science and technology, people are freer than anypasted times to have their own rights of choices. In the meantime they report moreunhappiness and less satisfaction with life. The reason of the phenomenon may lie in the abundance of choice people face nowadays, as well as their choice tendency types indecision-making process. It is of everybody's concern for oneself to flourish both in thematerial and the mental world.
消费者决策行为在心理学和经济学中都是热门研究课题。决策者类型的划分也经历着变化。经济学中以完全自利和完全理性(追求极大化)为标签的“经济人”的概念，以及理性选择理论已早被证实其不合理性性；取而代之的“有限理性”假说，认为人们在实际生活中的决策行为是违反了理性选择理论所描述的情况。基于选择情境的丰富性和变化性，以及个体处理外界信息能力的有限性，决策者在实际决策环境中是无法做到所谓“完全理性”的。上述决策者类型理论从各个侧面对决策者类型进行了阐述。晚近的一项研究中，Schwartz等人(2002)制订并施测了一份极大化量表。研究认为，消费者决策类型可以划分为两种—“极大化者”和“满意者”：“极大化者”，即在决策过程中追求“最优”或“最佳”选择的人；而“满意者”，仅以“足够好”或“令人满意”作为选择标准。
消费者决策类型不同，其情绪体验也应存在差别。基于决策标准的不同，极大化者可能比满意者更多地体验后悔、抑郁和不快乐的情绪。由于很多情况下不存在“最佳的”选择，以追求“最佳”为目的的极大化者，为了确定自己的决策结果是“最佳”的，很可能需要和他人进行社会比较，来获取用以评估自己决策结果(甚至其决策能力)的信息。
本文通过施测Prof．Schwartz等人编制的极大化量表，来检验是否存在这两种决策者类型—“极大化者”和“满意者”。本研究包括三个小研究，分别采用了问卷测试和实验研究的方法，根据取得的研究结果，分析并讨论了这两种决策类型的情绪体验差别，以及社会比较对两种决策者的差异影响。所得数据运用SPSS15.0软件包进行统计处理，分别做了t检验、方差分析、Pearson相关分析、多重回归分析等。
研究结果发现：
1．决策者可以被分为“极大化者”和“满意者”两种类型；极大化者追求“最佳”选择，而满意者只要求“足够好”。极大化者与满意者之间并没有绝对的区分界限，这里只是作为两种不同决策倾向来进行讨论，也不能简单地认为一种决策倾向绝对优于(或劣于)另外一种。
2．极大化者和满意者的情绪体验存在显著差异：极大化者比满意者更易体验到后悔和抑郁情绪，而满意者比极大化者更享受决策过程及结果。
3．极大化者比满意者更具社会比较倾向。极大化者比满意者更多地利用社会比较信息，来对自己的决策行为(甚或对其自身的决策能力)进行判断和评估。极大化者的情绪和自我能力评估比满意者更易受社会比较信息的负面影响。
随着科技的发展和物质生活的丰富，人们拥有比以往任何时候更强大的选择权利，也能够更加自由地运用其选择权利，但其主观幸福感体验的报告却没有随之增长。人们理所当然认为的—富裕的人会更快乐—的想法，似乎并不那么理性。当然，富裕和快乐之间的非正相关关系，导致其产生的原因固然是多方面的，因为组成人的幸福感的因素是多元的，并非某单一因素所决定的。本研究结果试图指出，上述现象的原因之一可能在于过多的选择情境对人们产生的影响。人们对待选择结果和选择行为的态度也极大地影响着其主观情绪体验。
Choices are made by everyone every day. The choice behavior and itsconsequences can have little or great impact on the decision-makers. People logicallybelieve that all kinds of choices can help them make decisions easier, and they'll bemuch happier. In other word, the more choice, the better. It's always enchanting to ownthe rights to choose. While recent researches do not approve that.
The behavior of decision-maker has long been a study subject both in the scienceof psychology and economics. The latest research has divided decision-maker into twodifferent types—maximizers and satisficers. Maximizers seek for the utmost result fromdecision-making, whereas satisficers simply settle for good enough. I borrowed theMaximizing Scale invented by Schwartz et al., and analyzed the differences of the twotypes in emotional experience and the involvement in social comparison. The results areas follows:
1. Decision-makers can be divided into two types: maximizers and satisficers, theformer seek for the utmost result from decision-making, whereas satisficers simplysettle for good enough. There is not a distinction line between the two types; here Idiscuss the two types as two directions of tendencies.
2. There are distinctive differences in the emotional experience of maximizers andsatisficers. The data analysis shows that maximizing is positively related to depressionand regret; indicating maximizers are more exposed to the emotion of depression andregret. Still, maximizing is negatively related to happiness, indicating maximizers aretend to be unhappy and less satisfied than satisficers.
3. During the decision-making process, maximizers involve themselves more thansatisficers do in social comparison to attain information for the judgment of their action,or even of themselves as persons. Further, maximizers are more sensitive and fragile tothe negative effect of social comparison.
With the rapid development of science and technology, people are freer than anypasted times to have their own rights of choices. In the meantime they report moreunhappiness and less satisfaction with life. The reason of the phenomenon may lie in the abundance of choice people face nowadays, as well as their choice tendency types indecision-making process. It is of everybody's concern for oneself to flourish both in thematerial and the mental world.
引文
[1] Simenson, I., & Tversky, A. (1992). Choice in context: Tradeoff contrast and extremeness aversion. Journal of Marketing Research, 29, 281-295.
[2] Schwartz, B. The Paradox of Choice: Why More is Less. Ecco/HarperCollins Publishers, 2004.
[3] Michael Byron. Satisficing and Maximizing: Moral Theorists on Practical Reason. Cambridge University Press 2004.
[4] Schwartz, B., A Ward, J. Monterosso, S. Lyubomirsky, K. White, and D. Lehman. Maximizing versus Satisficing: Happiness is a Matter of Choice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2002.
[5] Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan. On the importance of self-determination for intrinsically motivated behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.
[6] Iyengar, S. S., & Lepper, M. R. (1999). Rethinking the value of choice: A cultural perspective on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
[7] 《古希腊罗马哲学》，北京大学哲学系编商务印书馆，1962年版．
[8] [德]马尔库塞著，李晓兵等译：《现代文明与人类的困境》，三联书店，1989年版，第175页．
[9] 《政治学、经济学和福利》，纽约：哈泼兄弟出版公司1953年版，第38页．
[10] 国富论—国民财富性质和原因的研究 [英)亚当·斯密著商务印书馆．
[11] R. Myerson 1999, 12 "Nash Equilibrium and the History of Economic Theory", Journal of Economic Literature.
[12] 丘海雄、张应祥，1998，“理性选择理论述评”，广州：《中山大学学报》(社科版)第1期．
[13] 转引霍奇逊著，向以斌等译：《现代制度主义经济学宣言》，北京大学出版社1993年版．
[14] 赫伯特·西蒙著，杨砾，徐立译，《现代决策理论的基石：有限理性说》，北京经济学院出版社1989年版．
[15] Schwartz, B. (2000). Self determination: The tyranny of freedom. American Psychologist, Vol55.
[16] Alexis de Tocqueville. Democracy in America. Penguin Group. 2003. P536.
[17] Robert E. Lane. The Loss of Happiness in Market Democracies. PhotoDisc, Inc. 1996.
[18] 《社会蓝皮2006年：中国社会形势分析与预测》，社会科学文献出版社．，2005年12月．
[19] 《2005年中国城市及生活幸福度调查报告》，本研究是由芝加哥大学奚恺元教授在访问中欧国际工商学院期间进行，由中国人力资源开发网帮助收集数据，2006年3月．
[20] Bill Watterson. There's Treasure Everywhere. Andrews McMeel Pub. 1996. P107.
[21] Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations.
[22] 邢淑芬，俞国良．社会比较研究的现状与发展趋势心理科学进展．2005，13(1)：78～84．
[23] Suls J M, Wheeler L. Handbook of social comparison: Theory and research. New York: Plenum press, 2000.
[24] Suls J M, Miller R L. Social Comparison process: Theoretical and empirical perspectives. Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publication Services, 1977. 1～19.
[25] Lyubomirsky, S., & Ross, L. (1997). Hedonic consequences of social comparison: A contrast of happy and unhappy people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
[26] Lyubomirsky, S., & Lepper, H. S. (1999). A measure of subjective happiness: Preliminary reliability and construct validation. Social Indicators Research, 46, 137-155.
[27] Gibbons, E X., & Buunk, B. P. (1999) When Better-Than-Others Compare Upward: Choice of Comparison and Comparative Evaluation as Independent Predictors of Academic Performance. Journal of personality and social psychology, 1999, 76(3): 420～430.
[28] 王明姬，王垒，施俊琦．社会比较倾向量表中文版的信效度检验．中国心理卫生杂志，2006，20(5)，302-305，316．
[29] 加里·贝克尔．人类行为的经济分析．上海三联书店．1993
[30] Tversky, A., & Shafir, E. (1992). Choice under conflict: The dynamics of deferred decision. Psychological Science, 3, 358-361.
[31] Payne, J. W. (1982). Contingent decision behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 382-402.
[32] Payne, J. W., Bettman, J. R., & Johnson, E. J. (1993). The adaptive decision maker. New York: Cambridge University Press.
[33] Simon, H. A. (1955). A behavioral model of rational choice. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 59, 99-118.
[34] Simon, H. A. (1956). Rational choice and the structure of the environment. Psychological Review, 63,129-138.
[35] Simon, H. A. (1957). Models of man, social and rational: Mathematical essays on rational human behavior. New York: Wiley.
[36] Kahneman, D. (1999). Objective happiness. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
[37] Lyubomirsky, S., & Ross, L. (1997). Hedonic consequences of social comparison: A contrast of happy and unhappy people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73,1141-1157.
[38] Lyubomirsky, S., Tucker, K. L., & Kasri, F. (2001). Responses to hedonically-conflicting social comparisons: Comparing happy and unhappy people. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31,1-25.
[39] Morse, S., & Gergen, K. J. (1970). Social comparison, self-consistency, and the concept of the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16,148-156.
[40] Roese, N. J. (1997). Counterfactual thinking. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 133-148.
[41] Ross, L, Lepper, M. R., & Hubbard, M. (1975). Perseverance in self perception and social perception: Biased attributional processes in the debriefing paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 880-892.
[42] Schwartz, B. (1994). The costs of living: How market freedom erodes the bestthings in life. New York: Norton.
[43] Bell, D. E. (1985). Putting a premium on regret. Management Science, 31, 117-120.
[44] Blount, S., & Bazerman, M. H. (1996). The inconsistent evaluation of absolute versus comparative payoffs in labor supply and bargaining. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 30, 227-240.
[45] Brewer, M. B., & Weber, J. G (1994). Self-evaluation effects of personal versus intergroup social comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 268-275.
[46] Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic intervals for indirect effects in structural equations models. In S. Leinhart (Ed.), Sociological methodology 1982 (pp. 290-312). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
[47] Tasha L. Eurich, (2004). A Closer Look at Social Comparison Orientation. 19th the annual conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology in Chicago, Illinois. A poster Session
[48] Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science, 211,453-458.
[49] Tversky, A., & Shafir, E. (1992). Choice under conflict: The dynamics of deferred decision. Psychological Science, 3, 358-361.
[50] von Neumann, J., & Morgenstern, O. (1944). Theory of games and economic behavior. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
[51] Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070.
[52] Loomes, G., & Sugden, R. (1982). Regret theory: An alternative theory of rational choice under uncertainty. Economic Journal, 92, 805-824.
[53] Zeelenberg, M., & Beattie, J. (1997). Consequences of regret aversion 2: Additional evidence for effects of feedback on decision making. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 67, 63-78.
[54] Martin, L. L., Tesser, A., & Mclntosh, W. D. (1993). Wanting but not having: The effects of unattained goals on thoughts and feelings. In D. M. Wegner & J. W. Pennebaker (Eds.), Handbook of mental control (pp. 552-572). Englewood Cliffs, N J: Prentice Hall.
[55] Baron, J. (2000). Thinking and deciding (3rd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.
[56] 邢淑芬，俞国良．社会比较：对比效应还是同化效应?心理科学进展2006 14(6)：944～949．
[57] 张慧，袁岳．2005年中国居民生活报告．零点研究咨询集团．
[58] 温忠麟，侯杰泰，张雷．调节效应与中介效应的比较和应用．心理学报2005 37(2)：268～274．
[59] 王敬群，梁宝勇，邵秀巧．完美主义研究综述．心理学探新．2005年第1期，第25卷．
[60] Wills, T. A. (1991). Similarity and self-esteem in downward comparison. In J. Suls & T. A. Wills (Eds.), Social comparison: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 51-78). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
[61] Zeelenberg, M., Beattie, J., van der Pligt, J., & de Vries, N. K. (1996). Consequences of regret aversion: Effects of expected feedback on risky decision making. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 65,148-158.
[62] Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1991). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456-470.
[63] Guth, W., Schmittberger, R., & Schwarze, B. (1982). An experimental analysis of ultimatum bargaining. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 3, 367-388.
[64] Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decisions under risk. Econometrika, 47, 263-291.
[2] Schwartz, B. The Paradox of Choice: Why More is Less. Ecco/HarperCollins Publishers, 2004.
[3] Michael Byron. Satisficing and Maximizing: Moral Theorists on Practical Reason. Cambridge University Press 2004.
[4] Schwartz, B., A Ward, J. Monterosso, S. Lyubomirsky, K. White, and D. Lehman. Maximizing versus Satisficing: Happiness is a Matter of Choice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2002.
[5] Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan. On the importance of self-determination for intrinsically motivated behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.
[6] Iyengar, S. S., & Lepper, M. R. (1999). Rethinking the value of choice: A cultural perspective on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
[7] 《古希腊罗马哲学》，北京大学哲学系编商务印书馆，1962年版．
[8] [德]马尔库塞著，李晓兵等译：《现代文明与人类的困境》，三联书店，1989年版，第175页．
[9] 《政治学、经济学和福利》，纽约：哈泼兄弟出版公司1953年版，第38页．
[10] 国富论—国民财富性质和原因的研究 [英)亚当·斯密著商务印书馆．
[11] R. Myerson 1999, 12 "Nash Equilibrium and the History of Economic Theory", Journal of Economic Literature.
[12] 丘海雄、张应祥，1998，“理性选择理论述评”，广州：《中山大学学报》(社科版)第1期．
[13] 转引霍奇逊著，向以斌等译：《现代制度主义经济学宣言》，北京大学出版社1993年版．
[14] 赫伯特·西蒙著，杨砾，徐立译，《现代决策理论的基石：有限理性说》，北京经济学院出版社1989年版．
[15] Schwartz, B. (2000). Self determination: The tyranny of freedom. American Psychologist, Vol55.
[16] Alexis de Tocqueville. Democracy in America. Penguin Group. 2003. P536.
[17] Robert E. Lane. The Loss of Happiness in Market Democracies. PhotoDisc, Inc. 1996.
[18] 《社会蓝皮2006年：中国社会形势分析与预测》，社会科学文献出版社．，2005年12月．
[19] 《2005年中国城市及生活幸福度调查报告》，本研究是由芝加哥大学奚恺元教授在访问中欧国际工商学院期间进行，由中国人力资源开发网帮助收集数据，2006年3月．
[20] Bill Watterson. There's Treasure Everywhere. Andrews McMeel Pub. 1996. P107.
[21] Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations.
[22] 邢淑芬，俞国良．社会比较研究的现状与发展趋势心理科学进展．2005，13(1)：78～84．
[23] Suls J M, Wheeler L. Handbook of social comparison: Theory and research. New York: Plenum press, 2000.
[24] Suls J M, Miller R L. Social Comparison process: Theoretical and empirical perspectives. Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publication Services, 1977. 1～19.
[25] Lyubomirsky, S., & Ross, L. (1997). Hedonic consequences of social comparison: A contrast of happy and unhappy people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
[26] Lyubomirsky, S., & Lepper, H. S. (1999). A measure of subjective happiness: Preliminary reliability and construct validation. Social Indicators Research, 46, 137-155.
[27] Gibbons, E X., & Buunk, B. P. (1999) When Better-Than-Others Compare Upward: Choice of Comparison and Comparative Evaluation as Independent Predictors of Academic Performance. Journal of personality and social psychology, 1999, 76(3): 420～430.
[28] 王明姬，王垒，施俊琦．社会比较倾向量表中文版的信效度检验．中国心理卫生杂志，2006，20(5)，302-305，316．
[29] 加里·贝克尔．人类行为的经济分析．上海三联书店．1993
[30] Tversky, A., & Shafir, E. (1992). Choice under conflict: The dynamics of deferred decision. Psychological Science, 3, 358-361.
[31] Payne, J. W. (1982). Contingent decision behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 382-402.
[32] Payne, J. W., Bettman, J. R., & Johnson, E. J. (1993). The adaptive decision maker. New York: Cambridge University Press.
[33] Simon, H. A. (1955). A behavioral model of rational choice. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 59, 99-118.
[34] Simon, H. A. (1956). Rational choice and the structure of the environment. Psychological Review, 63,129-138.
[35] Simon, H. A. (1957). Models of man, social and rational: Mathematical essays on rational human behavior. New York: Wiley.
[36] Kahneman, D. (1999). Objective happiness. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
[37] Lyubomirsky, S., & Ross, L. (1997). Hedonic consequences of social comparison: A contrast of happy and unhappy people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73,1141-1157.
[38] Lyubomirsky, S., Tucker, K. L., & Kasri, F. (2001). Responses to hedonically-conflicting social comparisons: Comparing happy and unhappy people. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31,1-25.
[39] Morse, S., & Gergen, K. J. (1970). Social comparison, self-consistency, and the concept of the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16,148-156.
[40] Roese, N. J. (1997). Counterfactual thinking. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 133-148.
[41] Ross, L, Lepper, M. R., & Hubbard, M. (1975). Perseverance in self perception and social perception: Biased attributional processes in the debriefing paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 880-892.
[42] Schwartz, B. (1994). The costs of living: How market freedom erodes the bestthings in life. New York: Norton.
[43] Bell, D. E. (1985). Putting a premium on regret. Management Science, 31, 117-120.
[44] Blount, S., & Bazerman, M. H. (1996). The inconsistent evaluation of absolute versus comparative payoffs in labor supply and bargaining. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 30, 227-240.
[45] Brewer, M. B., & Weber, J. G (1994). Self-evaluation effects of personal versus intergroup social comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 268-275.
[46] Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic intervals for indirect effects in structural equations models. In S. Leinhart (Ed.), Sociological methodology 1982 (pp. 290-312). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
[47] Tasha L. Eurich, (2004). A Closer Look at Social Comparison Orientation. 19th the annual conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology in Chicago, Illinois. A poster Session
[48] Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science, 211,453-458.
[49] Tversky, A., & Shafir, E. (1992). Choice under conflict: The dynamics of deferred decision. Psychological Science, 3, 358-361.
[50] von Neumann, J., & Morgenstern, O. (1944). Theory of games and economic behavior. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
[51] Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070.
[52] Loomes, G., & Sugden, R. (1982). Regret theory: An alternative theory of rational choice under uncertainty. Economic Journal, 92, 805-824.
[53] Zeelenberg, M., & Beattie, J. (1997). Consequences of regret aversion 2: Additional evidence for effects of feedback on decision making. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 67, 63-78.
[54] Martin, L. L., Tesser, A., & Mclntosh, W. D. (1993). Wanting but not having: The effects of unattained goals on thoughts and feelings. In D. M. Wegner & J. W. Pennebaker (Eds.), Handbook of mental control (pp. 552-572). Englewood Cliffs, N J: Prentice Hall.
[55] Baron, J. (2000). Thinking and deciding (3rd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.
[56] 邢淑芬，俞国良．社会比较：对比效应还是同化效应?心理科学进展2006 14(6)：944～949．
[57] 张慧，袁岳．2005年中国居民生活报告．零点研究咨询集团．
[58] 温忠麟，侯杰泰，张雷．调节效应与中介效应的比较和应用．心理学报2005 37(2)：268～274．
[59] 王敬群，梁宝勇，邵秀巧．完美主义研究综述．心理学探新．2005年第1期，第25卷．
[60] Wills, T. A. (1991). Similarity and self-esteem in downward comparison. In J. Suls & T. A. Wills (Eds.), Social comparison: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 51-78). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
[61] Zeelenberg, M., Beattie, J., van der Pligt, J., & de Vries, N. K. (1996). Consequences of regret aversion: Effects of expected feedback on risky decision making. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 65,148-158.
[62] Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1991). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456-470.
[63] Guth, W., Schmittberger, R., & Schwarze, B. (1982). An experimental analysis of ultimatum bargaining. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 3, 367-388.
[64] Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decisions under risk. Econometrika, 47, 263-291.