颅脑外伤后高血糖与神经系统损伤及预后的关系
|
摘要
目的：探讨脑外伤后高血糖与神经系统损伤及预后之间的关系。
方法：对76例颅脑外伤患者入院后第2、4、8天清晨测定的空腹血糖值进行回顾性分析,分别比较不同程度颅脑外伤组、不同预后组的血糖水平,以及高血糖组的持续时间与预后的关系。
结果：入院时神经损伤重度组25例,中度组29例,轻度组22例,入院后第二天平均血糖值分别为(9.4±1.6)mg/dL、(7.6±0.9)mg/dL. (6.8±0.6)mg/dL数据两两相比均有显著性差异。预后差组22例,良好组54例,入院后第二天平均血糖值分别为(10.1±1.4)mg/dL.(7.1±0.9)mg/dL,两组数据有显著性差异。预后不同患者高血糖持续时间明显不同。
结论：颅脑外伤病人早期易出现血糖升高,血糖水平与神经损伤严重程度成正比,且高血糖、长时间持续血糖偏高都会严重影响预后。
Objective:To study whether hyperglycemia after cerebral traumatic injury affects neural damage and the prognosis.
Methods:76 patients with cerebral trauma were analyzed retrospectively by determining morning fasting glucose in the 2nd,4th,8th days after admission. Compare the blood glucose levels of groups with different degree of cerebral injury and prognosis, and research the relationship between the prognoses of patients and the duration of hyperglycemia.
Results:The severe nerve injury group(25 cases) has a mean blood glucose level of (9.4±1.6) mmol/L in the day after admission, while the moderate group's(29 cases) and the mild group's(22 cases) mean blood glucose level are (7.6±0.9) mmol/L and (6.8±0.6) mmol/L respectively. The poor prognosis group's (22 cases) mean blood glucose level is (10.1±1.4) mmol/L in the day after admission, while patients of the good group (54 cases) has a mean blood glucose level of (7.1±0.9) mmol/L. The prognoses of patients who have different hyperglycemia duration are obviously different.
Conclusion:The cerebral trauma patients tend to the high blood glucose level, which is proportional to the nerve injury degree. Further more, the long duration of hyperglycemia and the high blood glucose level will seriously affect the prognosis.
方法：对76例颅脑外伤患者入院后第2、4、8天清晨测定的空腹血糖值进行回顾性分析,分别比较不同程度颅脑外伤组、不同预后组的血糖水平,以及高血糖组的持续时间与预后的关系。
结果：入院时神经损伤重度组25例,中度组29例,轻度组22例,入院后第二天平均血糖值分别为(9.4±1.6)mg/dL、(7.6±0.9)mg/dL. (6.8±0.6)mg/dL数据两两相比均有显著性差异。预后差组22例,良好组54例,入院后第二天平均血糖值分别为(10.1±1.4)mg/dL.(7.1±0.9)mg/dL,两组数据有显著性差异。预后不同患者高血糖持续时间明显不同。
结论：颅脑外伤病人早期易出现血糖升高,血糖水平与神经损伤严重程度成正比,且高血糖、长时间持续血糖偏高都会严重影响预后。
Objective:To study whether hyperglycemia after cerebral traumatic injury affects neural damage and the prognosis.
Methods:76 patients with cerebral trauma were analyzed retrospectively by determining morning fasting glucose in the 2nd,4th,8th days after admission. Compare the blood glucose levels of groups with different degree of cerebral injury and prognosis, and research the relationship between the prognoses of patients and the duration of hyperglycemia.
Results:The severe nerve injury group(25 cases) has a mean blood glucose level of (9.4±1.6) mmol/L in the day after admission, while the moderate group's(29 cases) and the mild group's(22 cases) mean blood glucose level are (7.6±0.9) mmol/L and (6.8±0.6) mmol/L respectively. The poor prognosis group's (22 cases) mean blood glucose level is (10.1±1.4) mmol/L in the day after admission, while patients of the good group (54 cases) has a mean blood glucose level of (7.1±0.9) mmol/L. The prognoses of patients who have different hyperglycemia duration are obviously different.
Conclusion:The cerebral trauma patients tend to the high blood glucose level, which is proportional to the nerve injury degree. Further more, the long duration of hyperglycemia and the high blood glucose level will seriously affect the prognosis.
引文
1、钟学礼,朱禧星临床糖尿病学[M]1989：148
2、庞克军,马树海,柴迎春,万宏,郑典刚,张志,亢战重型脑外伤应激性高血糖存活患者血糖转归情况观察 中国现代医药杂志2008.9 Vol.10(9)：46-47
3、江卫东创伤性多器官功能障碍综合征患者胰岛素抵抗和胰岛素分泌功能的变化医学研究杂志2009.5 Vol.38(5)：79-82
4、许衍挺,赵湛,黄勇严重脑外伤急性期血糖和血清胰岛素水平与病情及预后的关系广东医学2005.6 Vol.26(6)：827-829
5、吴式光,陈景森,叶卓敏急性颅脑损伤后血糖与病情及预后的关系浙江创伤外科2005.10 Vol.10(5)：401
6、路红社,粟波,朱诚,张光霁,江基尧大鼠颅脑外伤后胰岛素与胰岛素受体的变化第二军医大学学报1998.2 Vo1.19(1)：36-38
7、 Wozniak M, Rydzewaki B, Baker SP, et al.(1993) The cellular and physiological actions of insulin in the central nervous system. Neurochem Int.22(1):1
8、 David Cederberg, Peter Siesjo.(2010) What has inflammation to do with traumatic brain injury. Childs Nerv Syst.26:221-226
9、王喆,董震脑外伤后高血糖现象与预后的相关性分析中国医药导报2008.11Vol.5(32):110
10. Gisselsson L, Smith ML, Siesjo BK(1992) Influence of preischemic hyperglycemia on osmolality and early postischemic edema in the rat brain. J. Cereb Blood Flow Metab 12:809-816
11、 Gisselsson L, Smith ML, Siesjo BK(1999) Hyperglycemia and focal brain damage. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 19:288-297
12、 Li PA, Gisselsson L, Keuker J, Vogel J, Smith ML, Kuschinsky W, Siesjo BK(1998) Hyperglycemia-exaggerated ischemic brain damage following 30 min of middle cerebral artery occlusion is not due to capillary obstruction. Brain Res 804:36-44
13. Kagansky N, Levy S, Knober H.(2001) The role of hyperglycemia in acute stroke.
J.Arch Neurol.58(8):1209-1212
14. Pedro DP, Nils S, Wangbin X, Peter R, Urban U, Carl-Henrik N.(2003) Cerebral energy metabolism during transient hyperglycemia in patients with severe brain trauma. Intensive Care Med.29:544-550
15、 Siesjo BK, Bendek G, Koide T, Westerberg E, Wieloch T (1985) Influence of acidosis on lipid peroxidation in brain tissues in vitro. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 5:253-258
16、 Li PA, Liu GJ, He QP, Floyd RA, Siesjo BK (1999) Production of hydroxyl free radical by brain tissues in hyperglycemic rats subjected to transient forebrain ischemia. Free Radic Biol Med 27:1033-1034
17、 Li PA, Uchino H, Elmer E, Siesjo BK(1997) Amelioration by cyclosporin A of brain damage following 5 or 10 min of ischemia in rats subjected to preischemic hyperglycemia. Brain Res 753:133-140
18. Uchino H, Elmer E, Uchino K, Li PA, He QP, Smith ML, Siesjo BK (1998) Amelioration by cyclosporin A of brain damage in transient forebrain ischemia in the rat. Brain Res 812:216-226
19、 Schinder AF, Olson EC, Spitzer NC, Montal M (1996) Mitochondrial dysfunction is a primary event in glutamate neurotoxicity. J Neurosci 16:6125-6133
20、罗恒,王昌适,杨立坚血糖变化对急性颅脑外伤患者预后影响的研究湖南师范大学学报(医学版)2008.5(1)：32-34
21、 Kraing RP, Cheaber M.(1990) Astrocytic acidnosisin hyperglycemic and complete ischemia. J. Cereb Blood Flow Metab.10:104
22、徐继扬,赵良高血糖对急性颅脑伤预后的影响中国危重病急救医学1994.6(5)：275-277
23、赵明华,封平血糖水平对急性颅脑损伤预后影响的研究医学理论与实践2003.16(2)：129-131
24、 Van den Berghe, Wouters P, Weekers F, Verwaest C, Bruyninckx F, Shetz M, Vlasserlaers D, Ferdinande P, Lauwers P, Bouillon R (2001) Intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med-345:1359-1367
25、赵新兰高血糖与重型颅脑损伤患者预后关系的研究疑难病杂志2007.11Vol.6(11):662-664
26、吴志浩,杨吉华,杨汇明,李一兵,张惠芝急性颅脑损伤患者血糖和果糖胺检测的临床应用重庆医学2004.4 Vol.33(4)：552.559
27、许一萍,孟凡霞,李岩,张克茹,高翔,王宝霞重型颅脑外伤后血糖变化与血压及预后的关系中国医药导报2007.11 Vol.4(32)：17-19
28、葛春燕木糖醇对重型颅脑外伤患者的血糖及胰岛素释放的影响上海护理2005.1 Vol.5(1):37-38
29、潘仁高重症脑外伤患者肠内、肠外营养支持的对比观察白求恩军医学院学报2006.9 Vol.4(3)：140-141
30、钱东翔,郭宝平,何炳威,王智坚,蔡哲鹏,郭炜重症脑外伤早期肠内与肠外营养支持的血糖及胰岛素水平对比肠外与肠内营养2000 Vol.7(4)
1、 M. Arundine and M. Tymianski. (2004)Molecular mechanisms of glutamate-dependent neurodegeneration in ischemia and traumatic brain injury. CMLS, Cell. Mol. Life Sci.61:657-668
2、 Araceli D-R, Hermelinda S-C, Sergio M, Valente M, Luis T, Mireya A-Z, Camilo R. (2007)Acute Alterations of Glutamate, Glutamine, GABA, and Other Amino Acids After Spinal Cord Contusion in Rats. Neurochem. Res.32:57-63
3、 C.G. Parsons, W. Danysz, W. Zieglgasberger. Excitatory Amino Acid Neurotransmission. (2005) HEP 169:249-303
4、 Choi D. W. (1985)Glutamate neurotoxicity in cortical cell culture is calcium dependent. Neurosci. Lett.58:293-297
5、 Choi D. W. (1987)Ionic dependence of glutamate neurotoxicity. J. Neurosci.7: 369-379
6、 Choi D. W. (1995)Calcium:still center-stage in hypoxic-ischemic neuronal death. Trends Neurosci.18:58-60
7、 Choi D. W. (1988)Calcium-mediated neurotoxicity:relationship to specific channel types and role in ischemic damage. Trends Neurosci.11:465-467
8、 Tymianski M. (1996)Cytosolic calcium concentrations and cell death in vitro. In: Advances in Neurology:Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Ischemic Brain Damage, Siesjo B. K. and Wieloch T. (eds), pp.85-105
9、 Lucas D. R. and Newhouse J. P. (1957)The toxic effect of sodium L-glutamate on the inner layers of the retina. Arch. Ophthalmol.58:193-201
10、 Olney J. W. (1978)Neurotoxicity of excitatory amino acids. In:Kainic Acid.as a Tool in Neurobiology, McGeer E. G., Olney J. W. and McGeer P. L. (eds), Raven Press, pp.95-121
11、 Olney J. W. (1969)Brain lesion, obesity and other disturbances in mice treated with monosodium glutamate. Science 164:719-721
12. Kass I. S. and Lipton P. J. (1982)Mechanisms involved in irreversible anoxic damage to the in vitro rat hippocampal slice. Physiol.332:459-472
13. Rothman S. M. (1983)Synaptic activity mediates death of hypoxic neurons. Science 220:536-537
14. de Weille J. R., Schweitz H., Maes P., Tartar A. and Lazdunski M. (1991)Calciseptine, a peptide isolated from black mamba venom, is a specific blocker of the L-type calcium channel. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:2437-2440
15. Rothman S. M. J. (1985)The neurotoxicity of excitatory amino acids is produced by passive chloride influx. Neurosci.5:1483-1489
16. Olney J. W., Price M. T., Samson L. and Labruyere J. (1986)The role of specific ions in glutamate neurotoxicity. Neurosci. Lett.65:65-71
17. Berdichevsky E., Riveros N., Sanches-Armass S. and Orrego F. (1983)Kainate, N-methylaspartate and other excitatory amino acids increase calcium influx onto rat-brain cortex cells in vitro. Neurosci. Lett.36:75-80
18. Choi D. W. Maulucci-Gedde M, Kriegstein AR. (1987)Glutamate neurotoxicity in cortical cell culture. J. Neurosci.7:357-368
19. Tymianski M. and Tator C. H. (1996)Normal and abnormal calcium homeostasis in neurons.a basis for the pathophysiology of traumatic and ischemic central nervous system injury. Neurosurgery 38:1176-1195
20. Hossmann K. A. (1994)Glutamate-mediated injury in focal cerebral ischemia:the excitotoxin hypothesis revised. Brain Pathol.4:23-36
21. Siesjo B. K., Zhao Q., Pahlmark K., Siesjo P., Katsura K., Folbergrova J. (1995)Glutamate, calcium and free radicals as mediators of ischemic brain damage. Ann. Thorac. Surg.59:1316-1320
22. Zhang L.,Rzigalinski B. A.,Ellis E. F. and Satin L. S. (1996)Reduction of voltage-dependent Mg2+blockade of NMDA current in mechanically injured neurons. Science 274:1921-1923
23. Goforth P. B., Ellis E. F. and Satin L. S. J. (1999)Enhancement of AMPA-mediated current after traumatic injury in cortical neurons. Neurosci.19:7367-7374
24. Lees K. R.. (1998)Does neuroprotection improve stroke outcome? Lancet 351: 1447-1448
25. Ghosh A. and Greenberg M. E. (1995) Calcium signalling in neurons:Molecular mechanisms and cellular consequences. Science 268:239-247
26. Bading H., Ginty D. D. and Greenberg M. E. (1993)Regulation of gene expression in hippocampal neurons by distinct calcium signaling pathways. Science 260: 181-186
27. Tymianski M., Charlton M. P., Carlen P. L. and Tator C. H. J. (1993)Source specificity of early calcium neurotoxicity incultured embryonic spinal neurons. Neurosci.13:2085-2104
28. Sattler R., Charlton M. P., Hafner M. and Tymianski M. (1998)Distinct influx pathways, not calcium load, determine neuronal vulnerability to calcium neurotoxicity. J. Neurochem.71:2349-2364
29. Hollmann M. and Heinemann S. (1994) Rev. Cloned glutamate receptors. Ann. Neurosci.17:31-108
30. Laube B., Kuhse J. and Betz H. (1998)Evidence for a tetrameric structure of recombinant NMD A receptors. J. Neurosci.18:2954-2961
31. Zukin R. S. and Bennett M. V. (1995)Alternatively spliced isoforms of the NMDARI receptor subunit. Trends Neurosci.18:306-313
32. Ishii T., Moriyoshi K., Sugihara H., Sakurada K., Kadotani H., Yokoi M. et al. (1993)Molecular characterization of the family of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunits. J. Biol. Chem.268:2836-2843
33. Burnashev N., Schoepfer R., Monyer H., Ruppersberg J. P., Gunther N., Seeburg P. H. et al. (1992)Control by asparagines residues of calcium permeability and magnesium blockade in the NMDA receptor. Science 257:1415-1419
34. Schneggenburger R. and Ascher P. (1997)Coupling of permeation and gating in an NMDA-channel pore mutant. Neuron 18:167-177
35. Traynelis S. F, Burgess M. F., Zheng F., Lyuboslavsky P. and Powers J. L (1998)Control of voltage-independent zinc inhibition of NMDA receptors by the
NR1 subunit. J. Neurosci.18:6163-6175
36、 Monyer H., Sprengel R., Schoepfer R., Herb A., Higuchi M., Lomeli H. et al. (1992)Heteromeric NMD A receptors:molecular and functional distinction of subtypes. Science 256:1217-1221
37、 Kutsuwada T., Kashiwabuchi N., Mori H., Sakimura K., Kushiya E., Araki K. et al. (1992)Molecular diversity of the NMDA receptor channel. Nature 358:36-41
38、 Forrest D., Yuzaki M., Soares H. D., Ng L., Luk D. C., Sheng M. et al. (1994)Targeted disruption of NMDA receptor 1 gene abolishes NMDA response and results in neonatal death. Neuron 13:325-338
39、 Yuzaki M., Forrest D., Verselis L. M., Sun S. C., Curran T. and Connor J. A. (1996)Functional NMDA receptors are transiently active and support the survival of Purkinje cells in culture. J. Neurosci.16:4651-4661
40. Li Y., Erzurumlu R. S., Chen C., Jhaveri S. and Tonegawa S. (1994) Whisker-related neuronal patterns fail to develop in the trigeminal brainstem nuclei of NMDAR1 knockout mice. Cell 76:427-437
41. Sakimura K., Kutsuwada T., Ito I., Manabe T., Takayama C., Kushiya E. et al. (1995)Reduced hippocampal LTP and spatial learning in mice lacking NMDA receptor epsilon 1 subunit. Nature 373:151-155
42. Stern p., Behe p., Schoepfer R. and Colquhoun D. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B (1992)Single-channel conductances of NMDA receptors expressed from cloned cDNAs:comparison with native receptors. Biol. Sci.250:271-277
42a、 Gallagher M. J., Huang H., Grant E. R. and Lynch D. R. (1997)The NR2B-specific interactions of polyamines and protons with the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor. J. Biol. Chem.272:24971-24979
42b、 Kutsuwada T., Kashiwabuchi N., Mori H., Sakimura K., Kushiya E., Araki K. et al. (1992)Molecular diversity of the NMDA receptor channel. Nature 358:36-41
42c. Williams K., Russell S. L., Shen Y. M. and Molinoff P. B. (1993)Developmental switch in the expression of NMDA receptors occurs in vivo and in vitro. Neuron 10: 267-278
42、 Kew J. N. C., Richards J. G., Mutel V. and Kemp J. A. (1998)Developmental changes in NMDA receptor glycine affinity and ifenprodil sensitivity reveal three distinct populations of NMDA receptors in individual rat cortical neurons. J. Neurosci.18:1935-1943
43、 Sheng M. and Pak D. T. (2000)Ligand-gated ion channel interactions with cytoskeletal and signaling proteins. Annu. Rev. Physiol.62:755-778
44、 Standley S., Roche K. W., McCallum J., Sans N. and Wenthold R. (2000)PDZ domain suppression of an ER retention signal in NMDA receptor NR1 splice variants. J. Neuron 28:887-898
45、 Okabe S., Miwa A. and Okado H. (1999)Alternative splicing of the C-terminal domain regulates cell surface expression of the NMDA receptor NR1 subunit. J. Neurosci.19:7781-7792
46、 Logan S. M., Rivera F. E. and Leonard J. P. (1999)Protein kinase C modulation of recombinant NMDA receptor currents:roles for the C-terminal Cl exon.and calcium ions. J. Neurosci.19:974-986
47、 Ehlers M. D., Zhang S., Bernhardt J. P. and Huganir R. L. (1996)Inactivation of NMDA receptors by direct interaction of calmodulin with the NR1 subunit. Cell 84: 745-755
48、 Zhang S., Ehlers M. D., Bernhardt J. P., Su. C. T. and Huganir R. L (1998)Calmodulin mediates calcium-dependent inactivation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. Neuron 21:443-453
49、 Kreutz M. R., Bockers T. M., Bockmann J., Seidenbecher C. I., Kracht B., Vorwerk C. K. et al. (1998)Axonal injury alters alternative splicing of the retinal NR1 receptor:the preferential expression of the NRlb isoforms is crucial for retinal ganglion cell survival. J. Neurosci.18:8278-8291
50、 Halpain S., Hipolito A. and Saffer L. (1998)Regulation of Factin stability in dendritic spines by glutamate receptors and calcineurin. J. Neurosci.'18: 9835-9844
51、 Jiang M., Lee C. L., Smith K. L. and Swann J. W. J. (1998)Spine loss and other persistent alterations of hippocampal pyramidal cell dendrites in a model of early-onset epilepsy. Neurosci.18:8356-8368
52、 Jeffrey M., Goodsir C. M., Bruce M. E., McBride P. A. and Fraser J. R. (1997)In vivo toxicity of prion protein in murine scrapie:ultrastructural and immunogold studies. Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol.23:93-101
53、 Garey L. J., Ong W. Y., Patel T. S., Kanani M., Davis A., Mortimer A. M. et al. (1998)Reduced dendritic spine density on cerebral cortical pyramidal neurons in schizophrenia. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatr.65:446-453
54、 Rao A. and Craig A. M. (1997)Activity regulates the synaptic localization of the NMDA receptor in hippocampal neurons. Neuron 19:801-812
55、 Wyszynski M., Lin J., Rao A., Nigh E., Beggs A. H., Craig A. M. et al. (1997)Competitive binding of alpha-actinin and calmodulin to the NMDA receptor. Nature 385:439-442
56 、 Matus A., Ackermann M., Pehling G., Byers H. R. and Fujiwara K. (1982)High actin concentrations in brain dendritic spines and postsynaptic densities. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79:7590-7594
57、 Kaech S., Fischer M., Doll T. and Matus A. J. (1997)Isoform specificity in the relationship of actin to dendritic spines. Neurosci.17:9565-9572.
58、 Allison D. W., Gelfand V. I., Spector I. and Craig A. M. J. (1998)Role of actin in anchoring postsynaptic receptors in cultured hippocampal neurons:differential attachment of NMDA versus AMPA receptors. Neurosci.18:2423-2436
59、 Krupp J. J., Vissel B., Thomas C. G, Heinemann S. F. And Westbrook G L. (1999)Interactions of calmodulin and alphaactinin with the NR1 subunit modulate Ca2+-dependent inactivation of NMD A receptors. J. Neurosci.19:1165-1178
60、 Sattler R., Xiong Z., Lu W. Y, MacDonald J. F. and Tymianski M. J. (2000) Distinct roles of synaptic and extrasynaptic NMDA receptors in excitotoxicity. Neurosci.20: 22-33
61、 Lin J. W., Wyszynski M., Madhavan R., Sealock R., Kim J. U. and Sheng M. J. (1998) Yotiao, a novel protein of neuromuscular junction and brain that interacts with specific splice variants of NMDA receptor subunit NR1. Neurosci.18: 2017-2027
62 、 Ehlers M. D., Fung E. T., O'Brien R. and Huganir R. L. (1998)Splice variant-specific interaction of the NMDA receptor sub-unit NR1 with neuronal intermediate filaments. J. Neurosci.18:720-730
63 、 Barish M. E. and Mansdorf N. B. (1991)Development of intracellular calcium responses to depolarization and to kainite and N-methyl-D-aspartate in cultured mouse hippocampal neurons. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res.63:53-61
64、 Marks J. D., Friedman J. E. and Haddad G. G. (1996)Vulnerability of CA1 neurons to glutamate is developmentally regulated. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res.97:194-206
65 、 Wahl P., Schousboe A., Honore T. and Drejer J. (1989)Glutamate-induced increase in intracellular Ca2+in cerebral cortex neurons is transient in immature cells but permanent in mature cells. J. Neurochem.53:1316-1319
66 、 Monyer H., Burnashev N., Laurie D. J., Sakmann B. and Seeburg P H. (1994)Developmental and regional expression in the rat brain and functional properties of four NMDA receptors. Neuron 12:529-540
67 、 Sheng M., Cummings J., Roldan L. A., Jan Y. N. and Jan L. Y (1994)Changing subunit composition of heteromeric NMDA receptors during development of rat cortex. Nature 368:144-147
68 、 Wenzel A., Fritschy J. M., Mohler H. and Benke D. (1997)NMDA receptor heterogeneity during postnatal development of the rat brain:differential expression of the NR2A, NR2B and NR2C subunit proteins. J. Neurochem.68:469-478
69 、 Audinat E., Lambolez B., Rossier J. and Crepel F. (1994)Activity-dependent regulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunit expression in rat cerebellar granule cells. Eur. J. Neurosci.6:1792-1800
70、 Lindlbauer R., Mohrmann R., Hatt H. and Gottmann K. (1998)Regulation of kinetic and pharmacological properties of synaptic NMDA receptors depends on presynaptic exocytosis in rat hippocampal neurones. J. Physiol.508 (Pt 2): 495-502
71、 Bessho Y., Nawa H. and Nakanishi S. (1994)Selective up-regulation of an NMDA receptor subunit mRNA in cultured cerebellar granule cells by K(+)-induced depolarization and NMD A treatment. Neuron 12:87-95
72、 Gallo V., Suergiu R. and Levi G. (1987)Functional evaluation of glutamate receptor subtypes in cultured cerebellar neurons and astrocytes. Eur. J. Pharmacol.138: 293-297
73、 Balazs R., Jorgensen O. S. and Hack N. (1988)N-methyl-D-aspartate promotes the survival of cerebellar granule cells in culture. Neuroscience 27:437-451
74、 Mizuta I., Katayama M., Watanabe M., Mishina M. and Ishii K. (1998)Developmental expression of NMD A receptor subunits and the emergence of glutamate neurotoxicity in primary cultures of murine cerebral cortical neurons. Cell. Mol. Life Sci.54:721-725
75、 Cheng C., Fass D. M. and Reynolds I. (1999)Emergence of excitotoxicity in cultured forebrain neurons coincides with larger glutamate-stimulated [Ca2+] increases and NMDA receptor mRNA levels. J. Brain Res.849:97-108
76、 Anegawa N. J., Lynch D. R., Verdoorn T. A. and Pritchett D. B. (1995)Transfection of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors in a nonneuronal cell line leads to cell death. J. Neurochem.64:2004-2012
77、 Chazot P. L., Coleman S. K., Cik M. and Stephenson F. A. (1994)Molecular characterization of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors expressed in mammalian cells yields evidence for the coexistence of three subunit types within a discrete receptor molecule. J. Biol. Chem.269:24403-24409
78、 Morikawa E., Mori H., Kiyama Y., Mishina M., Asano T. And Kirino T. (1998)Attenuation of focal ischemic brain injury in mice deficient in the epsilonl (NR2A) subunit of NMD A receptor. J. Neurosci.18:9727-9732
79、 Kiyama Y., Manabe T., Sakimura K., Kawakami F., Mori H. and Mishina M. (1998)Increased thresholds for long-term potentiation and contextual learning in mice lacking the NMDA-type glutamate receptor epsilonl subunit. J. Neurosci.18: 6704-6712
80. Kadotani H., Namura S., Katsuura G., Terashima T. And Kikuchi H. (1998) Attenuation of focal cerebral infarct in mice lacking NMD A receptor subunit NR2C. Neuroreport 9:471-475
81. Sprengel R., Suchanek B., Amico C., Brusa R., Burnashev N., Rogov A. et al. (1998)Importance of the intracellular domain of NR2 subunits for NMDA receptor function in vivo. Cell 92:279-289
82. Mori H., Manabe T., Watanabe M., Satoh Y., Suzuki N., Toki S. et al. (1998)Role of the carboxy-terminal region of the GluR epsilon2 subunit in synaptic localization of the NMDA receptor channel. Neuron 21:571-580
83. Steigerwald F.,Schulz T. W., Schenker L. T., Kennedy M. B., Seeburg P. H., Kohr G. (2000)C-Terminal truncation of NR2A subunits impairs synaptic but not extrasynaptic localization of NMDA receptors. J. Neurosci.20:4573-4581
84、 Garner C. C., Nash J. and Huganir R. L. (2000)PDZ domains in synapse assembly and signalling. Trends Cell Biol.10:274-280
85. Scannevin R. H. and Huganir R. L. (2000)Postsynaptic organization and regulation of excitatory synapses. Nat. Rev. Neurosci.1:133-141
86. Lerea L. S. and McNamara J. O. (1993)Ionotropic glutamate receptor subtypes activate c-fos transcription by distinct calcium-requiring intracellular signalling pathways. Neuron 10:31-41
87. Friedlander R. M., Gagliardini V., Hara H., Fink K. B., Li W., MacDonald G.et al. (1997)Expression of a dominant negative mutant of interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme in transgenic mice prevents neuronal cell death induced by trophic factor withdrawal and ischemic brain injury. J. Exp. Med.185:933-940
88、 Sheng M. (1997)Glutamate receptors put in their place. Nature 386:221-223-
89. Ponting C. P., Phillips C., Davies K. E. and Blake D. (1997)PDZ domains:targeting signalling molecules to sub-membranous sites. J. Bioessays 19:469-479
90. Cho K. O., Hunt C. A. and Kennedy M. B. (1992)The rat brain postsynaptic density fraction contains a homolog of the Drosophila discs-large tumor suppressor protein. Neuron 9:929-942
91. Kistner U., Wenzel B. M., Veh R. W., Cases-Langhoff C., Garner A. M., Appeltauer U. et al. (1993)SAP90, a rat presynaptic protein related to the product of the Drosophila tumor suppressor gene dlg-A. J. Biol. Chem.268:4580-4583
92. Brenman J. E., Christopherson K. S., Craven S. E., McGee A. W. and Bredt D. S. (1996)Cloning and characterization of postsynaptic density 93, a nitric oxide synthase interacting protein. J. Neurosci.16:7407-7415
93、 Kim E. and Sheng M. (1996)Differential K+channel clustering activity of PSD-95 and SAP97, two related membrane-associated putative guanylate kinases. Neuropharmacology 35:993-1000
94、 Muller B. M., Kistner U., Kindler S., Chung W. J., Kuhlendahl S., Fenster S. D. et al. (1996)SAP102, a novel postsynaptic protein that interacts with NMD A receptor complexes in vivo. Neuron 17:255-265
95、Muller B. M., Kistner U., Veh R. W., Cases-Langhoff C., Becker B., Gundelfinger E. D. et al, (1995)Molecular characterization and spatial distribution of SAP97, a novel presynaptic protein homologous to SAP90 and the Drosophila discslarge tumor suppressor protein. J. Neurosci.15:2354-2366
96. Kennedy M. B. (1995) Origin of PDZ (DHR, GLGF) domains. Trends Biochem. Sci. 20:350-350
97. Fanning A. S. and Anderson J. M. (1996)Protein-protein interactions:PDZ domain networks. Curr. Biol.6:1385-1388
98. Pawson T. (1995)Protein modules and signalling networks. Nature 373:573-579
99、 Ehlers M. D., Mammen A. L., Lau L. F. and Huganir R. L. (1996)Synaptic targeting of glutamate receptors. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol.8:484-489
100、 Gomperts S. N. (1996)Clustering membrane proteins:It's all coming together with the PSD-95/SAP90 protein family. Cell 84:659-662
101、 Kornau H. C., Seeburg P. H. and Kennedy M. B. (1997)Interaction of ion channels and receptors with PDZ domain proteins. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol.7:368-373
102. Kornau H. C., Schenker L. T., Kennedy M. B. and Seeburg P. H. (1995)Domain interaction between NMDA receptor subunits and the postsynaptic density protein PSD-95. Science 269:1737-1740
103、 Kim E., Niethammer M., Rothschild A., Jan Y. N. and Sheng M. (1995)Clustering of Shaker-type K+channels by interaction with a family of membrane-associated guanylate kinases. Nature 378:85-88
104、 Doyle D. A., Lee A., Lewis J., Kim E., Sheng M. and MacKinnon R. (1996)Crystal structures of a complexed and peptidefree membrane protein-binding domain: molecular basis of peptide recognition by PDZ. Cell 85:1067-1076
105、 Morais Cabral J. H., Petosa C., Sutcliffe M. J., Raza S., Byron O., Poy F. et al. (1996)Crystal structure of a PDZ domain. Nature 382:649-652
106、 Niethammer M., Kim E. and Sheng M. (1996)Interaction between the C terminus of NMDA receptor subunits and multiple members of the PSD-95 family of membrane-associated guanylate kinases. J. Neurosci.16:2157-2163
107、 Brenman J. E., Chao D. S., Gee S. H., McGee A. W., Craven S. E., Santillano D. R. et al. (1996)Interaction of nitric oxide synthase with the postsynaptic density protein PSD-95 and alphal-syntrophin mediated by PDZ domains. Cell-84: 757-767
108、 Stricker N. L., Christopherson K. S., Yi B. A., Schatz P. J., Raab R. W., Dawes G. et al. (1997)PDZ domain of neuronal nitric oxide synthase recognizes novel C-terminal peptide sequences. Nat. Biotechnol.15:336-342
109、 Craven S. E. and Bredt D. S. (1998)PDZ proteins organize synaptic signaling pathways. Cell 93:495-498
110、 Bredt D. S. and Snyder S. H. (1990)Isolation of nitric oxide synthetase, a calmodulin-requiring enzyme. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:682-685
111、 Bredt D. S. and Snyder S. H. (1989)Nitric oxide mediates glutamate-linked enhancement of cGMP levels in the cerebellum. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86: 9030-9033
112、 Garthwaite J., Charles S. L. and Chess-Williams R. (1988)Endothelium-derived relaxing factor release on activation of NMDA receptors suggests role as inter-cellular messenger in the brain. Nature 336:385-388
113. Sattler R., Xiong Z., Lu W. Y., Hafner M., MacDonald J. F., Tymianski M. (1999)Specific coupling of NMD A receptor activation to nitric oxide neurotoxicity by PSD-95 protein. Science 284:1845-1848
114. Schinder A. F., Olson E. C., Spitzer N. C. and Montal M. (1996)Mitochondrial dysfunction is a primary event in glutamate neurotoxicity. J. Neurosci.16: 6125-6133
115. Atlante A, Calissano P, Bobba A, Giannattasio S, Marra E, Passarella S. (2001)Glutamate neurotoxicity, oxidative stress and mitochondria. FEBS Lett.497: 1-5
116. Akerman K. E. (1978)Changes in membrane potential during calcium ion influx and efflux across the mitochondrial membrane. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 502: 359-366
117. Gunter T. E. and Pfeiffer D. R. (1990)Mechanisms by which mitochondria transport calcium. Am. J. Physiol.258:C755-C786
118. Loew L. M., Carrington W., Tuft R. A. and Fay F. S. (1994)Physiological cytosolic Ca2+transients evoke concurrent mitochondrial depolarizations. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:12579-12583
119. Bauer M. K., Vogt M., Los M., Siegel J., Wesselborg S. And Schulze-Osthoff K. (1998)Role of reactive oxygen intermediates in activation-induced CD95 (APO-1/Fas) ligand expression. J. Biol. Chem.273:8048-8055
120. Green D. R. and Reed J. C. (1998)Mitochondria and apoptosis. Science 281: 1309-1312
121. Antonsson B., Conti F., Ciavatta A., Montessuit S., Lewis S., Martinou I. et al. (1997)Inhibition of Bax channel-forming activity by Bcl-2. Science 277:370-372
122. Zamzami N., Marchetti P., Castedo M., Decaudin D., Macho A., Hirsch T. et al. (1995)Sequential reduction of mitochondrial transmembrane potential and generation of reactive oxygen species in early programmed cell death. J. Exp. Med. 182:367-377
123. Kumar C., Okuda M., Ikai I. and Chance B. (1990)Luminol enhanced chemiluminescence of the perfused rat heart during ischemia and reperfusion. FEBS Lett.272:121-124
124、 Sussman M. S. and Bulkley G. B. (1990)Oxygen-derived free radicals in reperfusion injury. Methods Enzymol.186:711-723
125、 Juurlink B. H. (1997)Response of glial cells to ischemia:roles of reactive oxygen species and glutathione. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.21:151-166
126、 Chanock S. J., el Benna J., Smith R. M. and Babior B. M. J. (1994)The respiratory burst oxidase. Biol. Chem.269:24519-24522
127、 Shami P. J., Sauls D. L. and Weinberg J. B. (1998)Schedule and concentration-dependent induction of apoptosis in leukemia cells by nitric oxide. Leukemia 12:1461-1466
128、 Sattler R., Xiong Z., Lu W. Y., Hafner M., MacDonald J. F. and Tymianski M. (1999)Specific coupling of NMDA receptor activation to nitric oxide neurotoxicity by PSD-95 protein. Science 284:1845-1848
129、 Koppenol W. H., Moreno J. J., Pryor W. A., Ischiropoulos H. and Beckman J. S. (1992)Peroxynitrite, a cloaked oxidant formed by nitric oxide and superoxide. Chem. Res. Toxicol.5:834-842
130、 Beckman J. S., Ischiropoulos H., Zhu L., van der Woerd M., Smith C., Chen J. et al. (1992)Kinetics of superoxide dismu. Arch. Biochem. Biophys.298:438-445
131、 Radi R., Beckman J. S., Bush K. M. and Freeman B. A. (1991) Peroxynitrite-induced membrane lipid peroxidation:the cytotoxic potential of superoxide and nitric oxide. Arch. Biochem. Biophys.288:481-487
132、 Darley-Usmar V. M., Hogg N., O'Leary V. J., Wilson M. T. and Moncada S. (1992)The simultaneous generation of superoxide and nitric oxide can initiate lipid peroxidation in human low density lipoprotein. Free Radic. Res. Commun.17: 9-20
133、 Moreno J. J. and Pryor W. A. (1992)Inactivation of alpha 1-proteinase inhibitor by peroxynitrite. Chem. Res. Toxicol.5:425-431
134、 Buki A., Okonkwo D. O., Wang K. K. and Povlishock J. T. (2000)Cytochrome c release and caspase activation in traumatic axonal injury. J. Neurosci.20: 2825-2834
135、 Graham S. H. and Chen J. (2001 programmed cell death in cerebral ischemia. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab.21:99-109
136、 Sakhi S., Bruce A., Sun N., Tocco G, Baudry M. and Schreiber S. (1997)Induction of tumor suppressor p53 and DNA fragmentation in organotypic hippocampal cultures following excitotoxin treatment. S. Exp. Neurol.145:81-88
137、 Liu X., Kim C. N., Yang J., Jemmerson R. and Wang X. (1996)Induction of apoptotic program in cell-free extracts:requirement for dATP and cytochrome c. Cell 86:147-157
138、 Wang X. (2001) The expanding role of mitochondria in apoptosis. Genes Dev.15: 2922-2933
139、 Zou H., Li Y., Liu X. and Wang X. (1999)An APAF-1.cytochrome c multimeric complex is a functional apoptosome that activates procaspase-9. J. Biol. Chem.274: 11549-11556
140、 Rodriguez J. and Lazebnik Y. (1999)Caspase-9 and APAF-1 form an active holoenzyme. Genes Dev.13:3179-3184
141、 Sabol S. L., Li R., Lee T. Y. and Abdul-Khalek R. (1998)Inhibition of apoptosis-associated DNA fragmentation activity in nonapoptotic cells:the role of DNA fragmentation factor-45(DFF45/ICAD). Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 253:151-158
142、 Sakahira H., Enari M. and Nagata S. (1998)Cleavage of CAD inhibitor in CAD activation and DNA degradation during apoptosis. Nature 391:96-99
143、 Woo M., Hakem R., Soengas M. S., Duncan G. S., Shahinian A., Kagi D. et al. (1998)Essential contribution of caspase 3/CPP32 to apoptosis and its associated nuclear changes. Genes Dev.12:806-819
144、 Enari M., Sakahira H., Yokoyama H., Okawa K., Iwamatsu A. and Nagata S. (1998)A caspase-activated DNase that degrades DNA during apoptosis, and its inhibitor ICAD. Nature 391:43-50
145、 Raghupathi R., Graham D. I. and McIntosh T. K. (2000)Apoptosis after traumatic brain injury. J. Neurotrauma 17:927-938
146、 Hengartner M. O. (2000)The biochemistry of apoptosis. Nature 407:770-776
147、 Xiang H., Kinoshita Y., Knudson C. M., Korsmeyer S. J., Schwartzkroin P. A., Morrison R. S. (1998)Bax involvement in p53-mediated neuronal cell death. J. Neurosci.18:1363-1373
148、 Banasiak K. J. and Haddad G. G. (1998)Hypoxia-induced apoptosis:effect of hypoxic severity and role of p53 in neuronal cell death. Brain Res.797:295-304
149、 McGahan L., Hakim A. M. and Robertson G. S. (1998)Hippocampal Myc and p53 expression following transient global ischemia. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res.56: 133-145
150、 Lu J., Moochhala S., Kaur C. and Ling E. (2000)Changes in apoptosis-related protein (p53, Bax, Bcl-2 and Fos) expression with DNA fragmentation in the central nervous system in rats after closed head injury. Neurosci. Lett.290:89-92
151、 Napieralski J. A., Raghupathi R. and McIntosh T. K. (1999)The tumor-suppressor gene, p53, is induced in injured brain regions following experimental traumatic brain injury. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res.71:78-86
152、 Cote J. and Ruiz-Carrillo A. (1993)Primers for mitochondrial DNA replication generated by endonuclease G. Science 261:765-769
153、 Liu X., Zou H., Slaughter C. and Wang X. (1997)DFF, a heterodimeric protein that functions downstream of caspase-3 to trigger DNA fragmentation during apoptosis. Cell 89:175-184
154、 Liu X., Li P., Widlak P., Zou H., Luo X., Garrard W. T. et al. (1998)The 40-kDa subunit of DNA fragmentation factor induces DNA fragmentation and chromatin condensation during apoptosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:8461-8466
155、 Li L. Y., Luo X. and Wang X. (2001)Endonuclease G is an apoptotic DNase when released from mitochondria. Nature 412:95-99
156、 Joza N., Susin S. A., Daugas E., Stanford W. L., Cho S. K., Li C. Y. et al. (2001)Essential role of the mitochondrial apoptosis-inducing factor in programmed cell death. Nature 410:549-554
157. Zhang X., Chen J., Graham S. H., Du L., Kochanek P. M., Draviam R. et al. (2002)Intranuclear localization of apoptosisinducing factor (AIF) and large scale DNA fragmentation after traumatic brain injury in rats and in neuronal cultures exposed to peroxynitrite. J. Neurochem.82:181-191
158. Marie-Francoise R, Petra S, and Aminadav M. (2002)17β-Estradiol Effect on the Extracellular Concentration of Amino Acids in the Glutamate Excitotoxicity Model in the Rat. Neurochem. Res.27:1677-1683
159. K. Wirkner, C. Eberts, W. Poelchen, C. Allgaier, P. (2000)Mechanism of inhibition by ethanol of NMDA and AMPA receptor channel functions in cultured rat cortical neurons. Illes. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch Pharmacol 362:568-576
160. M. Bubser, T. Tzschentke, and W. Hauber. J. (1995)Behavioural and neurochemical interactions of the AMPA antagonist GYKI 52466 and the non-competitive NMDA antagonist dizocilpine in rats. Neural Transm 101: 115-126
161、 Cristina Limatola. (2003)Neurotrophic effects of AMPA. Cerebellum 2:2-10
162、 Krishna B. and Ann M. M. (2000)AMPA Prevents Glutamate-Induced Neurotoxicity and Apoptosis in Cultured Cerebellar Granule Cell Neurons. Neurotoxicity Res.2:51-61
163、 Uma Narayanan, Oak Z. C., Xia L, and Harvey R. W. (2000)Effect of AMPA on Cerebral Cortical Oxygen Balance of Ischemic Rat Brain. Neurochem. Res.25: 405-411
164、 W. M. Henne, S. Oomman, J. Attridge, V. Finckbone, P. Coates, R. Bliss, H. Strahlendorf, and J. Strahlendorf. (2006)AMPA-Induced Excitotoxicity Increases Nuclear Levels of CAD, Endonuclease G, and Acinus and Induces Chromatin Condensation in Rat Hippocampal Pyramidal Neurons. Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology.26:321-341
165、Juan C. C, Ricardo T. (2008)Calpain Inhibition Protects Spinal Motoneurons from the Excitotoxic Effects of AMPA In vivo. Neurochem. Res.33:1428-1434
166、 Claus F. P, Timothy A. S, Thomas E. M, Virginia Smith-Swintosky, H. Steven White, and Arne S. (2004)Modulation by Topiramate of AMPA and Kainate Mediated Calcium Influx in Cultured Cerebral Cortical, Hippocampal and Cerebellar Neurons. Neurochem. Res.29:275-282
167、 Clemens S, Markus S, Christian B, Katharina K, Harald D. M, Stefan S, Wolf-Rudiger S. (2006)Neuroprotective cannabinoid receptor antagonist SR141716 A prevents downregulation of excitotoxic NMD A receptors in the ischemic penumbra. Acta Neuropathol.112:277-286
168、 Schwarze S. R. and Dowdy S. F. (2000)In vivo protein transduction:intracellular delivery of biologically active proteins, compounds and DNA. Trends Pharmacol. Sci.21:45-48
169、 Aarts M., Liu Y., Liu L., Besshoh S., Arundine M., Gurd J. W. et al. (2002)Treatment of ischemic brain damage by perturbing NMDA rece. Science 298:846-850
170、 M. Aarts and M. Tymianski. (2005)Disrupting Protein-Protein Interaction: Therapeutic Tools Against Brain Damage. Therapy Against Brain Damage, edited by Waksman. Springer, New York
2、庞克军,马树海,柴迎春,万宏,郑典刚,张志,亢战重型脑外伤应激性高血糖存活患者血糖转归情况观察 中国现代医药杂志2008.9 Vol.10(9)：46-47
3、江卫东创伤性多器官功能障碍综合征患者胰岛素抵抗和胰岛素分泌功能的变化医学研究杂志2009.5 Vol.38(5)：79-82
4、许衍挺,赵湛,黄勇严重脑外伤急性期血糖和血清胰岛素水平与病情及预后的关系广东医学2005.6 Vol.26(6)：827-829
5、吴式光,陈景森,叶卓敏急性颅脑损伤后血糖与病情及预后的关系浙江创伤外科2005.10 Vol.10(5)：401
6、路红社,粟波,朱诚,张光霁,江基尧大鼠颅脑外伤后胰岛素与胰岛素受体的变化第二军医大学学报1998.2 Vo1.19(1)：36-38
7、 Wozniak M, Rydzewaki B, Baker SP, et al.(1993) The cellular and physiological actions of insulin in the central nervous system. Neurochem Int.22(1):1
8、 David Cederberg, Peter Siesjo.(2010) What has inflammation to do with traumatic brain injury. Childs Nerv Syst.26:221-226
9、王喆,董震脑外伤后高血糖现象与预后的相关性分析中国医药导报2008.11Vol.5(32):110
10. Gisselsson L, Smith ML, Siesjo BK(1992) Influence of preischemic hyperglycemia on osmolality and early postischemic edema in the rat brain. J. Cereb Blood Flow Metab 12:809-816
11、 Gisselsson L, Smith ML, Siesjo BK(1999) Hyperglycemia and focal brain damage. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 19:288-297
12、 Li PA, Gisselsson L, Keuker J, Vogel J, Smith ML, Kuschinsky W, Siesjo BK(1998) Hyperglycemia-exaggerated ischemic brain damage following 30 min of middle cerebral artery occlusion is not due to capillary obstruction. Brain Res 804:36-44
13. Kagansky N, Levy S, Knober H.(2001) The role of hyperglycemia in acute stroke.
J.Arch Neurol.58(8):1209-1212
14. Pedro DP, Nils S, Wangbin X, Peter R, Urban U, Carl-Henrik N.(2003) Cerebral energy metabolism during transient hyperglycemia in patients with severe brain trauma. Intensive Care Med.29:544-550
15、 Siesjo BK, Bendek G, Koide T, Westerberg E, Wieloch T (1985) Influence of acidosis on lipid peroxidation in brain tissues in vitro. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 5:253-258
16、 Li PA, Liu GJ, He QP, Floyd RA, Siesjo BK (1999) Production of hydroxyl free radical by brain tissues in hyperglycemic rats subjected to transient forebrain ischemia. Free Radic Biol Med 27:1033-1034
17、 Li PA, Uchino H, Elmer E, Siesjo BK(1997) Amelioration by cyclosporin A of brain damage following 5 or 10 min of ischemia in rats subjected to preischemic hyperglycemia. Brain Res 753:133-140
18. Uchino H, Elmer E, Uchino K, Li PA, He QP, Smith ML, Siesjo BK (1998) Amelioration by cyclosporin A of brain damage in transient forebrain ischemia in the rat. Brain Res 812:216-226
19、 Schinder AF, Olson EC, Spitzer NC, Montal M (1996) Mitochondrial dysfunction is a primary event in glutamate neurotoxicity. J Neurosci 16:6125-6133
20、罗恒,王昌适,杨立坚血糖变化对急性颅脑外伤患者预后影响的研究湖南师范大学学报(医学版)2008.5(1)：32-34
21、 Kraing RP, Cheaber M.(1990) Astrocytic acidnosisin hyperglycemic and complete ischemia. J. Cereb Blood Flow Metab.10:104
22、徐继扬,赵良高血糖对急性颅脑伤预后的影响中国危重病急救医学1994.6(5)：275-277
23、赵明华,封平血糖水平对急性颅脑损伤预后影响的研究医学理论与实践2003.16(2)：129-131
24、 Van den Berghe, Wouters P, Weekers F, Verwaest C, Bruyninckx F, Shetz M, Vlasserlaers D, Ferdinande P, Lauwers P, Bouillon R (2001) Intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med-345:1359-1367
25、赵新兰高血糖与重型颅脑损伤患者预后关系的研究疑难病杂志2007.11Vol.6(11):662-664
26、吴志浩,杨吉华,杨汇明,李一兵,张惠芝急性颅脑损伤患者血糖和果糖胺检测的临床应用重庆医学2004.4 Vol.33(4)：552.559
27、许一萍,孟凡霞,李岩,张克茹,高翔,王宝霞重型颅脑外伤后血糖变化与血压及预后的关系中国医药导报2007.11 Vol.4(32)：17-19
28、葛春燕木糖醇对重型颅脑外伤患者的血糖及胰岛素释放的影响上海护理2005.1 Vol.5(1):37-38
29、潘仁高重症脑外伤患者肠内、肠外营养支持的对比观察白求恩军医学院学报2006.9 Vol.4(3)：140-141
30、钱东翔,郭宝平,何炳威,王智坚,蔡哲鹏,郭炜重症脑外伤早期肠内与肠外营养支持的血糖及胰岛素水平对比肠外与肠内营养2000 Vol.7(4)
1、 M. Arundine and M. Tymianski. (2004)Molecular mechanisms of glutamate-dependent neurodegeneration in ischemia and traumatic brain injury. CMLS, Cell. Mol. Life Sci.61:657-668
2、 Araceli D-R, Hermelinda S-C, Sergio M, Valente M, Luis T, Mireya A-Z, Camilo R. (2007)Acute Alterations of Glutamate, Glutamine, GABA, and Other Amino Acids After Spinal Cord Contusion in Rats. Neurochem. Res.32:57-63
3、 C.G. Parsons, W. Danysz, W. Zieglgasberger. Excitatory Amino Acid Neurotransmission. (2005) HEP 169:249-303
4、 Choi D. W. (1985)Glutamate neurotoxicity in cortical cell culture is calcium dependent. Neurosci. Lett.58:293-297
5、 Choi D. W. (1987)Ionic dependence of glutamate neurotoxicity. J. Neurosci.7: 369-379
6、 Choi D. W. (1995)Calcium:still center-stage in hypoxic-ischemic neuronal death. Trends Neurosci.18:58-60
7、 Choi D. W. (1988)Calcium-mediated neurotoxicity:relationship to specific channel types and role in ischemic damage. Trends Neurosci.11:465-467
8、 Tymianski M. (1996)Cytosolic calcium concentrations and cell death in vitro. In: Advances in Neurology:Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Ischemic Brain Damage, Siesjo B. K. and Wieloch T. (eds), pp.85-105
9、 Lucas D. R. and Newhouse J. P. (1957)The toxic effect of sodium L-glutamate on the inner layers of the retina. Arch. Ophthalmol.58:193-201
10、 Olney J. W. (1978)Neurotoxicity of excitatory amino acids. In:Kainic Acid.as a Tool in Neurobiology, McGeer E. G., Olney J. W. and McGeer P. L. (eds), Raven Press, pp.95-121
11、 Olney J. W. (1969)Brain lesion, obesity and other disturbances in mice treated with monosodium glutamate. Science 164:719-721
12. Kass I. S. and Lipton P. J. (1982)Mechanisms involved in irreversible anoxic damage to the in vitro rat hippocampal slice. Physiol.332:459-472
13. Rothman S. M. (1983)Synaptic activity mediates death of hypoxic neurons. Science 220:536-537
14. de Weille J. R., Schweitz H., Maes P., Tartar A. and Lazdunski M. (1991)Calciseptine, a peptide isolated from black mamba venom, is a specific blocker of the L-type calcium channel. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:2437-2440
15. Rothman S. M. J. (1985)The neurotoxicity of excitatory amino acids is produced by passive chloride influx. Neurosci.5:1483-1489
16. Olney J. W., Price M. T., Samson L. and Labruyere J. (1986)The role of specific ions in glutamate neurotoxicity. Neurosci. Lett.65:65-71
17. Berdichevsky E., Riveros N., Sanches-Armass S. and Orrego F. (1983)Kainate, N-methylaspartate and other excitatory amino acids increase calcium influx onto rat-brain cortex cells in vitro. Neurosci. Lett.36:75-80
18. Choi D. W. Maulucci-Gedde M, Kriegstein AR. (1987)Glutamate neurotoxicity in cortical cell culture. J. Neurosci.7:357-368
19. Tymianski M. and Tator C. H. (1996)Normal and abnormal calcium homeostasis in neurons.a basis for the pathophysiology of traumatic and ischemic central nervous system injury. Neurosurgery 38:1176-1195
20. Hossmann K. A. (1994)Glutamate-mediated injury in focal cerebral ischemia:the excitotoxin hypothesis revised. Brain Pathol.4:23-36
21. Siesjo B. K., Zhao Q., Pahlmark K., Siesjo P., Katsura K., Folbergrova J. (1995)Glutamate, calcium and free radicals as mediators of ischemic brain damage. Ann. Thorac. Surg.59:1316-1320
22. Zhang L.,Rzigalinski B. A.,Ellis E. F. and Satin L. S. (1996)Reduction of voltage-dependent Mg2+blockade of NMDA current in mechanically injured neurons. Science 274:1921-1923
23. Goforth P. B., Ellis E. F. and Satin L. S. J. (1999)Enhancement of AMPA-mediated current after traumatic injury in cortical neurons. Neurosci.19:7367-7374
24. Lees K. R.. (1998)Does neuroprotection improve stroke outcome? Lancet 351: 1447-1448
25. Ghosh A. and Greenberg M. E. (1995) Calcium signalling in neurons:Molecular mechanisms and cellular consequences. Science 268:239-247
26. Bading H., Ginty D. D. and Greenberg M. E. (1993)Regulation of gene expression in hippocampal neurons by distinct calcium signaling pathways. Science 260: 181-186
27. Tymianski M., Charlton M. P., Carlen P. L. and Tator C. H. J. (1993)Source specificity of early calcium neurotoxicity incultured embryonic spinal neurons. Neurosci.13:2085-2104
28. Sattler R., Charlton M. P., Hafner M. and Tymianski M. (1998)Distinct influx pathways, not calcium load, determine neuronal vulnerability to calcium neurotoxicity. J. Neurochem.71:2349-2364
29. Hollmann M. and Heinemann S. (1994) Rev. Cloned glutamate receptors. Ann. Neurosci.17:31-108
30. Laube B., Kuhse J. and Betz H. (1998)Evidence for a tetrameric structure of recombinant NMD A receptors. J. Neurosci.18:2954-2961
31. Zukin R. S. and Bennett M. V. (1995)Alternatively spliced isoforms of the NMDARI receptor subunit. Trends Neurosci.18:306-313
32. Ishii T., Moriyoshi K., Sugihara H., Sakurada K., Kadotani H., Yokoi M. et al. (1993)Molecular characterization of the family of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunits. J. Biol. Chem.268:2836-2843
33. Burnashev N., Schoepfer R., Monyer H., Ruppersberg J. P., Gunther N., Seeburg P. H. et al. (1992)Control by asparagines residues of calcium permeability and magnesium blockade in the NMDA receptor. Science 257:1415-1419
34. Schneggenburger R. and Ascher P. (1997)Coupling of permeation and gating in an NMDA-channel pore mutant. Neuron 18:167-177
35. Traynelis S. F, Burgess M. F., Zheng F., Lyuboslavsky P. and Powers J. L (1998)Control of voltage-independent zinc inhibition of NMDA receptors by the
NR1 subunit. J. Neurosci.18:6163-6175
36、 Monyer H., Sprengel R., Schoepfer R., Herb A., Higuchi M., Lomeli H. et al. (1992)Heteromeric NMD A receptors:molecular and functional distinction of subtypes. Science 256:1217-1221
37、 Kutsuwada T., Kashiwabuchi N., Mori H., Sakimura K., Kushiya E., Araki K. et al. (1992)Molecular diversity of the NMDA receptor channel. Nature 358:36-41
38、 Forrest D., Yuzaki M., Soares H. D., Ng L., Luk D. C., Sheng M. et al. (1994)Targeted disruption of NMDA receptor 1 gene abolishes NMDA response and results in neonatal death. Neuron 13:325-338
39、 Yuzaki M., Forrest D., Verselis L. M., Sun S. C., Curran T. and Connor J. A. (1996)Functional NMDA receptors are transiently active and support the survival of Purkinje cells in culture. J. Neurosci.16:4651-4661
40. Li Y., Erzurumlu R. S., Chen C., Jhaveri S. and Tonegawa S. (1994) Whisker-related neuronal patterns fail to develop in the trigeminal brainstem nuclei of NMDAR1 knockout mice. Cell 76:427-437
41. Sakimura K., Kutsuwada T., Ito I., Manabe T., Takayama C., Kushiya E. et al. (1995)Reduced hippocampal LTP and spatial learning in mice lacking NMDA receptor epsilon 1 subunit. Nature 373:151-155
42. Stern p., Behe p., Schoepfer R. and Colquhoun D. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B (1992)Single-channel conductances of NMDA receptors expressed from cloned cDNAs:comparison with native receptors. Biol. Sci.250:271-277
42a、 Gallagher M. J., Huang H., Grant E. R. and Lynch D. R. (1997)The NR2B-specific interactions of polyamines and protons with the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor. J. Biol. Chem.272:24971-24979
42b、 Kutsuwada T., Kashiwabuchi N., Mori H., Sakimura K., Kushiya E., Araki K. et al. (1992)Molecular diversity of the NMDA receptor channel. Nature 358:36-41
42c. Williams K., Russell S. L., Shen Y. M. and Molinoff P. B. (1993)Developmental switch in the expression of NMDA receptors occurs in vivo and in vitro. Neuron 10: 267-278
42、 Kew J. N. C., Richards J. G., Mutel V. and Kemp J. A. (1998)Developmental changes in NMDA receptor glycine affinity and ifenprodil sensitivity reveal three distinct populations of NMDA receptors in individual rat cortical neurons. J. Neurosci.18:1935-1943
43、 Sheng M. and Pak D. T. (2000)Ligand-gated ion channel interactions with cytoskeletal and signaling proteins. Annu. Rev. Physiol.62:755-778
44、 Standley S., Roche K. W., McCallum J., Sans N. and Wenthold R. (2000)PDZ domain suppression of an ER retention signal in NMDA receptor NR1 splice variants. J. Neuron 28:887-898
45、 Okabe S., Miwa A. and Okado H. (1999)Alternative splicing of the C-terminal domain regulates cell surface expression of the NMDA receptor NR1 subunit. J. Neurosci.19:7781-7792
46、 Logan S. M., Rivera F. E. and Leonard J. P. (1999)Protein kinase C modulation of recombinant NMDA receptor currents:roles for the C-terminal Cl exon.and calcium ions. J. Neurosci.19:974-986
47、 Ehlers M. D., Zhang S., Bernhardt J. P. and Huganir R. L. (1996)Inactivation of NMDA receptors by direct interaction of calmodulin with the NR1 subunit. Cell 84: 745-755
48、 Zhang S., Ehlers M. D., Bernhardt J. P., Su. C. T. and Huganir R. L (1998)Calmodulin mediates calcium-dependent inactivation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. Neuron 21:443-453
49、 Kreutz M. R., Bockers T. M., Bockmann J., Seidenbecher C. I., Kracht B., Vorwerk C. K. et al. (1998)Axonal injury alters alternative splicing of the retinal NR1 receptor:the preferential expression of the NRlb isoforms is crucial for retinal ganglion cell survival. J. Neurosci.18:8278-8291
50、 Halpain S., Hipolito A. and Saffer L. (1998)Regulation of Factin stability in dendritic spines by glutamate receptors and calcineurin. J. Neurosci.'18: 9835-9844
51、 Jiang M., Lee C. L., Smith K. L. and Swann J. W. J. (1998)Spine loss and other persistent alterations of hippocampal pyramidal cell dendrites in a model of early-onset epilepsy. Neurosci.18:8356-8368
52、 Jeffrey M., Goodsir C. M., Bruce M. E., McBride P. A. and Fraser J. R. (1997)In vivo toxicity of prion protein in murine scrapie:ultrastructural and immunogold studies. Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol.23:93-101
53、 Garey L. J., Ong W. Y., Patel T. S., Kanani M., Davis A., Mortimer A. M. et al. (1998)Reduced dendritic spine density on cerebral cortical pyramidal neurons in schizophrenia. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatr.65:446-453
54、 Rao A. and Craig A. M. (1997)Activity regulates the synaptic localization of the NMDA receptor in hippocampal neurons. Neuron 19:801-812
55、 Wyszynski M., Lin J., Rao A., Nigh E., Beggs A. H., Craig A. M. et al. (1997)Competitive binding of alpha-actinin and calmodulin to the NMDA receptor. Nature 385:439-442
56 、 Matus A., Ackermann M., Pehling G., Byers H. R. and Fujiwara K. (1982)High actin concentrations in brain dendritic spines and postsynaptic densities. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79:7590-7594
57、 Kaech S., Fischer M., Doll T. and Matus A. J. (1997)Isoform specificity in the relationship of actin to dendritic spines. Neurosci.17:9565-9572.
58、 Allison D. W., Gelfand V. I., Spector I. and Craig A. M. J. (1998)Role of actin in anchoring postsynaptic receptors in cultured hippocampal neurons:differential attachment of NMDA versus AMPA receptors. Neurosci.18:2423-2436
59、 Krupp J. J., Vissel B., Thomas C. G, Heinemann S. F. And Westbrook G L. (1999)Interactions of calmodulin and alphaactinin with the NR1 subunit modulate Ca2+-dependent inactivation of NMD A receptors. J. Neurosci.19:1165-1178
60、 Sattler R., Xiong Z., Lu W. Y, MacDonald J. F. and Tymianski M. J. (2000) Distinct roles of synaptic and extrasynaptic NMDA receptors in excitotoxicity. Neurosci.20: 22-33
61、 Lin J. W., Wyszynski M., Madhavan R., Sealock R., Kim J. U. and Sheng M. J. (1998) Yotiao, a novel protein of neuromuscular junction and brain that interacts with specific splice variants of NMDA receptor subunit NR1. Neurosci.18: 2017-2027
62 、 Ehlers M. D., Fung E. T., O'Brien R. and Huganir R. L. (1998)Splice variant-specific interaction of the NMDA receptor sub-unit NR1 with neuronal intermediate filaments. J. Neurosci.18:720-730
63 、 Barish M. E. and Mansdorf N. B. (1991)Development of intracellular calcium responses to depolarization and to kainite and N-methyl-D-aspartate in cultured mouse hippocampal neurons. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res.63:53-61
64、 Marks J. D., Friedman J. E. and Haddad G. G. (1996)Vulnerability of CA1 neurons to glutamate is developmentally regulated. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res.97:194-206
65 、 Wahl P., Schousboe A., Honore T. and Drejer J. (1989)Glutamate-induced increase in intracellular Ca2+in cerebral cortex neurons is transient in immature cells but permanent in mature cells. J. Neurochem.53:1316-1319
66 、 Monyer H., Burnashev N., Laurie D. J., Sakmann B. and Seeburg P H. (1994)Developmental and regional expression in the rat brain and functional properties of four NMDA receptors. Neuron 12:529-540
67 、 Sheng M., Cummings J., Roldan L. A., Jan Y. N. and Jan L. Y (1994)Changing subunit composition of heteromeric NMDA receptors during development of rat cortex. Nature 368:144-147
68 、 Wenzel A., Fritschy J. M., Mohler H. and Benke D. (1997)NMDA receptor heterogeneity during postnatal development of the rat brain:differential expression of the NR2A, NR2B and NR2C subunit proteins. J. Neurochem.68:469-478
69 、 Audinat E., Lambolez B., Rossier J. and Crepel F. (1994)Activity-dependent regulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunit expression in rat cerebellar granule cells. Eur. J. Neurosci.6:1792-1800
70、 Lindlbauer R., Mohrmann R., Hatt H. and Gottmann K. (1998)Regulation of kinetic and pharmacological properties of synaptic NMDA receptors depends on presynaptic exocytosis in rat hippocampal neurones. J. Physiol.508 (Pt 2): 495-502
71、 Bessho Y., Nawa H. and Nakanishi S. (1994)Selective up-regulation of an NMDA receptor subunit mRNA in cultured cerebellar granule cells by K(+)-induced depolarization and NMD A treatment. Neuron 12:87-95
72、 Gallo V., Suergiu R. and Levi G. (1987)Functional evaluation of glutamate receptor subtypes in cultured cerebellar neurons and astrocytes. Eur. J. Pharmacol.138: 293-297
73、 Balazs R., Jorgensen O. S. and Hack N. (1988)N-methyl-D-aspartate promotes the survival of cerebellar granule cells in culture. Neuroscience 27:437-451
74、 Mizuta I., Katayama M., Watanabe M., Mishina M. and Ishii K. (1998)Developmental expression of NMD A receptor subunits and the emergence of glutamate neurotoxicity in primary cultures of murine cerebral cortical neurons. Cell. Mol. Life Sci.54:721-725
75、 Cheng C., Fass D. M. and Reynolds I. (1999)Emergence of excitotoxicity in cultured forebrain neurons coincides with larger glutamate-stimulated [Ca2+] increases and NMDA receptor mRNA levels. J. Brain Res.849:97-108
76、 Anegawa N. J., Lynch D. R., Verdoorn T. A. and Pritchett D. B. (1995)Transfection of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors in a nonneuronal cell line leads to cell death. J. Neurochem.64:2004-2012
77、 Chazot P. L., Coleman S. K., Cik M. and Stephenson F. A. (1994)Molecular characterization of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors expressed in mammalian cells yields evidence for the coexistence of three subunit types within a discrete receptor molecule. J. Biol. Chem.269:24403-24409
78、 Morikawa E., Mori H., Kiyama Y., Mishina M., Asano T. And Kirino T. (1998)Attenuation of focal ischemic brain injury in mice deficient in the epsilonl (NR2A) subunit of NMD A receptor. J. Neurosci.18:9727-9732
79、 Kiyama Y., Manabe T., Sakimura K., Kawakami F., Mori H. and Mishina M. (1998)Increased thresholds for long-term potentiation and contextual learning in mice lacking the NMDA-type glutamate receptor epsilonl subunit. J. Neurosci.18: 6704-6712
80. Kadotani H., Namura S., Katsuura G., Terashima T. And Kikuchi H. (1998) Attenuation of focal cerebral infarct in mice lacking NMD A receptor subunit NR2C. Neuroreport 9:471-475
81. Sprengel R., Suchanek B., Amico C., Brusa R., Burnashev N., Rogov A. et al. (1998)Importance of the intracellular domain of NR2 subunits for NMDA receptor function in vivo. Cell 92:279-289
82. Mori H., Manabe T., Watanabe M., Satoh Y., Suzuki N., Toki S. et al. (1998)Role of the carboxy-terminal region of the GluR epsilon2 subunit in synaptic localization of the NMDA receptor channel. Neuron 21:571-580
83. Steigerwald F.,Schulz T. W., Schenker L. T., Kennedy M. B., Seeburg P. H., Kohr G. (2000)C-Terminal truncation of NR2A subunits impairs synaptic but not extrasynaptic localization of NMDA receptors. J. Neurosci.20:4573-4581
84、 Garner C. C., Nash J. and Huganir R. L. (2000)PDZ domains in synapse assembly and signalling. Trends Cell Biol.10:274-280
85. Scannevin R. H. and Huganir R. L. (2000)Postsynaptic organization and regulation of excitatory synapses. Nat. Rev. Neurosci.1:133-141
86. Lerea L. S. and McNamara J. O. (1993)Ionotropic glutamate receptor subtypes activate c-fos transcription by distinct calcium-requiring intracellular signalling pathways. Neuron 10:31-41
87. Friedlander R. M., Gagliardini V., Hara H., Fink K. B., Li W., MacDonald G.et al. (1997)Expression of a dominant negative mutant of interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme in transgenic mice prevents neuronal cell death induced by trophic factor withdrawal and ischemic brain injury. J. Exp. Med.185:933-940
88、 Sheng M. (1997)Glutamate receptors put in their place. Nature 386:221-223-
89. Ponting C. P., Phillips C., Davies K. E. and Blake D. (1997)PDZ domains:targeting signalling molecules to sub-membranous sites. J. Bioessays 19:469-479
90. Cho K. O., Hunt C. A. and Kennedy M. B. (1992)The rat brain postsynaptic density fraction contains a homolog of the Drosophila discs-large tumor suppressor protein. Neuron 9:929-942
91. Kistner U., Wenzel B. M., Veh R. W., Cases-Langhoff C., Garner A. M., Appeltauer U. et al. (1993)SAP90, a rat presynaptic protein related to the product of the Drosophila tumor suppressor gene dlg-A. J. Biol. Chem.268:4580-4583
92. Brenman J. E., Christopherson K. S., Craven S. E., McGee A. W. and Bredt D. S. (1996)Cloning and characterization of postsynaptic density 93, a nitric oxide synthase interacting protein. J. Neurosci.16:7407-7415
93、 Kim E. and Sheng M. (1996)Differential K+channel clustering activity of PSD-95 and SAP97, two related membrane-associated putative guanylate kinases. Neuropharmacology 35:993-1000
94、 Muller B. M., Kistner U., Kindler S., Chung W. J., Kuhlendahl S., Fenster S. D. et al. (1996)SAP102, a novel postsynaptic protein that interacts with NMD A receptor complexes in vivo. Neuron 17:255-265
95、Muller B. M., Kistner U., Veh R. W., Cases-Langhoff C., Becker B., Gundelfinger E. D. et al, (1995)Molecular characterization and spatial distribution of SAP97, a novel presynaptic protein homologous to SAP90 and the Drosophila discslarge tumor suppressor protein. J. Neurosci.15:2354-2366
96. Kennedy M. B. (1995) Origin of PDZ (DHR, GLGF) domains. Trends Biochem. Sci. 20:350-350
97. Fanning A. S. and Anderson J. M. (1996)Protein-protein interactions:PDZ domain networks. Curr. Biol.6:1385-1388
98. Pawson T. (1995)Protein modules and signalling networks. Nature 373:573-579
99、 Ehlers M. D., Mammen A. L., Lau L. F. and Huganir R. L. (1996)Synaptic targeting of glutamate receptors. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol.8:484-489
100、 Gomperts S. N. (1996)Clustering membrane proteins:It's all coming together with the PSD-95/SAP90 protein family. Cell 84:659-662
101、 Kornau H. C., Seeburg P. H. and Kennedy M. B. (1997)Interaction of ion channels and receptors with PDZ domain proteins. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol.7:368-373
102. Kornau H. C., Schenker L. T., Kennedy M. B. and Seeburg P. H. (1995)Domain interaction between NMDA receptor subunits and the postsynaptic density protein PSD-95. Science 269:1737-1740
103、 Kim E., Niethammer M., Rothschild A., Jan Y. N. and Sheng M. (1995)Clustering of Shaker-type K+channels by interaction with a family of membrane-associated guanylate kinases. Nature 378:85-88
104、 Doyle D. A., Lee A., Lewis J., Kim E., Sheng M. and MacKinnon R. (1996)Crystal structures of a complexed and peptidefree membrane protein-binding domain: molecular basis of peptide recognition by PDZ. Cell 85:1067-1076
105、 Morais Cabral J. H., Petosa C., Sutcliffe M. J., Raza S., Byron O., Poy F. et al. (1996)Crystal structure of a PDZ domain. Nature 382:649-652
106、 Niethammer M., Kim E. and Sheng M. (1996)Interaction between the C terminus of NMDA receptor subunits and multiple members of the PSD-95 family of membrane-associated guanylate kinases. J. Neurosci.16:2157-2163
107、 Brenman J. E., Chao D. S., Gee S. H., McGee A. W., Craven S. E., Santillano D. R. et al. (1996)Interaction of nitric oxide synthase with the postsynaptic density protein PSD-95 and alphal-syntrophin mediated by PDZ domains. Cell-84: 757-767
108、 Stricker N. L., Christopherson K. S., Yi B. A., Schatz P. J., Raab R. W., Dawes G. et al. (1997)PDZ domain of neuronal nitric oxide synthase recognizes novel C-terminal peptide sequences. Nat. Biotechnol.15:336-342
109、 Craven S. E. and Bredt D. S. (1998)PDZ proteins organize synaptic signaling pathways. Cell 93:495-498
110、 Bredt D. S. and Snyder S. H. (1990)Isolation of nitric oxide synthetase, a calmodulin-requiring enzyme. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:682-685
111、 Bredt D. S. and Snyder S. H. (1989)Nitric oxide mediates glutamate-linked enhancement of cGMP levels in the cerebellum. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86: 9030-9033
112、 Garthwaite J., Charles S. L. and Chess-Williams R. (1988)Endothelium-derived relaxing factor release on activation of NMDA receptors suggests role as inter-cellular messenger in the brain. Nature 336:385-388
113. Sattler R., Xiong Z., Lu W. Y., Hafner M., MacDonald J. F., Tymianski M. (1999)Specific coupling of NMD A receptor activation to nitric oxide neurotoxicity by PSD-95 protein. Science 284:1845-1848
114. Schinder A. F., Olson E. C., Spitzer N. C. and Montal M. (1996)Mitochondrial dysfunction is a primary event in glutamate neurotoxicity. J. Neurosci.16: 6125-6133
115. Atlante A, Calissano P, Bobba A, Giannattasio S, Marra E, Passarella S. (2001)Glutamate neurotoxicity, oxidative stress and mitochondria. FEBS Lett.497: 1-5
116. Akerman K. E. (1978)Changes in membrane potential during calcium ion influx and efflux across the mitochondrial membrane. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 502: 359-366
117. Gunter T. E. and Pfeiffer D. R. (1990)Mechanisms by which mitochondria transport calcium. Am. J. Physiol.258:C755-C786
118. Loew L. M., Carrington W., Tuft R. A. and Fay F. S. (1994)Physiological cytosolic Ca2+transients evoke concurrent mitochondrial depolarizations. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:12579-12583
119. Bauer M. K., Vogt M., Los M., Siegel J., Wesselborg S. And Schulze-Osthoff K. (1998)Role of reactive oxygen intermediates in activation-induced CD95 (APO-1/Fas) ligand expression. J. Biol. Chem.273:8048-8055
120. Green D. R. and Reed J. C. (1998)Mitochondria and apoptosis. Science 281: 1309-1312
121. Antonsson B., Conti F., Ciavatta A., Montessuit S., Lewis S., Martinou I. et al. (1997)Inhibition of Bax channel-forming activity by Bcl-2. Science 277:370-372
122. Zamzami N., Marchetti P., Castedo M., Decaudin D., Macho A., Hirsch T. et al. (1995)Sequential reduction of mitochondrial transmembrane potential and generation of reactive oxygen species in early programmed cell death. J. Exp. Med. 182:367-377
123. Kumar C., Okuda M., Ikai I. and Chance B. (1990)Luminol enhanced chemiluminescence of the perfused rat heart during ischemia and reperfusion. FEBS Lett.272:121-124
124、 Sussman M. S. and Bulkley G. B. (1990)Oxygen-derived free radicals in reperfusion injury. Methods Enzymol.186:711-723
125、 Juurlink B. H. (1997)Response of glial cells to ischemia:roles of reactive oxygen species and glutathione. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.21:151-166
126、 Chanock S. J., el Benna J., Smith R. M. and Babior B. M. J. (1994)The respiratory burst oxidase. Biol. Chem.269:24519-24522
127、 Shami P. J., Sauls D. L. and Weinberg J. B. (1998)Schedule and concentration-dependent induction of apoptosis in leukemia cells by nitric oxide. Leukemia 12:1461-1466
128、 Sattler R., Xiong Z., Lu W. Y., Hafner M., MacDonald J. F. and Tymianski M. (1999)Specific coupling of NMDA receptor activation to nitric oxide neurotoxicity by PSD-95 protein. Science 284:1845-1848
129、 Koppenol W. H., Moreno J. J., Pryor W. A., Ischiropoulos H. and Beckman J. S. (1992)Peroxynitrite, a cloaked oxidant formed by nitric oxide and superoxide. Chem. Res. Toxicol.5:834-842
130、 Beckman J. S., Ischiropoulos H., Zhu L., van der Woerd M., Smith C., Chen J. et al. (1992)Kinetics of superoxide dismu. Arch. Biochem. Biophys.298:438-445
131、 Radi R., Beckman J. S., Bush K. M. and Freeman B. A. (1991) Peroxynitrite-induced membrane lipid peroxidation:the cytotoxic potential of superoxide and nitric oxide. Arch. Biochem. Biophys.288:481-487
132、 Darley-Usmar V. M., Hogg N., O'Leary V. J., Wilson M. T. and Moncada S. (1992)The simultaneous generation of superoxide and nitric oxide can initiate lipid peroxidation in human low density lipoprotein. Free Radic. Res. Commun.17: 9-20
133、 Moreno J. J. and Pryor W. A. (1992)Inactivation of alpha 1-proteinase inhibitor by peroxynitrite. Chem. Res. Toxicol.5:425-431
134、 Buki A., Okonkwo D. O., Wang K. K. and Povlishock J. T. (2000)Cytochrome c release and caspase activation in traumatic axonal injury. J. Neurosci.20: 2825-2834
135、 Graham S. H. and Chen J. (2001 programmed cell death in cerebral ischemia. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab.21:99-109
136、 Sakhi S., Bruce A., Sun N., Tocco G, Baudry M. and Schreiber S. (1997)Induction of tumor suppressor p53 and DNA fragmentation in organotypic hippocampal cultures following excitotoxin treatment. S. Exp. Neurol.145:81-88
137、 Liu X., Kim C. N., Yang J., Jemmerson R. and Wang X. (1996)Induction of apoptotic program in cell-free extracts:requirement for dATP and cytochrome c. Cell 86:147-157
138、 Wang X. (2001) The expanding role of mitochondria in apoptosis. Genes Dev.15: 2922-2933
139、 Zou H., Li Y., Liu X. and Wang X. (1999)An APAF-1.cytochrome c multimeric complex is a functional apoptosome that activates procaspase-9. J. Biol. Chem.274: 11549-11556
140、 Rodriguez J. and Lazebnik Y. (1999)Caspase-9 and APAF-1 form an active holoenzyme. Genes Dev.13:3179-3184
141、 Sabol S. L., Li R., Lee T. Y. and Abdul-Khalek R. (1998)Inhibition of apoptosis-associated DNA fragmentation activity in nonapoptotic cells:the role of DNA fragmentation factor-45(DFF45/ICAD). Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 253:151-158
142、 Sakahira H., Enari M. and Nagata S. (1998)Cleavage of CAD inhibitor in CAD activation and DNA degradation during apoptosis. Nature 391:96-99
143、 Woo M., Hakem R., Soengas M. S., Duncan G. S., Shahinian A., Kagi D. et al. (1998)Essential contribution of caspase 3/CPP32 to apoptosis and its associated nuclear changes. Genes Dev.12:806-819
144、 Enari M., Sakahira H., Yokoyama H., Okawa K., Iwamatsu A. and Nagata S. (1998)A caspase-activated DNase that degrades DNA during apoptosis, and its inhibitor ICAD. Nature 391:43-50
145、 Raghupathi R., Graham D. I. and McIntosh T. K. (2000)Apoptosis after traumatic brain injury. J. Neurotrauma 17:927-938
146、 Hengartner M. O. (2000)The biochemistry of apoptosis. Nature 407:770-776
147、 Xiang H., Kinoshita Y., Knudson C. M., Korsmeyer S. J., Schwartzkroin P. A., Morrison R. S. (1998)Bax involvement in p53-mediated neuronal cell death. J. Neurosci.18:1363-1373
148、 Banasiak K. J. and Haddad G. G. (1998)Hypoxia-induced apoptosis:effect of hypoxic severity and role of p53 in neuronal cell death. Brain Res.797:295-304
149、 McGahan L., Hakim A. M. and Robertson G. S. (1998)Hippocampal Myc and p53 expression following transient global ischemia. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res.56: 133-145
150、 Lu J., Moochhala S., Kaur C. and Ling E. (2000)Changes in apoptosis-related protein (p53, Bax, Bcl-2 and Fos) expression with DNA fragmentation in the central nervous system in rats after closed head injury. Neurosci. Lett.290:89-92
151、 Napieralski J. A., Raghupathi R. and McIntosh T. K. (1999)The tumor-suppressor gene, p53, is induced in injured brain regions following experimental traumatic brain injury. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res.71:78-86
152、 Cote J. and Ruiz-Carrillo A. (1993)Primers for mitochondrial DNA replication generated by endonuclease G. Science 261:765-769
153、 Liu X., Zou H., Slaughter C. and Wang X. (1997)DFF, a heterodimeric protein that functions downstream of caspase-3 to trigger DNA fragmentation during apoptosis. Cell 89:175-184
154、 Liu X., Li P., Widlak P., Zou H., Luo X., Garrard W. T. et al. (1998)The 40-kDa subunit of DNA fragmentation factor induces DNA fragmentation and chromatin condensation during apoptosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:8461-8466
155、 Li L. Y., Luo X. and Wang X. (2001)Endonuclease G is an apoptotic DNase when released from mitochondria. Nature 412:95-99
156、 Joza N., Susin S. A., Daugas E., Stanford W. L., Cho S. K., Li C. Y. et al. (2001)Essential role of the mitochondrial apoptosis-inducing factor in programmed cell death. Nature 410:549-554
157. Zhang X., Chen J., Graham S. H., Du L., Kochanek P. M., Draviam R. et al. (2002)Intranuclear localization of apoptosisinducing factor (AIF) and large scale DNA fragmentation after traumatic brain injury in rats and in neuronal cultures exposed to peroxynitrite. J. Neurochem.82:181-191
158. Marie-Francoise R, Petra S, and Aminadav M. (2002)17β-Estradiol Effect on the Extracellular Concentration of Amino Acids in the Glutamate Excitotoxicity Model in the Rat. Neurochem. Res.27:1677-1683
159. K. Wirkner, C. Eberts, W. Poelchen, C. Allgaier, P. (2000)Mechanism of inhibition by ethanol of NMDA and AMPA receptor channel functions in cultured rat cortical neurons. Illes. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch Pharmacol 362:568-576
160. M. Bubser, T. Tzschentke, and W. Hauber. J. (1995)Behavioural and neurochemical interactions of the AMPA antagonist GYKI 52466 and the non-competitive NMDA antagonist dizocilpine in rats. Neural Transm 101: 115-126
161、 Cristina Limatola. (2003)Neurotrophic effects of AMPA. Cerebellum 2:2-10
162、 Krishna B. and Ann M. M. (2000)AMPA Prevents Glutamate-Induced Neurotoxicity and Apoptosis in Cultured Cerebellar Granule Cell Neurons. Neurotoxicity Res.2:51-61
163、 Uma Narayanan, Oak Z. C., Xia L, and Harvey R. W. (2000)Effect of AMPA on Cerebral Cortical Oxygen Balance of Ischemic Rat Brain. Neurochem. Res.25: 405-411
164、 W. M. Henne, S. Oomman, J. Attridge, V. Finckbone, P. Coates, R. Bliss, H. Strahlendorf, and J. Strahlendorf. (2006)AMPA-Induced Excitotoxicity Increases Nuclear Levels of CAD, Endonuclease G, and Acinus and Induces Chromatin Condensation in Rat Hippocampal Pyramidal Neurons. Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology.26:321-341
165、Juan C. C, Ricardo T. (2008)Calpain Inhibition Protects Spinal Motoneurons from the Excitotoxic Effects of AMPA In vivo. Neurochem. Res.33:1428-1434
166、 Claus F. P, Timothy A. S, Thomas E. M, Virginia Smith-Swintosky, H. Steven White, and Arne S. (2004)Modulation by Topiramate of AMPA and Kainate Mediated Calcium Influx in Cultured Cerebral Cortical, Hippocampal and Cerebellar Neurons. Neurochem. Res.29:275-282
167、 Clemens S, Markus S, Christian B, Katharina K, Harald D. M, Stefan S, Wolf-Rudiger S. (2006)Neuroprotective cannabinoid receptor antagonist SR141716 A prevents downregulation of excitotoxic NMD A receptors in the ischemic penumbra. Acta Neuropathol.112:277-286
168、 Schwarze S. R. and Dowdy S. F. (2000)In vivo protein transduction:intracellular delivery of biologically active proteins, compounds and DNA. Trends Pharmacol. Sci.21:45-48
169、 Aarts M., Liu Y., Liu L., Besshoh S., Arundine M., Gurd J. W. et al. (2002)Treatment of ischemic brain damage by perturbing NMDA rece. Science 298:846-850
170、 M. Aarts and M. Tymianski. (2005)Disrupting Protein-Protein Interaction: Therapeutic Tools Against Brain Damage. Therapy Against Brain Damage, edited by Waksman. Springer, New York