职业体育联盟的经济学分析
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摘要
成立职业体育联盟是所有团体性职业运动发展和财政稳定的首要条件。当参赛俱乐部与联盟利益出现冲突和矛盾时,联盟有维护自身利益和趋向垄断的动机,通过限制价格、产量、质量、服务或创新以获得联盟收益最大化,这种带有卡特尔特征的垄断组织,历经百年不但获得一定反垄断豁免,而且日益成为世界各国职业体育主要的治理模式。联盟为何能够获得如此强的垄断地位和稳定性,吸引着学者们的普遍关注。目前,国内外关于职业体育联盟的研究已十分丰富,但从消费需求视角出发,将职业体育生产和组织、不同联盟治理模式纳入统一分析框架的理论与经验分析尚存在不足。因此,本文以消费者偏好比赛结果不确定性假设为立足点,从职业体育生产本质要求参赛俱乐部保持竞争实力均衡视角出发,探寻职业体育生产的基本规律和职业体育组织的运行机理,并将职业体育俱乐部和职业体育联盟均纳入生产组织体系中,从而系统、整体、动态的把握职业体育生产、组织运营的一般规律,对仍在困境中摸索的中国职业体育提供一个非常好的思考视角,也为经济学理论的验证提供验证平台,丰富和完善已有的经济学理论。
因此,本文首先依托历史、比较制度分析方法,对大西洋两岸具有相同起源、不同演变历史、不同市场结构但具有相同绩效的欧美职业体育联盟进行对比分析。研究指出,任何一个有效的联盟治理模式总是与其地域、资本、社会文化背景密不可分,这为联盟治理模式多样性创造可能；每一种联盟治理模式内部自成一体,如果只从一个最优的治理模式中抽取某一些要素嫁接到另一个优化模式中,则可能会损害治理模式的一致性,降低治理的绩效。因此,在模仿和借鉴中必须立足联盟的外生条件,制定与之相匹配的联盟治理行为,才能创造一个最优的治理模式。
其次,从企业理论视角揭示职业体育生产、职业体育联盟的运行规律和本质特征。联盟生来就是一个合作共同体,在赛场上,参赛俱乐部相互竞争,展开你死我活的“零和博弈”,将自己的成功建立在对手的失败上；而在赛场外,每个俱乐部的成功则仰赖于联盟其他俱乐部的成功以及作为一个权威机构联盟的成功和稳定,合作生产成为俱乐部竞争的目标和取向,而消费者偏好结果不确定性的比赛、职业体育市场的多维双边市场形态以及职业体育的自然垄断特性,使得职业体育联盟较一般卡特尔组织更稳定,但这并不意味着职业体育联盟就是个稳定组织,它仍然会面临着参赛俱乐部叛离问题,职业体育联盟主要通过整体营销、配给定额、均分市场的分配方式,以协调各个成员的行动并购惩罚作弊者和叛离者。
再次,采纳联盟两俱乐部理论模型,从竞争实力均衡视角探寻联盟制度安排的本质。研究结果显示,电视转播权收入分享、主场特许经营、升降级制度能够有效促进联赛竞争实力均衡,保留条款、主场门票收入分享、奖金池收入分享不会改变联盟竞争实力均衡,但这些制度安排的实施能够有效的维护弱小俱乐部或财政基础较差俱乐部的财政安全,在职业体育发展过程中有其存在的合理。由此从理论层面验证职业体育联盟的根本性质是维持俱乐部竞争实力均衡,以满足消费者不确定性偏好。
最后,采纳NBA数据,从实证视角验证消费者偏好俱乐部竞争实力均衡,并进而立足中国职业体育发展实践,参照职业体育生产的本质和职业体育联盟基本性质,揭示中国职业体育发展的瓶颈,从而有针对性地提出可供选择的策略。
The establishment of professional sports leagues is the primary condition for the development and financial stability in all group professional sports. When conflicts between the league and participating clubs occur, the league is prone to its own interest and monopoly. This kind of league, just like a cartel, is able to fix the price、quantity、quality、service and innovation to maximize league's profits. In the past century, it obtained limited antitrust dispensation and became the main governance mode in professional sports around the world. Why the league could achieve such a strong monopoly position and stability, has caused widely concern among researchers. Nowadays, researches on professional sports leagues are already abundant. But academic and empirical analysis, which integrate the production and organizing of professional sports and different governance mode for league into a analytical framework, is still scant. Hence, this paper is based on the proposition that the consumers prefer the uncertain outcome of matches. From the aspect that professional sports production has a request for clubs'competitive balance, this paper explores the basic rules of professional sport production and the mechanism of professional sports organization, and brings professional sports clubs and leagues into production organization system to grasp the ordinary rules of professional sports production and organization systematically, holistically and dynamically. This can provide a suitable thinking aspect for Chinese professional sports, which is still wandering in the corner, and also provide validating platform for economic theories, or on the other hand, enrich existing economic theories as well.
So, this dissertation relies on the method of history and comparative institutional analysis, makes comparative analysis on American and European professional sports leagues which have the same origin, same performance, but different history of evolvement and different market structures. The research points out that, any effective league governance model is concerned closely with its location, capital, social and cultural background, this enables the possibility of multi-model governance for the leagues; every league governance model has its inside characteristic, that means, if people only abstract some elements from an optimal model and combine them with another optimized model, the coherence of the existing model may be damaged and the performance may also be decreased. As a result of it, we should consider exogenous conditions in imitation and abstraction, constitute league governance behaviors which suit those exogenous conditions, thus, we can create an optimal governance model.
Second, this dissertation attempts to explain the rules and essence of professional sports production and leagues from the aspect of corporation theories. A league is born to be a community with cooperation. On the playground, clubs compete with each other, they play zero-sum games in which one team's success is based on the others'failures; however, when they leave the playground, the success of one club relies on the success of other clubs in the league, as well as the league, as an authority, has its own success and stability. Co-operative production becomes the aim and approach of the clubs'competition, while the consumers'favor to matches of uncertainty, the multi-dimensional bilateral market form and the natural monopoly of professional sports, make professional sports league more stable than ordinary cartel organization. However, this does not mean that professional sports leagues are always stable. It also faces problems such as the betrayal of clubs in the league. Professional sports leagues usually coordinate the members'behavior and punish cheaters, as well as betrayers, through total marketing, ration and average share of the market.
Third, adopt Two-Club Theoretical Model to explore the nature of the league system arrangement from the perspective of the competitive balance. The results show that broadcast revenue share, home ground franchise, and promotion and demotion system can effectively promote the league competitive balance. Reserve clause, home ground ticket revenue share, and revenue share pool will not affect the league competitive balance. However, the implementation of those systems can effectively maintain the financial security for small clubs or clubs with poor financial base, therefore they have the rationality of existence in the development of professional sports.
Finally, this dissertation takes National Basketball Association (NBA) and Chinese Professional Sports as cases, examines its theoretic views from empirical aspect.
因此,本文首先依托历史、比较制度分析方法,对大西洋两岸具有相同起源、不同演变历史、不同市场结构但具有相同绩效的欧美职业体育联盟进行对比分析。研究指出,任何一个有效的联盟治理模式总是与其地域、资本、社会文化背景密不可分,这为联盟治理模式多样性创造可能；每一种联盟治理模式内部自成一体,如果只从一个最优的治理模式中抽取某一些要素嫁接到另一个优化模式中,则可能会损害治理模式的一致性,降低治理的绩效。因此,在模仿和借鉴中必须立足联盟的外生条件,制定与之相匹配的联盟治理行为,才能创造一个最优的治理模式。
其次,从企业理论视角揭示职业体育生产、职业体育联盟的运行规律和本质特征。联盟生来就是一个合作共同体,在赛场上,参赛俱乐部相互竞争,展开你死我活的“零和博弈”,将自己的成功建立在对手的失败上；而在赛场外,每个俱乐部的成功则仰赖于联盟其他俱乐部的成功以及作为一个权威机构联盟的成功和稳定,合作生产成为俱乐部竞争的目标和取向,而消费者偏好结果不确定性的比赛、职业体育市场的多维双边市场形态以及职业体育的自然垄断特性,使得职业体育联盟较一般卡特尔组织更稳定,但这并不意味着职业体育联盟就是个稳定组织,它仍然会面临着参赛俱乐部叛离问题,职业体育联盟主要通过整体营销、配给定额、均分市场的分配方式,以协调各个成员的行动并购惩罚作弊者和叛离者。
再次,采纳联盟两俱乐部理论模型,从竞争实力均衡视角探寻联盟制度安排的本质。研究结果显示,电视转播权收入分享、主场特许经营、升降级制度能够有效促进联赛竞争实力均衡,保留条款、主场门票收入分享、奖金池收入分享不会改变联盟竞争实力均衡,但这些制度安排的实施能够有效的维护弱小俱乐部或财政基础较差俱乐部的财政安全,在职业体育发展过程中有其存在的合理。由此从理论层面验证职业体育联盟的根本性质是维持俱乐部竞争实力均衡,以满足消费者不确定性偏好。
最后,采纳NBA数据,从实证视角验证消费者偏好俱乐部竞争实力均衡,并进而立足中国职业体育发展实践,参照职业体育生产的本质和职业体育联盟基本性质,揭示中国职业体育发展的瓶颈,从而有针对性地提出可供选择的策略。
The establishment of professional sports leagues is the primary condition for the development and financial stability in all group professional sports. When conflicts between the league and participating clubs occur, the league is prone to its own interest and monopoly. This kind of league, just like a cartel, is able to fix the price、quantity、quality、service and innovation to maximize league's profits. In the past century, it obtained limited antitrust dispensation and became the main governance mode in professional sports around the world. Why the league could achieve such a strong monopoly position and stability, has caused widely concern among researchers. Nowadays, researches on professional sports leagues are already abundant. But academic and empirical analysis, which integrate the production and organizing of professional sports and different governance mode for league into a analytical framework, is still scant. Hence, this paper is based on the proposition that the consumers prefer the uncertain outcome of matches. From the aspect that professional sports production has a request for clubs'competitive balance, this paper explores the basic rules of professional sport production and the mechanism of professional sports organization, and brings professional sports clubs and leagues into production organization system to grasp the ordinary rules of professional sports production and organization systematically, holistically and dynamically. This can provide a suitable thinking aspect for Chinese professional sports, which is still wandering in the corner, and also provide validating platform for economic theories, or on the other hand, enrich existing economic theories as well.
So, this dissertation relies on the method of history and comparative institutional analysis, makes comparative analysis on American and European professional sports leagues which have the same origin, same performance, but different history of evolvement and different market structures. The research points out that, any effective league governance model is concerned closely with its location, capital, social and cultural background, this enables the possibility of multi-model governance for the leagues; every league governance model has its inside characteristic, that means, if people only abstract some elements from an optimal model and combine them with another optimized model, the coherence of the existing model may be damaged and the performance may also be decreased. As a result of it, we should consider exogenous conditions in imitation and abstraction, constitute league governance behaviors which suit those exogenous conditions, thus, we can create an optimal governance model.
Second, this dissertation attempts to explain the rules and essence of professional sports production and leagues from the aspect of corporation theories. A league is born to be a community with cooperation. On the playground, clubs compete with each other, they play zero-sum games in which one team's success is based on the others'failures; however, when they leave the playground, the success of one club relies on the success of other clubs in the league, as well as the league, as an authority, has its own success and stability. Co-operative production becomes the aim and approach of the clubs'competition, while the consumers'favor to matches of uncertainty, the multi-dimensional bilateral market form and the natural monopoly of professional sports, make professional sports league more stable than ordinary cartel organization. However, this does not mean that professional sports leagues are always stable. It also faces problems such as the betrayal of clubs in the league. Professional sports leagues usually coordinate the members'behavior and punish cheaters, as well as betrayers, through total marketing, ration and average share of the market.
Third, adopt Two-Club Theoretical Model to explore the nature of the league system arrangement from the perspective of the competitive balance. The results show that broadcast revenue share, home ground franchise, and promotion and demotion system can effectively promote the league competitive balance. Reserve clause, home ground ticket revenue share, and revenue share pool will not affect the league competitive balance. However, the implementation of those systems can effectively maintain the financial security for small clubs or clubs with poor financial base, therefore they have the rationality of existence in the development of professional sports.
Finally, this dissertation takes National Basketball Association (NBA) and Chinese Professional Sports as cases, examines its theoretic views from empirical aspect.
引文
1福布斯世界俱乐部价值榜：曼联第1,皇马力压阿森纳.2010年01月13日10：58.http://sports.sina.com.cn/g/2010-01-13/10584787734.shtml.注：《福布斯》根据俱乐部历史成绩、收入、球星身价、固定资产等因素进行综合评估,而后进行世界排名。
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1由于英国是联邦制国家,英国由英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士以及北爱尔兰共同组成,相应的有英格兰足协、苏格兰足协(1873年成立苏格兰足协,1887年开始禁止球队参加英格兰足总杯,1890年开始组建苏格兰足球联盟,1893年开始推行职业化,每年和英格兰进行比赛)、威尔士足协和北爱尔兰足协,分别拥有各自独立的联赛、杯赛以及各自的支持者,其中英格兰拥有世界上最完善的足球联赛体系,本章节接下去的讨论基本是围绕英格兰足球而展开的,对苏格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰的足球不做详细介绍。资料来源：马志刚(2007).
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