重庆市土地利用平衡研究
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摘要
土地资源数量的有限性和位置的固定性决定了必须协调粮食安全、经济发展和生态保护之间的关系,即必须做好各行各业间用地平衡与保障。伴随着城镇化、工业化的快速发展,区域经济增长要求和城市建设需求催化耕地资源不断减少,不仅给粮食安全带来较大挑战,也给区域生态环境带来了多方面、不同程度的破坏,由此导致区域性人地矛盾加剧、生态环境不断恶化,形成一系列人口、粮食、资源和环境问题。如何平衡经济发展、耕地保护与生态安全的矛盾,实现土地利用平衡是中国乃至世界面临的最大挑战。世界各国主要采用区域国土整治、土地联营、土地重置、联合开发等途径来调整与组织土地关系。目前我国则主要采用以增加耕地数量为主要目标的“土地整理”和以土地利用规划为主导的“土地集约节约利用”,但随着经济发展和后备资源挖潜的不断深入,传统的土地利用平衡途径表现出许多不适,因此进行区域土地利用平衡途径的新探索是学术界和政府急需解决的课题。重庆市作为长江上游的经济中心、生态屏障和城乡统筹试验区,并具有“大城市、大农村”的基本特征,使得其经济发展过程中的人地矛盾尤为突出。为此,本研究从重庆城市化进程中土地利用状况和相应的困境出发,丰富和完善了土地利用平衡的内涵,在此基础上研究了促进区域土地利用平衡的途径,并制定相应的保障机制,为建立重庆区域经济建设、耕地保护以及生态安全三者协调发展的土地利用方式和配套政策提供理论与实践依据。
1.土地利用平衡情景分析
采用土地利用动态度描述过去10年重庆市土地利用变化的速度：引入土地利用转移矩阵分析各类用地变化的内在过程和趋势；构建了适合重庆地域特征的土地利用绩效评价指标体系并对该区域过去10年的土地利用绩效进行了科学合理的评价;运用GM(1,1)模型对未来10年该区域土地资源供需情景进行预测；讨论了土地利用平衡与耕地保护的关系、土地利用变化与社会经济发展的相关性、土地利用变化对生态环境效应的影响等。
(1)过去10年重庆市在国家宏观政策环境下迎来了经济文化发展的新时期,伴随而来的是耕地急剧下降,建设用地大幅增加。1999-2008年重庆市耕地共减少了293679.7hm2,建设用地共增加74334.1hm2；林地的面积则出现了明显的上升,1999-2008年间林地面积增长了320252.4hm2,其中2003年间增幅最大,达到了155983.7hm2,主要原因是为保护三峡大坝,降低库区水土流失而实施的国家退耕还林工程取得了初步成效；园地也出现了上升趋势,1999-2008年间总共增长了75341.3hm2；随着土地开发整理复垦的力度和深度不断扩展,在耕地减少速度放缓的同时,被开发复垦的未利用地却逐年增多,1999-2008年间,未利用地总量减少61855.9hm2。
重庆区域建设用地变化对经济发展的弹性系数较大,GDP、固定资产投资总额、工业增加值与建设用地面积变化呈正相关,与耕地面积变化呈负相关。表明重庆经济社会发展主要依赖于土地资源的开发,且目前正处于经济快速增长和城市化加速发展阶段,耕地和建设用地的变化趋势在短时间内很难完全改变。虽然随着近年来的退耕还林、生态湿地的建设,使得重庆市的生态服务价值呈上升趋势,但总体价值仍不高。
(2)重庆市土地利用绩效值总体水平不高,但保持稳定增长趋势。由1999年的0.1767增长到2008年的0.2598。其变化情况与重庆市的社会经济发展状况、自然条件变化基本一致,表明在土地利用总体规划和国家有力的土地宏观调控措施下,重庆市土地利用正朝着合理、节约与集约利用的方向发展。
(3)运用残差GM(1,1)模型法对2009-2020年重庆市各类建设用地进行了分类预测,到2015年建设用地规模将达637319.2hm2,2020年将达744897.3hm2,预计总共将增加158395hm2建设用地。而2009-2020年重庆市土地后备资源的开发,可实现增加耕地76792.62hm2,增加园、林地15766.08hm2,盘活农村存量建设用地98045.2hm2,总计190603.9 hm2。比较可见,土地资源在数量上是可以实现占补平衡的,但仅仅实现数量上的占补平衡不能完全协调区域经济建设、耕地保护以及生态安全间的矛盾。只有在严格耕地数量的基础上,提高耕地生产能力及耕地产品质量,最大限度地提高耕地利用效率及综合效益,且实现自然生态系统良性循环才能满足新形势下区域土地利用平衡的要求。因此,现阶段重庆市土地利用平衡的内涵应包括以下几层含义：保有耕地数量,提高耕地质量；高效集约利用土地；生态环境友好。
2.土地利用平衡困境识别
以问题为导向,分析重庆市在实现土地利用平衡过程中面临的困境,并在此基础上运用博弈论对土地利用平衡困境产生的动因进行了讨论,以此作为探索该区域土地利用平衡途径的基础。
(1)要实现区域内的土地利用平衡就要较好地解决和协调“耕地保护、经济建设和生态环境”间的矛盾,现阶段主要通过土地开发、整理和农业结构调整力拓后备土地资源空间,用于弥补耕地、园地、林地因建设占用造成的减少,实践表明土地开发整理(复垦)已经成为重庆市近年来增加耕地的首要途径,是实现区域内土地利用平衡的重要源泉。
(2)随着城镇化和工业化的不断推进,在新的经济环境背景下,实现土地利用平衡过程中也出现或存在新的不适：城市扩展中占用大量耕地且浪费严重,2004-2007年间重庆市新增建设用地来源中平均约有52%来源于耕地减少,说明重庆市建设扩张属耕地高消耗类型,建设占用耕地情况严重；农村建设用地利用不规范且浪费严重,在农村人口不断减少的同时,人均建设用地却逐年增加：土地利用效率低下且粗放式经营严重,2008年重庆城市土地产出率为11.97亿元／平方公里,远远小于其它三个直辖市；土地利用协调不力且用地布局不合理,重庆市工业用地比重过高,而住宅、道路基础设施、环境绿化用地等比重过低；土地后备资源的挖潜难度且成本渐增,新增耕地率从2000年的62.64%下降到2008年仅为18.57%,且土地后备资源的挖潜成本却不断增加；随着土地整理的深度和广度不断扩大,土地整理中生态损耗凸显且日益严重。
(3)现阶段重庆市土地利用平衡的最大困境是经济发展导致的农地非农化与耕地保护、生态安全之间的矛盾,究其产生的动因与土地利用过程中相关利益主体的行为倾向和博弈行为有着直接的关系。研究表明市场经济宏观调控下的非农化进程以及区域土地的合理高效利用,将更多的灵活经营权交给了地方政府。因此,地方政府必须改革和完善相关政策制度以及土地利用方式,核心是力拓后备资源,盘活存量资源,不仅能有效解决经济建设和耕地保护的两难困境,而且可以有效地保护生态环境,实现区域土地利用平衡。
3.土地利用平衡途径探析
本研究提出了两种土地利用平衡的途径,即“宅基地换住房、承包地换社会保障”土地流转模式和综合国土整治。
(1)通过采取“宅基地换住房、承包地换社会保障”的土地流转模式,可以实行规模化经营,既可以给农户带来稳定且明显的增值收益,也可以给地方政府创造各种效益,这些有形和无形的效益远远大于创新的支出成本。所以,农户构成的初级行动团体和基层政府构成的次级行动团体都会积极参与土地流转制度创新。并且通过“宅基地换住房、承包地换社会保障”土地流转模式,可以促进集约节约经营,盘活农村存量建设用地,实现资源的优势互补,缓解重庆市经济发展对耕地的占用,为突破土地资源制约区域经济社会发展提供了较好思路,符合现阶段重庆市土地利用平衡发展方向,是实现区域土地利用平衡的较好途径。但值得注意的是该士地流转模式是在城乡统筹背景下土地利用方式和管理上的新尝试,并没有打破现有农村土地产权关系。同时其也面临着严格的约束条件：地方政府需要具备雄厚的财政实力,土地预期收益较为乐观,农民拥有稳定的非农就业机会,三者缺一不可。
(2)通过对综合国土整治前后耕地质量的变化、耕地集约利用水平、城镇土地高效集约利用水平以及土地利用环境友好状况进行比较评价。预计整治后耕地综合质量可以得到比较明显的提高;耕地集约利用水平和城镇土地高效集约利用水平将明显上升；土地利用环境友好将处于较高的状态,并有向更好方向发展的趋势。此外,综合国土整治还可以获得较好的经济社会效益以及较高的生态服务价值。由此可见综合国土整治可以提高研究区耕地质量,土地集约利用程度以及土地利用环境友好状况,符合土地利用平衡的理念。
通过对现阶段重庆市土地利用平衡途径的探索,可见无论是“宅基地换住房、承包地换社会保障”土地流转模式还是综合国土整治,都有利于实现耕地资源保护和可持续性发展,有利于实现土地高效集约利用以及土地资源生态环境友好,是促进重庆区域土地利用平衡的重要途径。
4.土地利用平衡保障机制
从利益激励、社会保障、技术支撑和监督管理等四大方面进行分析,构建了重庆市十地利用平衡保障综合机制。
(1)建立和完善利益激励机制需要明晰农村土地产权,改变目前“高流转、低保有”的税赋结构,建立政府主导下的资源要素交易平台；建立和完善社会保障机制主要体现在土地管理公众参与制度的建立、失地农民社会保障体系的健全以及长效农业保险保障体制的构建等；建立和完善技术支撑机制主要体现在全面完成土地利用规划、规划修编、地籍调查和土地定级估价等工作的基础上,建立重庆市土地利用动态监测体系、重庆市土地利用规划管理系统以及基于GIS的城镇土地估价信息系统等；建立和完善监督管理机制,包括健全地方政府行为监管、土地市场交易监管和土地执法全面监管等。通过四大机制的建立和完善,最终保障土地利用平衡的顺利实现。
(2)在建立和完善重庆市土地利用平衡保障机制过程中,政府应加大平衡资金投入,鼓励民营主体和非政府组织进入土地流转和土地整治,并协调参与主体间的利益均衡,改善土地流转和土地整治的运行环境。同时,非政府组织要促进多集团对话、最大限度动用社会参与资源的优势,以使重庆土地利用平衡框架能在多方参与、多元化投资和多门监管的健康运行。政府和非政府组织间通过合作进行重庆土地资源的利用,不仅维护了各参与主体的利益,提高其参与的积极性,而且更重要的是促进了区域土地利用平衡。
综上所述,本文从土地资源合理利用和土地资源的可持续利用的角度丰富和完善了土地利用平衡的内涵；从土地流转和土地整理两方面探索了土地利用平衡的途径；从利益激励、社会保障、技术支撑和监督管理等方面建立和完善了土地利用平衡保障机制。但事实上促进土地利用平衡的途径还有许多,并且无论是“宅基地换住房、承包地换社会保障”还是“综合国土整治”都是在城乡统筹背景下土地利用方式和管理上的新尝试,并没有改变现有农村土地产权关系,对农村土地产权改革深入不够。因此,今后应继续从多角度特别是从农村土地产权改革的角度,探索土地利用平衡的其他途径及其广适性,以此为区域经济社会、人口、资源可持续协调发展提供新思路。
The food safety, economic development, and ecological protection should be harmonized due to land resource infinite quantity and its location, which indicated the land utilize should be balanced and ensured among industries. The arable acreage has being reduced during the quickly development of urbanization and industrialization, due to the requirement of location economical development and city's construction. It not only brought a great challenge to food safety, but also destroyed the ecological environment, that aggravated contradiction of land utilization among human and the ecological environment was getting worse and many problems rose up. How to balance the contradiction among food safety, economic development, and ecological protection, is the hot topic for scientists and government of China and over the world. Regional territorial regulation, land association, land reset, and joint development were carried out to harmonized land utilize relationship. In China, the land consolidation and land intensive/economize utilization was implemented to increasing arable acreage and improving land planning. As the economical developing and further potential seeking reserved land resource, the practices of balancing land unitization showed inappropriately. Chongqing city, as the economic center, the ecological barriers, and pilot area of balancing urban and rural development in upper Yangtze River region, with the basic characteristics of large country and large city, makes the human-land conflict outstanding in economic development process. So, based on the status and corresponding predicament of land utilization in urbanization of Chongqing, the connotation of land utilization balance was enriched and improved, and then the approach and guarantee mechanism of improving regional land utilization balance were studied to supplying theory and practice basis for construing the policies of harmonizing the land utilize among regional economical development, arable protection, and ecological safety.
1. Scenario analysis of land use balance
Analyzes the past 10 years of land use change in Chongqing City, And build on this basis the region's land use evaluation system. Use the optimal combination weighting method for quantitative evaluation land use. On this basis, use of GM(1,1)model predict the next 10 years land supply and demand situation in the region. And discuss the relativity of Land use change and social and economic development, Land use change effects on the ecological environment, Land use balance and the relationship between farmland protection. The results show that:
(1) Between 1999-2008 Chongqing sharp decline in arable land, the area net decrease in 293679.7 hm2, significant increase of construction land, the area net increase 74334.1 hm2. Different from the change trend of arable land, the forest land and orchard obviously increased in the recent decade, with area of 320252.4 hm2 and 75341.3 hm2, respectively. As land development and reclamation of the strength and depth continues to expand, reclaimed area of unused land had increased year by year,61855.9 hm2 in total from 1999 to 2008.
GDP, total fixed asset investment, industrial added value and the construction area was positively correlated, and cultivated land change was a negative correlation. Show that the economic and social development of Chongqing mainly depends on the development of land resources. In addition, returning land for farming to forestry, construction of the wetland ecosystem, making the Chongqing Municipality, although the value of ecosystem services is rising, but the overall value is still lower.
(2)Evaluation of land use performance from 1999 to 2008 in Chongqing City, show that Land use performance value is not high in the overall level, but kept steady growing, with 0.1767 in 1999 to 0.2598 in 2008.that indicated the land use was moving on a reasonable, conservation, and intensive way under the Chinese national macro-control.
(3)To better understand the next 10 years, Chongqing's economic development the demand for construction land, this chapter using residual GM (I,1) model law classified forecast various types of construction land from 2009 to 2020 in Chongqing.The scale of construction land by 2015 will reach 637319.2hm2,2020 will reach 744897.3hm2, forecasts generally reflect the socio-economic development the demand for land future trend. Can be seen forecast is expected to increase 158395hm2 construction land from 2009 to 2020. The reality of the potential land reserve resources predicted results from 2009 to 2020 in Chongqing City:to increase arable land 76792.62hm2, increase the park, forest land 15766.08hm2, reuse the stock construction land of rural 98045.2hm2, total 190603.9 hm2. Comparison shows that land resources can be achieved in the number of dynamic balance, and the key is to reuse the stock of land for construction in rural areas, but achieve the dynamic balance only, can not promote regional population, resources and environmental development, so must strict protection of cultivated land and achieve a virtuous cycle of natural ecosystems to meet the new situation the demands for balance of land use. Therefore, at this stage the balance of land use in Chongqing contents include:control of cultivated land quantity and improve land quality; intensive and efficient use of land; and eco-friendly land use.
2. Difficulties identifying land use balance
Problem-oriented, analysis dilemma in the process of achieving a balance of land use, and discuss impact of the stakeholders behavior of balance of land use. The results show that:
(1)With the land development and land consolidation (reclamation) in recent years and the intensity gradually increased, it has become the first choice to increase arable land, is an important way to achieve a balance of land use within the region.
(2) With urbanization and industrialization progresses, in the context of the new economic environment, there have been many problems of land use:Urban expansion in serious waste of land, especially arable land, Between 2004-2007, new construction sites in Chongqing City, sources from an average of about 52% of the reduction of arable land, explanation farmland used for construction in serious condition; Rural construction land use is not standardized and serious waste, while the rural population declining, the per capita construction land has increased year by year; Inefficient land use and extensive management seriously; Poor coordination of land use and land layout is unreasonable; Potential land reserve resources increasing the difficulty and cost, new arable land rate increased from 62.64% in 2000 down to 18.57% in 2008, and the land reserve resources in tapping the potential costs are increasing; Increasingly serious ecological loss, with the depth and breadth of the land consolidation growing, more and more of the project area and the background area of the water environment, soil, vegetation and ecological processes and other environmental factors have a direct, indirect, beneficial or harmful effects.
(3)Current land use in Chongqing's greatest challenge is to balance economic development, land protection, the contradiction between the ecological security. The results show that under a market economy macro conversion process and the rational and efficient use of land, Will be more flexible operation in the hands of the local government, therefore, the government must reform and improve the related policies and systems, the core is development of reserve resources and revitalize the stock of resources, not only can effectively solve the economic development and farmland protection dilemma, and can effectively protect the ecological environment and realize the land use of balance.
3. Ways research of land use balance
This study proposes two ways to balance land use, that the "homestead/house swap, contracted land/social security swap" land transfer model and composite land consolidation. The results show that:
(1)By use the "homestead/house swap, contracted land/social security swap" land transfer model, scale operation can be implemented, not only bring stability to the farmers and the significant value-added benefits, but also to the local government has created a variety of benefits, this tangible and intangible benefits far greater than the cost of innovation. So, primary action group composed of farmers and secondary action group composed of local government are actively involved in land transfer system innovation. Through the "homestead/house swap, contracted land/social security swap" land transfer model, can get better overall performance, and promote intensive conservation management, complementary advantages of resources, achieve complementary advantages of resources, Alleviate the economic development of Chongqing's occupation of farmland for regional economic and social development to provide more space.
(2) The "homestead/house swap, contracted land/social security swap" land transfer model, that did not break the existing rural land property rights, rural land use and management new attempt. The "homestead/house swap, contracted land/social security swap" land transfer model, reuse the stock of land for construction in rural areas, to overcome the constraints of land resources of regional economic and social development provided a good way, in line with land use balance development direction in Chongqing, this is good way to achieve land use balance. But it is also faced with strict constraints:local governments need to have strong financial strength, optimistic about the expected return of land, farmers have stable non-agricultural employment opportunities, three are indispensable.
(3) Composite land consolidation as another way implement of land use balance in Chongqing. comparison evaluation of changes in cultivated land resources、intensive level use of arable land changes、intensive use of urban land changes and land use and environment-friendly conditions changes by before and after the comprehensive land improvement. Comprehensive quality arable land expected can be significantly improved after land consolidation; intensive level use of arable land and intensive use of urban land expected can be significantly improved after land consolidation; environmentally friendly land use will be in a high state of, and a trend to a better direction.
(4) Composite land consolidation can also obtain better economic and social benefits as well as the total value of ecosystem services will increase. On this basis, optimizing the ecological structure of agricultural land, protect biodiversity and maintain ecological balance is the direction of future efforts. By explore ways of land use balance in Chongqing City, the "homestead/house swap, contracted land/social security swap" land transfer model and composite land consolidation, Land resources are conducive to the protection and sustainable development, Conducive to intensive use of land and Environmentally friendly land, that is important ways to balance land use.
4. Protection mechanism of land use balance
From incentive motivation, social security, technical support, supervision and management of the four aspects, to build a comprehensive, systematic and complete comprehensive protection mechanism of land use balance in Chongqing. The results show that:
(I) Establish and improve the incentive mechanism needs to clarify the interests of rural land property rights and to change the current tax structure, establish a resource elements trading platform by government-led; Establish and perfect the social security mechanisms include:public participation in land management system is established, landless peasants in social security system is established and improve long-term Agricultural Insurance system and so on; Establish and improve the technical support mechanism includes:The full completion of the land use planning, planning revision, cadastral survey and land grading and evaluation, establish of Chongqing Land use dynamic monitoring system, land use planning and management system and GIS-based information system for urban land evaluation; Establish and improve the supervision and management mechanism, including improve the regulatory acts of local government, improve the Regulation transactions of land market and improve the regulatory enforcement of Land law. These mechanisms through the establishment and improvement, ultimate bring about land use balance.
(2) Land-use balance protection mechanism established and improved, the government should increase capital investment, encourage private and non-governmental organizations to enter the land transfer and land consolidation, coordination between the principal balance of interests, improve operating environment in land transfer and land consolidation. At the same time, non-governmental organizations must to promote multi-group dialogue and maximize the use of social participation. Through the cooperation use of land resources in Chongqing between Government and non-governmental organizations, has not only safeguarded the interests of the participating subjects, increase their participation in the initiative, but more important to promote a land use balance.
In conclusion, the connotation of land utilization balance was enriched and improved from the point of land reasonable and sustainable utilization, and the processes of land utilization balance was discussed based on the field of land circulation and consolidation, and then constructed and improved the guarantee mechanism of land utilization, including benefit incentive, social insurance, technological support, and supervision. But there are many other processes that can improve land utilization balance.'Homestead for housing, contracted land for social insurance'or 'Comprehensive regional territorial regulation'was one try on changing land use patterns and management under the background of balancing urban and rural development, but it was not change the relationship of land ownership in rural and the reformation was not thorough. Thus, the other processes of land utilization balance and its eurytopicity would be studied from many fields, particularly from reformation of land ownership, to provided new thinking for harmonizing development among economy, population, and resource.
1.土地利用平衡情景分析
采用土地利用动态度描述过去10年重庆市土地利用变化的速度：引入土地利用转移矩阵分析各类用地变化的内在过程和趋势；构建了适合重庆地域特征的土地利用绩效评价指标体系并对该区域过去10年的土地利用绩效进行了科学合理的评价;运用GM(1,1)模型对未来10年该区域土地资源供需情景进行预测；讨论了土地利用平衡与耕地保护的关系、土地利用变化与社会经济发展的相关性、土地利用变化对生态环境效应的影响等。
(1)过去10年重庆市在国家宏观政策环境下迎来了经济文化发展的新时期,伴随而来的是耕地急剧下降,建设用地大幅增加。1999-2008年重庆市耕地共减少了293679.7hm2,建设用地共增加74334.1hm2；林地的面积则出现了明显的上升,1999-2008年间林地面积增长了320252.4hm2,其中2003年间增幅最大,达到了155983.7hm2,主要原因是为保护三峡大坝,降低库区水土流失而实施的国家退耕还林工程取得了初步成效；园地也出现了上升趋势,1999-2008年间总共增长了75341.3hm2；随着土地开发整理复垦的力度和深度不断扩展,在耕地减少速度放缓的同时,被开发复垦的未利用地却逐年增多,1999-2008年间,未利用地总量减少61855.9hm2。
重庆区域建设用地变化对经济发展的弹性系数较大,GDP、固定资产投资总额、工业增加值与建设用地面积变化呈正相关,与耕地面积变化呈负相关。表明重庆经济社会发展主要依赖于土地资源的开发,且目前正处于经济快速增长和城市化加速发展阶段,耕地和建设用地的变化趋势在短时间内很难完全改变。虽然随着近年来的退耕还林、生态湿地的建设,使得重庆市的生态服务价值呈上升趋势,但总体价值仍不高。
(2)重庆市土地利用绩效值总体水平不高,但保持稳定增长趋势。由1999年的0.1767增长到2008年的0.2598。其变化情况与重庆市的社会经济发展状况、自然条件变化基本一致,表明在土地利用总体规划和国家有力的土地宏观调控措施下,重庆市土地利用正朝着合理、节约与集约利用的方向发展。
(3)运用残差GM(1,1)模型法对2009-2020年重庆市各类建设用地进行了分类预测,到2015年建设用地规模将达637319.2hm2,2020年将达744897.3hm2,预计总共将增加158395hm2建设用地。而2009-2020年重庆市土地后备资源的开发,可实现增加耕地76792.62hm2,增加园、林地15766.08hm2,盘活农村存量建设用地98045.2hm2,总计190603.9 hm2。比较可见,土地资源在数量上是可以实现占补平衡的,但仅仅实现数量上的占补平衡不能完全协调区域经济建设、耕地保护以及生态安全间的矛盾。只有在严格耕地数量的基础上,提高耕地生产能力及耕地产品质量,最大限度地提高耕地利用效率及综合效益,且实现自然生态系统良性循环才能满足新形势下区域土地利用平衡的要求。因此,现阶段重庆市土地利用平衡的内涵应包括以下几层含义：保有耕地数量,提高耕地质量；高效集约利用土地；生态环境友好。
2.土地利用平衡困境识别
以问题为导向,分析重庆市在实现土地利用平衡过程中面临的困境,并在此基础上运用博弈论对土地利用平衡困境产生的动因进行了讨论,以此作为探索该区域土地利用平衡途径的基础。
(1)要实现区域内的土地利用平衡就要较好地解决和协调“耕地保护、经济建设和生态环境”间的矛盾,现阶段主要通过土地开发、整理和农业结构调整力拓后备土地资源空间,用于弥补耕地、园地、林地因建设占用造成的减少,实践表明土地开发整理(复垦)已经成为重庆市近年来增加耕地的首要途径,是实现区域内土地利用平衡的重要源泉。
(2)随着城镇化和工业化的不断推进,在新的经济环境背景下,实现土地利用平衡过程中也出现或存在新的不适：城市扩展中占用大量耕地且浪费严重,2004-2007年间重庆市新增建设用地来源中平均约有52%来源于耕地减少,说明重庆市建设扩张属耕地高消耗类型,建设占用耕地情况严重；农村建设用地利用不规范且浪费严重,在农村人口不断减少的同时,人均建设用地却逐年增加：土地利用效率低下且粗放式经营严重,2008年重庆城市土地产出率为11.97亿元／平方公里,远远小于其它三个直辖市；土地利用协调不力且用地布局不合理,重庆市工业用地比重过高,而住宅、道路基础设施、环境绿化用地等比重过低；土地后备资源的挖潜难度且成本渐增,新增耕地率从2000年的62.64%下降到2008年仅为18.57%,且土地后备资源的挖潜成本却不断增加；随着土地整理的深度和广度不断扩大,土地整理中生态损耗凸显且日益严重。
(3)现阶段重庆市土地利用平衡的最大困境是经济发展导致的农地非农化与耕地保护、生态安全之间的矛盾,究其产生的动因与土地利用过程中相关利益主体的行为倾向和博弈行为有着直接的关系。研究表明市场经济宏观调控下的非农化进程以及区域土地的合理高效利用,将更多的灵活经营权交给了地方政府。因此,地方政府必须改革和完善相关政策制度以及土地利用方式,核心是力拓后备资源,盘活存量资源,不仅能有效解决经济建设和耕地保护的两难困境,而且可以有效地保护生态环境,实现区域土地利用平衡。
3.土地利用平衡途径探析
本研究提出了两种土地利用平衡的途径,即“宅基地换住房、承包地换社会保障”土地流转模式和综合国土整治。
(1)通过采取“宅基地换住房、承包地换社会保障”的土地流转模式,可以实行规模化经营,既可以给农户带来稳定且明显的增值收益,也可以给地方政府创造各种效益,这些有形和无形的效益远远大于创新的支出成本。所以,农户构成的初级行动团体和基层政府构成的次级行动团体都会积极参与土地流转制度创新。并且通过“宅基地换住房、承包地换社会保障”土地流转模式,可以促进集约节约经营,盘活农村存量建设用地,实现资源的优势互补,缓解重庆市经济发展对耕地的占用,为突破土地资源制约区域经济社会发展提供了较好思路,符合现阶段重庆市土地利用平衡发展方向,是实现区域土地利用平衡的较好途径。但值得注意的是该士地流转模式是在城乡统筹背景下土地利用方式和管理上的新尝试,并没有打破现有农村土地产权关系。同时其也面临着严格的约束条件：地方政府需要具备雄厚的财政实力,土地预期收益较为乐观,农民拥有稳定的非农就业机会,三者缺一不可。
(2)通过对综合国土整治前后耕地质量的变化、耕地集约利用水平、城镇土地高效集约利用水平以及土地利用环境友好状况进行比较评价。预计整治后耕地综合质量可以得到比较明显的提高;耕地集约利用水平和城镇土地高效集约利用水平将明显上升；土地利用环境友好将处于较高的状态,并有向更好方向发展的趋势。此外,综合国土整治还可以获得较好的经济社会效益以及较高的生态服务价值。由此可见综合国土整治可以提高研究区耕地质量,土地集约利用程度以及土地利用环境友好状况,符合土地利用平衡的理念。
通过对现阶段重庆市土地利用平衡途径的探索,可见无论是“宅基地换住房、承包地换社会保障”土地流转模式还是综合国土整治,都有利于实现耕地资源保护和可持续性发展,有利于实现土地高效集约利用以及土地资源生态环境友好,是促进重庆区域土地利用平衡的重要途径。
4.土地利用平衡保障机制
从利益激励、社会保障、技术支撑和监督管理等四大方面进行分析,构建了重庆市十地利用平衡保障综合机制。
(1)建立和完善利益激励机制需要明晰农村土地产权,改变目前“高流转、低保有”的税赋结构,建立政府主导下的资源要素交易平台；建立和完善社会保障机制主要体现在土地管理公众参与制度的建立、失地农民社会保障体系的健全以及长效农业保险保障体制的构建等；建立和完善技术支撑机制主要体现在全面完成土地利用规划、规划修编、地籍调查和土地定级估价等工作的基础上,建立重庆市土地利用动态监测体系、重庆市土地利用规划管理系统以及基于GIS的城镇土地估价信息系统等；建立和完善监督管理机制,包括健全地方政府行为监管、土地市场交易监管和土地执法全面监管等。通过四大机制的建立和完善,最终保障土地利用平衡的顺利实现。
(2)在建立和完善重庆市土地利用平衡保障机制过程中,政府应加大平衡资金投入,鼓励民营主体和非政府组织进入土地流转和土地整治,并协调参与主体间的利益均衡,改善土地流转和土地整治的运行环境。同时,非政府组织要促进多集团对话、最大限度动用社会参与资源的优势,以使重庆土地利用平衡框架能在多方参与、多元化投资和多门监管的健康运行。政府和非政府组织间通过合作进行重庆土地资源的利用,不仅维护了各参与主体的利益,提高其参与的积极性,而且更重要的是促进了区域土地利用平衡。
综上所述,本文从土地资源合理利用和土地资源的可持续利用的角度丰富和完善了土地利用平衡的内涵；从土地流转和土地整理两方面探索了土地利用平衡的途径；从利益激励、社会保障、技术支撑和监督管理等方面建立和完善了土地利用平衡保障机制。但事实上促进土地利用平衡的途径还有许多,并且无论是“宅基地换住房、承包地换社会保障”还是“综合国土整治”都是在城乡统筹背景下土地利用方式和管理上的新尝试,并没有改变现有农村土地产权关系,对农村土地产权改革深入不够。因此,今后应继续从多角度特别是从农村土地产权改革的角度,探索土地利用平衡的其他途径及其广适性,以此为区域经济社会、人口、资源可持续协调发展提供新思路。
The food safety, economic development, and ecological protection should be harmonized due to land resource infinite quantity and its location, which indicated the land utilize should be balanced and ensured among industries. The arable acreage has being reduced during the quickly development of urbanization and industrialization, due to the requirement of location economical development and city's construction. It not only brought a great challenge to food safety, but also destroyed the ecological environment, that aggravated contradiction of land utilization among human and the ecological environment was getting worse and many problems rose up. How to balance the contradiction among food safety, economic development, and ecological protection, is the hot topic for scientists and government of China and over the world. Regional territorial regulation, land association, land reset, and joint development were carried out to harmonized land utilize relationship. In China, the land consolidation and land intensive/economize utilization was implemented to increasing arable acreage and improving land planning. As the economical developing and further potential seeking reserved land resource, the practices of balancing land unitization showed inappropriately. Chongqing city, as the economic center, the ecological barriers, and pilot area of balancing urban and rural development in upper Yangtze River region, with the basic characteristics of large country and large city, makes the human-land conflict outstanding in economic development process. So, based on the status and corresponding predicament of land utilization in urbanization of Chongqing, the connotation of land utilization balance was enriched and improved, and then the approach and guarantee mechanism of improving regional land utilization balance were studied to supplying theory and practice basis for construing the policies of harmonizing the land utilize among regional economical development, arable protection, and ecological safety.
1. Scenario analysis of land use balance
Analyzes the past 10 years of land use change in Chongqing City, And build on this basis the region's land use evaluation system. Use the optimal combination weighting method for quantitative evaluation land use. On this basis, use of GM(1,1)model predict the next 10 years land supply and demand situation in the region. And discuss the relativity of Land use change and social and economic development, Land use change effects on the ecological environment, Land use balance and the relationship between farmland protection. The results show that:
(1) Between 1999-2008 Chongqing sharp decline in arable land, the area net decrease in 293679.7 hm2, significant increase of construction land, the area net increase 74334.1 hm2. Different from the change trend of arable land, the forest land and orchard obviously increased in the recent decade, with area of 320252.4 hm2 and 75341.3 hm2, respectively. As land development and reclamation of the strength and depth continues to expand, reclaimed area of unused land had increased year by year,61855.9 hm2 in total from 1999 to 2008.
GDP, total fixed asset investment, industrial added value and the construction area was positively correlated, and cultivated land change was a negative correlation. Show that the economic and social development of Chongqing mainly depends on the development of land resources. In addition, returning land for farming to forestry, construction of the wetland ecosystem, making the Chongqing Municipality, although the value of ecosystem services is rising, but the overall value is still lower.
(2)Evaluation of land use performance from 1999 to 2008 in Chongqing City, show that Land use performance value is not high in the overall level, but kept steady growing, with 0.1767 in 1999 to 0.2598 in 2008.that indicated the land use was moving on a reasonable, conservation, and intensive way under the Chinese national macro-control.
(3)To better understand the next 10 years, Chongqing's economic development the demand for construction land, this chapter using residual GM (I,1) model law classified forecast various types of construction land from 2009 to 2020 in Chongqing.The scale of construction land by 2015 will reach 637319.2hm2,2020 will reach 744897.3hm2, forecasts generally reflect the socio-economic development the demand for land future trend. Can be seen forecast is expected to increase 158395hm2 construction land from 2009 to 2020. The reality of the potential land reserve resources predicted results from 2009 to 2020 in Chongqing City:to increase arable land 76792.62hm2, increase the park, forest land 15766.08hm2, reuse the stock construction land of rural 98045.2hm2, total 190603.9 hm2. Comparison shows that land resources can be achieved in the number of dynamic balance, and the key is to reuse the stock of land for construction in rural areas, but achieve the dynamic balance only, can not promote regional population, resources and environmental development, so must strict protection of cultivated land and achieve a virtuous cycle of natural ecosystems to meet the new situation the demands for balance of land use. Therefore, at this stage the balance of land use in Chongqing contents include:control of cultivated land quantity and improve land quality; intensive and efficient use of land; and eco-friendly land use.
2. Difficulties identifying land use balance
Problem-oriented, analysis dilemma in the process of achieving a balance of land use, and discuss impact of the stakeholders behavior of balance of land use. The results show that:
(1)With the land development and land consolidation (reclamation) in recent years and the intensity gradually increased, it has become the first choice to increase arable land, is an important way to achieve a balance of land use within the region.
(2) With urbanization and industrialization progresses, in the context of the new economic environment, there have been many problems of land use:Urban expansion in serious waste of land, especially arable land, Between 2004-2007, new construction sites in Chongqing City, sources from an average of about 52% of the reduction of arable land, explanation farmland used for construction in serious condition; Rural construction land use is not standardized and serious waste, while the rural population declining, the per capita construction land has increased year by year; Inefficient land use and extensive management seriously; Poor coordination of land use and land layout is unreasonable; Potential land reserve resources increasing the difficulty and cost, new arable land rate increased from 62.64% in 2000 down to 18.57% in 2008, and the land reserve resources in tapping the potential costs are increasing; Increasingly serious ecological loss, with the depth and breadth of the land consolidation growing, more and more of the project area and the background area of the water environment, soil, vegetation and ecological processes and other environmental factors have a direct, indirect, beneficial or harmful effects.
(3)Current land use in Chongqing's greatest challenge is to balance economic development, land protection, the contradiction between the ecological security. The results show that under a market economy macro conversion process and the rational and efficient use of land, Will be more flexible operation in the hands of the local government, therefore, the government must reform and improve the related policies and systems, the core is development of reserve resources and revitalize the stock of resources, not only can effectively solve the economic development and farmland protection dilemma, and can effectively protect the ecological environment and realize the land use of balance.
3. Ways research of land use balance
This study proposes two ways to balance land use, that the "homestead/house swap, contracted land/social security swap" land transfer model and composite land consolidation. The results show that:
(1)By use the "homestead/house swap, contracted land/social security swap" land transfer model, scale operation can be implemented, not only bring stability to the farmers and the significant value-added benefits, but also to the local government has created a variety of benefits, this tangible and intangible benefits far greater than the cost of innovation. So, primary action group composed of farmers and secondary action group composed of local government are actively involved in land transfer system innovation. Through the "homestead/house swap, contracted land/social security swap" land transfer model, can get better overall performance, and promote intensive conservation management, complementary advantages of resources, achieve complementary advantages of resources, Alleviate the economic development of Chongqing's occupation of farmland for regional economic and social development to provide more space.
(2) The "homestead/house swap, contracted land/social security swap" land transfer model, that did not break the existing rural land property rights, rural land use and management new attempt. The "homestead/house swap, contracted land/social security swap" land transfer model, reuse the stock of land for construction in rural areas, to overcome the constraints of land resources of regional economic and social development provided a good way, in line with land use balance development direction in Chongqing, this is good way to achieve land use balance. But it is also faced with strict constraints:local governments need to have strong financial strength, optimistic about the expected return of land, farmers have stable non-agricultural employment opportunities, three are indispensable.
(3) Composite land consolidation as another way implement of land use balance in Chongqing. comparison evaluation of changes in cultivated land resources、intensive level use of arable land changes、intensive use of urban land changes and land use and environment-friendly conditions changes by before and after the comprehensive land improvement. Comprehensive quality arable land expected can be significantly improved after land consolidation; intensive level use of arable land and intensive use of urban land expected can be significantly improved after land consolidation; environmentally friendly land use will be in a high state of, and a trend to a better direction.
(4) Composite land consolidation can also obtain better economic and social benefits as well as the total value of ecosystem services will increase. On this basis, optimizing the ecological structure of agricultural land, protect biodiversity and maintain ecological balance is the direction of future efforts. By explore ways of land use balance in Chongqing City, the "homestead/house swap, contracted land/social security swap" land transfer model and composite land consolidation, Land resources are conducive to the protection and sustainable development, Conducive to intensive use of land and Environmentally friendly land, that is important ways to balance land use.
4. Protection mechanism of land use balance
From incentive motivation, social security, technical support, supervision and management of the four aspects, to build a comprehensive, systematic and complete comprehensive protection mechanism of land use balance in Chongqing. The results show that:
(I) Establish and improve the incentive mechanism needs to clarify the interests of rural land property rights and to change the current tax structure, establish a resource elements trading platform by government-led; Establish and perfect the social security mechanisms include:public participation in land management system is established, landless peasants in social security system is established and improve long-term Agricultural Insurance system and so on; Establish and improve the technical support mechanism includes:The full completion of the land use planning, planning revision, cadastral survey and land grading and evaluation, establish of Chongqing Land use dynamic monitoring system, land use planning and management system and GIS-based information system for urban land evaluation; Establish and improve the supervision and management mechanism, including improve the regulatory acts of local government, improve the Regulation transactions of land market and improve the regulatory enforcement of Land law. These mechanisms through the establishment and improvement, ultimate bring about land use balance.
(2) Land-use balance protection mechanism established and improved, the government should increase capital investment, encourage private and non-governmental organizations to enter the land transfer and land consolidation, coordination between the principal balance of interests, improve operating environment in land transfer and land consolidation. At the same time, non-governmental organizations must to promote multi-group dialogue and maximize the use of social participation. Through the cooperation use of land resources in Chongqing between Government and non-governmental organizations, has not only safeguarded the interests of the participating subjects, increase their participation in the initiative, but more important to promote a land use balance.
In conclusion, the connotation of land utilization balance was enriched and improved from the point of land reasonable and sustainable utilization, and the processes of land utilization balance was discussed based on the field of land circulation and consolidation, and then constructed and improved the guarantee mechanism of land utilization, including benefit incentive, social insurance, technological support, and supervision. But there are many other processes that can improve land utilization balance.'Homestead for housing, contracted land for social insurance'or 'Comprehensive regional territorial regulation'was one try on changing land use patterns and management under the background of balancing urban and rural development, but it was not change the relationship of land ownership in rural and the reformation was not thorough. Thus, the other processes of land utilization balance and its eurytopicity would be studied from many fields, particularly from reformation of land ownership, to provided new thinking for harmonizing development among economy, population, and resource.
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