英汉语性别歧视现象的对比研究
摘要
近三十年来,语言中的性别歧视现象受到广泛关注。研究表明,性别歧视存在于构词、词序、甚至名称及称谓中。然而,这些研究均建立在典型实例分析上,被Wardhaugh称为“小数据,大立论”。依据语料库,穷尽式采集相关语料的研究还不多见。再者,性别歧视研究往往对汉语关注不足,甚至中国学者也偏爱研究英语。另外,以往研究大多只针对一种语言,少见跨语言对比研究。
英语是当今世界上使用范围最广的语言,汉语则是使用人数最多的语言,二者分属印欧语系和汉藏语系,有不同的历史发展轨迹,并选择不同的文字系统。两种语言文字分别是东西方文化的重要代表。对二者进行对比研究,有助于深入认识语言的本质特征,揭示东西文化的深层结构。全面系统地研究英汉语言文字中的性别歧视现象,对比英汉语言文化的异同,可以为认识语言、文化、思维和民族心理提供参考资料,提高对语言与文化的认识。
此外,语言与性别研究还有重要的应用价值。了解语言中的性别现象,有助于两性之间的互相尊重、友好相处,利于构建和谐的语言环境和社会生活环境。语言与性别研究成果可直接用于制定语言规划(language planning)和语言政策(language policy)。例如,建国初期,我国语言文字改革的一些内容就是出于消除语言性别歧视的考虑,最典型的例子就是将“婦”替换为“妇”。国外,特别是美国,更是每年定期制定防性别歧视指南,用于规范媒体及公共语言运用的准确性。语言与性别研究成果还可以指导第二语言教学,为语言学习者提供规范的语言使用标准,避免使用性别歧视语,减少两性之间的跨文化交际误解。
语言与文化的关系纵横交织、错综复杂,传统的研究方式很难发掘出二者的本质关系。兴起于20世纪80年代的浑沌学以直观、以整体为基点来研究浑沌状态、浑沌运动的复杂规则性,适合于研究事物的复杂性、不确定性、无序性和随机性。因此,本文以浑沌学为理论依据,对英汉语造字构词中的性别歧视现象进行全面而系统的阐释。
围绕以上问题,本文依据自建的英语和汉语语料库,展开实证研究。本研究的英语性别歧视词汇语料库的全部数据主要来自《牛津高阶英语学习词典(Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary)》,同时参考了《朗文当代英语词典(Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English)》和《英汉大词典》等其他英语工具书；汉语性别歧视字词语料库的数据主要来自《说文解字》,同时参考了《现代汉语词典》和《新华新词语词典》等其他汉语工具书。《牛津高阶英语学习词典》共收英语词条57,100个,《说文解字》共分540部首,收字9,353个,另有“重文”即异体字1,163个,共10,516字。《现代汉语词典》共收56,000多个条目。这些工具书收词丰富,具有较高的权威性,可以保证本研究采集的语料具有代表性。
本文用对比法(共时与历时对比,跨语言对比)首先将两个语料库的数据分别进行分类,分析英汉文字反映的性别歧视,然后结合新词语进行历时与共时的比较,最后对英汉语造字构词上的性别歧视现象进行跨语言对比。
研究证实男尊女卑在中西文化中具有共性,英汉两种语言在造字构词层面均存在对女性的偏见与歧视。“男性”字词往往有褒义色彩,而“女性”字词往往带有贬义甚至色情语义。
性别歧视现象在英语、汉语中有不同的表现：汉语中有大量描绘女性美貌、表现女性在家族中地位的字,以间接的方式反映女性在社会中受到的歧视；英语中的性别歧视更直接,有许多直接标明对女性歧视的词语。这些差异与汉文化重视社会等级、重家族关系,西方文化重个人权利有关。
本文只是尝试性研究,而且以字词层面反映出的性别歧视为研究对象,其结论仅适用于此范围。
Sexism in language has received widespread attention in the recent thirty years. It has been proved that sexism exists in the domain of word-formation, word order and even the system of naming, addressing and titling. Whereas these findings are mainly based on the analysis of some typical examples, Wardhaugh regards it as "a topic which seems to invite'large'arguments based on'small'data". Presently, corpus-based researches with infinite data collection are still rarely seen. In addition, Chinese language has not drawn adequate attention in sexism studies. Even scholars in China have shown a preference to studies in English language. Moreover, almost all previous studies focused on one language, lacking a comparative mode across languages.
English language is most widely used in the world and Chinese language has the largest number of speakers. As the main representatives of cultures in the East and the West, the two languages belong to Indo-European family and Sino-Tibetan family respectively with different development courses and different writing systems. A comparative study between the two will help to understand basic traits of language deeply and to reveal the fundamental structure in Eastern and Western cultures. A comprehensive study of sexism in both Chinese and English languages and a comparison of their cultures will offer great help in reference materials in identification of language, culture, thought and national psychology as well as in understanding of language and culture.
Apart from this, a study on language and gender will also show a great practical value. A knowledge of sexism in language will help to enhance a mutual respect and peaceful coexistence between the two genders and thus to achieve a harmonious language and social environment. Findings in language and gender study can be utilized in language planning and the making of language policy. For example, national language reform in China shortly after the founding of the People's Republic of China involved much of the outcome from such researches; other countries, especially the United States, make an annual non-sexist guidance to regulate accurate language use in mass media and public issues. Findings from the language and gender studies can also direct the teaching of English and Chinese as a second language, providing rules of standard language use, avoiding sexist expressions and lessening the intercultural misunderstanding between the two genders.
The relationship between language and culture is rather complicated and subtle, and the essence of it is hard to be revealed by traditional research methods. Chaology, started in the 1980s, studies chaotic state and movement from a perspective of intuition and integrity and shows a great value of application in complication, uncertainty, disorder and randomness studies. Adopting Chaology as the theoretical background, the dissertation will make a comprehensive interpretation of sexism in word formation in both Chinese and English languages.
Focusing on points mentioned above, the dissertation will launch an empirical study on the self-built Chinese and English corpora. The English Sexist Vocabulary Corpus in the research is based on the data mainly collected from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary with a reference to the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, An English-Chinese Dictionary and other English dictionaries, whereas the Chinese Sexist Characters Corpus in the research is based on the data mainly collected from Shuowen Jiezi with a reference to the Contemporary Chinese Dictionary and Xinhua Dictionary of New Words, etc. There are 57,100 English entries in the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary,9,353 characters and 1,163 variants, altogether 10,516 characters in Shuowen Jiezi and 56,000 entries in the Contemporary Chinese Dictionary. All these dictionaries are authoritative and rich in their word collection, capable of guaranteeing the representativeness of the data collection in the study.
With a comparative method (comparison of synchronic and diachronic studies; and comparison across languages), the dissertation first makes a codification of data in the two corpora, analyses sexism reflected in words of the two languages, then makes a synchronic and diachronic comparison with the reference to new words, and lastly launches a trans-language comparison on sexism of word formation in Chinese and English languages.
Findings of the dissertation prove the generality of male superiority in Eastern and Western cultures and the existence of female discrimination in word formation in Chinese and English languages. Usually,'male'words are associated with favorable connotations while 'female'words with derogatory or even sexual connotations.
Sexism is shown differently in Chinese and English languages:there are many characters in Chinese describing females'physical beauty and their positions in the family clan, indirectly showing the discrimination against them; whereas English language shows a more direct sexism with a lot of words labeled as sexist words with discrimination against females in the dictionary. Such differences are due to the Chinese culture's emphasis on social status and family bond and Western culture's emphasis on individualism.
The dissertation is a tentative research with the focus on sexism reflected at the morphological level. Its findings will be valid only at the level of words.
英语是当今世界上使用范围最广的语言,汉语则是使用人数最多的语言,二者分属印欧语系和汉藏语系,有不同的历史发展轨迹,并选择不同的文字系统。两种语言文字分别是东西方文化的重要代表。对二者进行对比研究,有助于深入认识语言的本质特征,揭示东西文化的深层结构。全面系统地研究英汉语言文字中的性别歧视现象,对比英汉语言文化的异同,可以为认识语言、文化、思维和民族心理提供参考资料,提高对语言与文化的认识。
此外,语言与性别研究还有重要的应用价值。了解语言中的性别现象,有助于两性之间的互相尊重、友好相处,利于构建和谐的语言环境和社会生活环境。语言与性别研究成果可直接用于制定语言规划(language planning)和语言政策(language policy)。例如,建国初期,我国语言文字改革的一些内容就是出于消除语言性别歧视的考虑,最典型的例子就是将“婦”替换为“妇”。国外,特别是美国,更是每年定期制定防性别歧视指南,用于规范媒体及公共语言运用的准确性。语言与性别研究成果还可以指导第二语言教学,为语言学习者提供规范的语言使用标准,避免使用性别歧视语,减少两性之间的跨文化交际误解。
语言与文化的关系纵横交织、错综复杂,传统的研究方式很难发掘出二者的本质关系。兴起于20世纪80年代的浑沌学以直观、以整体为基点来研究浑沌状态、浑沌运动的复杂规则性,适合于研究事物的复杂性、不确定性、无序性和随机性。因此,本文以浑沌学为理论依据,对英汉语造字构词中的性别歧视现象进行全面而系统的阐释。
围绕以上问题,本文依据自建的英语和汉语语料库,展开实证研究。本研究的英语性别歧视词汇语料库的全部数据主要来自《牛津高阶英语学习词典(Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary)》,同时参考了《朗文当代英语词典(Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English)》和《英汉大词典》等其他英语工具书；汉语性别歧视字词语料库的数据主要来自《说文解字》,同时参考了《现代汉语词典》和《新华新词语词典》等其他汉语工具书。《牛津高阶英语学习词典》共收英语词条57,100个,《说文解字》共分540部首,收字9,353个,另有“重文”即异体字1,163个,共10,516字。《现代汉语词典》共收56,000多个条目。这些工具书收词丰富,具有较高的权威性,可以保证本研究采集的语料具有代表性。
本文用对比法(共时与历时对比,跨语言对比)首先将两个语料库的数据分别进行分类,分析英汉文字反映的性别歧视,然后结合新词语进行历时与共时的比较,最后对英汉语造字构词上的性别歧视现象进行跨语言对比。
研究证实男尊女卑在中西文化中具有共性,英汉两种语言在造字构词层面均存在对女性的偏见与歧视。“男性”字词往往有褒义色彩,而“女性”字词往往带有贬义甚至色情语义。
性别歧视现象在英语、汉语中有不同的表现：汉语中有大量描绘女性美貌、表现女性在家族中地位的字,以间接的方式反映女性在社会中受到的歧视；英语中的性别歧视更直接,有许多直接标明对女性歧视的词语。这些差异与汉文化重视社会等级、重家族关系,西方文化重个人权利有关。
本文只是尝试性研究,而且以字词层面反映出的性别歧视为研究对象,其结论仅适用于此范围。
Sexism in language has received widespread attention in the recent thirty years. It has been proved that sexism exists in the domain of word-formation, word order and even the system of naming, addressing and titling. Whereas these findings are mainly based on the analysis of some typical examples, Wardhaugh regards it as "a topic which seems to invite'large'arguments based on'small'data". Presently, corpus-based researches with infinite data collection are still rarely seen. In addition, Chinese language has not drawn adequate attention in sexism studies. Even scholars in China have shown a preference to studies in English language. Moreover, almost all previous studies focused on one language, lacking a comparative mode across languages.
English language is most widely used in the world and Chinese language has the largest number of speakers. As the main representatives of cultures in the East and the West, the two languages belong to Indo-European family and Sino-Tibetan family respectively with different development courses and different writing systems. A comparative study between the two will help to understand basic traits of language deeply and to reveal the fundamental structure in Eastern and Western cultures. A comprehensive study of sexism in both Chinese and English languages and a comparison of their cultures will offer great help in reference materials in identification of language, culture, thought and national psychology as well as in understanding of language and culture.
Apart from this, a study on language and gender will also show a great practical value. A knowledge of sexism in language will help to enhance a mutual respect and peaceful coexistence between the two genders and thus to achieve a harmonious language and social environment. Findings in language and gender study can be utilized in language planning and the making of language policy. For example, national language reform in China shortly after the founding of the People's Republic of China involved much of the outcome from such researches; other countries, especially the United States, make an annual non-sexist guidance to regulate accurate language use in mass media and public issues. Findings from the language and gender studies can also direct the teaching of English and Chinese as a second language, providing rules of standard language use, avoiding sexist expressions and lessening the intercultural misunderstanding between the two genders.
The relationship between language and culture is rather complicated and subtle, and the essence of it is hard to be revealed by traditional research methods. Chaology, started in the 1980s, studies chaotic state and movement from a perspective of intuition and integrity and shows a great value of application in complication, uncertainty, disorder and randomness studies. Adopting Chaology as the theoretical background, the dissertation will make a comprehensive interpretation of sexism in word formation in both Chinese and English languages.
Focusing on points mentioned above, the dissertation will launch an empirical study on the self-built Chinese and English corpora. The English Sexist Vocabulary Corpus in the research is based on the data mainly collected from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary with a reference to the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, An English-Chinese Dictionary and other English dictionaries, whereas the Chinese Sexist Characters Corpus in the research is based on the data mainly collected from Shuowen Jiezi with a reference to the Contemporary Chinese Dictionary and Xinhua Dictionary of New Words, etc. There are 57,100 English entries in the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary,9,353 characters and 1,163 variants, altogether 10,516 characters in Shuowen Jiezi and 56,000 entries in the Contemporary Chinese Dictionary. All these dictionaries are authoritative and rich in their word collection, capable of guaranteeing the representativeness of the data collection in the study.
With a comparative method (comparison of synchronic and diachronic studies; and comparison across languages), the dissertation first makes a codification of data in the two corpora, analyses sexism reflected in words of the two languages, then makes a synchronic and diachronic comparison with the reference to new words, and lastly launches a trans-language comparison on sexism of word formation in Chinese and English languages.
Findings of the dissertation prove the generality of male superiority in Eastern and Western cultures and the existence of female discrimination in word formation in Chinese and English languages. Usually,'male'words are associated with favorable connotations while 'female'words with derogatory or even sexual connotations.
Sexism is shown differently in Chinese and English languages:there are many characters in Chinese describing females'physical beauty and their positions in the family clan, indirectly showing the discrimination against them; whereas English language shows a more direct sexism with a lot of words labeled as sexist words with discrimination against females in the dictionary. Such differences are due to the Chinese culture's emphasis on social status and family bond and Western culture's emphasis on individualism.
The dissertation is a tentative research with the focus on sexism reflected at the morphological level. Its findings will be valid only at the level of words.
引文
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③这一理论与贾尔斯和史密斯(Howard Giles & Philip Smith)的调节理论(accommodation theory)有着异曲同工之妙。
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②英语中与hero(英雄)相对应的词是heroine(女英雄),但是这个词是由hero(英雄)加上带有歧视意味的后缀构成的,所以,这里说话者为了避免性别歧视,根据英语里he与she的对应关系,造出了shero这个新词来与hero对应。
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⑦同上。
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⑥对于男女在话语模式层面上的差异,这里我们仅讨论会话双方为异性的情况。
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②“女国音”只是对带尖音的北京话女声的称呼之一。学界对这种现象更常见的处理办法是,不冠以专门的名称,而泛称为“北京女性的尖音现象”等。
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③这一理论与贾尔斯和史密斯(Howard Giles & Philip Smith)的调节理论(accommodation theory)有着异曲同工之妙。
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⑤从事性别歧视领域研究的学者大多为女性,这在学术界成了一道独特的风景线。这里用“她们”指代性别歧视研究学者,当然,其研究队伍中也包含有男性成员。
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②英语中与hero(英雄)相对应的词是heroine(女英雄),但是这个词是由hero(英雄)加上带有歧视意味的后缀构成的,所以,这里说话者为了避免性别歧视,根据英语里he与she的对应关系,造出了shero这个新词来与hero对应。
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