伴随性学习环境中基于语篇的不同任务对词汇习得产生的影响
摘要
依据Laufer and Hulstijn(2001)的定义，在本文中，伴随性词汇学习(incidental vocabulary learning)指学习者在阅读活动中试图明白语篇的意思来完成阅读理解的任务，并且他们也被要求附带做一些有关的词汇练习，但他们的主要学习任务不是单词，即单词学习不是他们有意学习的对象，是阅读的副产品，是伴随性的活动。另外，他们事先不知道材料处理后要进行单词回忆测试。与伴随性词汇学习相对应的概念是有意性词汇学习(intentional vocabulary learning)，它指的是学习者有意去处理、记忆词汇，并被提前告知以后要进行有关回忆测试。
二语伴随性词汇学习理论受到二十世纪七、八十年代“自上而下”、自然法和交际法等教学理论的影响，认为阅读是一项复杂的信息处理技能，阅读理解过程中，读者将上下文与其它如语言、背景等知识联系起来，达到好的阅读效果。同时读者会通过上下文线索进行猜词，从而习得词汇。一语伴随性词汇习得的研究成果也影响了二语伴随性词汇习得理论的形成。大量研究表明，一语环境中，学习者靠“自然”方法习得了大量词汇。
大多数学者似乎都同意，除了头几千个最常用的词以外，词汇学习主要通过学习者广泛阅读，从上下文中猜词来进行。尽管伴随性词汇习得对词汇学习意义重大，但它仍然存在很多问题，如它的随意性、不精确性；对学生的阅读技巧要求高；不一定能保证长期记忆等。促进伴随性习得的方法包括使用注释、语篇修饰、建立在语境上的练习等。
本文还讨论了词汇学习中的一些认知理论，如注意理论、深度处理理论等，强调对输入的注意和认知处理的深度在词汇习得中的重要性。本文然后运用Laufer and Hulstijn(2001)提出的参与投入假说理论于实证研究中，验证伴随性学习环境中，基于语篇的不同任务要求是否对词汇习得会产生不同影响。实验结果显示在伴随性词汇学习环境中，具有高投入的任务比具有低投入的任务无论对接受性词汇知识，还是对产出性词汇知识的习得都更有效。但是这种不同只出现在即时测试中，对延后测试无效。本文最后讨论了实验结果对词汇学习的意义。
Laufer and Hulstijn (2001) distinguished two types of incidental vocabulary learning: one is used in the experimental literature and with the strictly methodological meaning; the other has been given a more general, educational meaning. But both of the two types refer to the process in which learners focus on comprehending meaning of reading and listening contexts rather than on the explicit goal of learning new words, and acquire vocabulary only as a "by-product". The concept of incidental learning was greatly influenced by the top-down, naturalistic, and communicative approaches of the 1970s and 1980s. The top-down model regarded reading as a complex information-processing skill and paid a lot of attention to guessing the meaning of unknown words through the contextual clues.
Although incidental learning was not the target of the main cognitive activity of reading or listening, most scholars seem to agree that, except for the first few thousand most common words, vocabulary learning predominantly occurs through extensive reading or listening. However, incidental learning of vocabulary is not always sufficient and efficient and potential problems still exist. It should be improved with text modifications or context-based exercises etc.
Researchers now pay more attention to the investigation in the actual mechanism of the incidental learning. According to much psycholinguistic research, lexical acquisition seems to depend on the attention to input and on the amount and kinds of cognitive processing that go into it. The paper then introduces several cognitive constructs about vocabulary learning, particularly the Task-induced Involvement Hypothesis proposed by Laufer and Hulstijn in 2001.
Last, the paper reports an empirical study, a design of reading comprehension with different types of text-based tasks to see which will have a better effect on incidental vocabulary acquisition, applying the Task-induced Involvement Hypothesis. The experiment shows that tasks with high involvement in L2 incidental vocabulary learning are more effective in learner's gains of receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge than tasks with low involvement. But the difference only occurs in immediate test, not in delayed test. The implication of the experiment for the pedagogy of word learning is also discussed.
二语伴随性词汇学习理论受到二十世纪七、八十年代“自上而下”、自然法和交际法等教学理论的影响，认为阅读是一项复杂的信息处理技能，阅读理解过程中，读者将上下文与其它如语言、背景等知识联系起来，达到好的阅读效果。同时读者会通过上下文线索进行猜词，从而习得词汇。一语伴随性词汇习得的研究成果也影响了二语伴随性词汇习得理论的形成。大量研究表明，一语环境中，学习者靠“自然”方法习得了大量词汇。
大多数学者似乎都同意，除了头几千个最常用的词以外，词汇学习主要通过学习者广泛阅读，从上下文中猜词来进行。尽管伴随性词汇习得对词汇学习意义重大，但它仍然存在很多问题，如它的随意性、不精确性；对学生的阅读技巧要求高；不一定能保证长期记忆等。促进伴随性习得的方法包括使用注释、语篇修饰、建立在语境上的练习等。
本文还讨论了词汇学习中的一些认知理论，如注意理论、深度处理理论等，强调对输入的注意和认知处理的深度在词汇习得中的重要性。本文然后运用Laufer and Hulstijn(2001)提出的参与投入假说理论于实证研究中，验证伴随性学习环境中，基于语篇的不同任务要求是否对词汇习得会产生不同影响。实验结果显示在伴随性词汇学习环境中，具有高投入的任务比具有低投入的任务无论对接受性词汇知识，还是对产出性词汇知识的习得都更有效。但是这种不同只出现在即时测试中，对延后测试无效。本文最后讨论了实验结果对词汇学习的意义。
Laufer and Hulstijn (2001) distinguished two types of incidental vocabulary learning: one is used in the experimental literature and with the strictly methodological meaning; the other has been given a more general, educational meaning. But both of the two types refer to the process in which learners focus on comprehending meaning of reading and listening contexts rather than on the explicit goal of learning new words, and acquire vocabulary only as a "by-product". The concept of incidental learning was greatly influenced by the top-down, naturalistic, and communicative approaches of the 1970s and 1980s. The top-down model regarded reading as a complex information-processing skill and paid a lot of attention to guessing the meaning of unknown words through the contextual clues.
Although incidental learning was not the target of the main cognitive activity of reading or listening, most scholars seem to agree that, except for the first few thousand most common words, vocabulary learning predominantly occurs through extensive reading or listening. However, incidental learning of vocabulary is not always sufficient and efficient and potential problems still exist. It should be improved with text modifications or context-based exercises etc.
Researchers now pay more attention to the investigation in the actual mechanism of the incidental learning. According to much psycholinguistic research, lexical acquisition seems to depend on the attention to input and on the amount and kinds of cognitive processing that go into it. The paper then introduces several cognitive constructs about vocabulary learning, particularly the Task-induced Involvement Hypothesis proposed by Laufer and Hulstijn in 2001.
Last, the paper reports an empirical study, a design of reading comprehension with different types of text-based tasks to see which will have a better effect on incidental vocabulary acquisition, applying the Task-induced Involvement Hypothesis. The experiment shows that tasks with high involvement in L2 incidental vocabulary learning are more effective in learner's gains of receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge than tasks with low involvement. But the difference only occurs in immediate test, not in delayed test. The implication of the experiment for the pedagogy of word learning is also discussed.
引文
1 Some books on SLVA are vocabulary and language teaching (Carter & McCarthy, 1988), Teaching and Learning Vocabulary (Nation, 1990), Second language Reading and Vocabulary Learning (Huckin and Coady, 1993), Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition (Coady and Huckin, 1993), Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition and Pedagogy (Schmitt and McCarthy, 1997), Learning Vocabulary in Another Language (Nation, 2001).
2 Cognition means the various mental processing used in thinking, remembering, perceiving, recognizing, classifying, etc. (Richards et al., 2000, p73).
3 Incidental vocabulary learning through reading is a hot concern in second language acquisition study recently and some books and the thematic collections of articles have been published in recent years, such as Second Language Reading and Vocabulary Learning (edited by Huckin and Coady, 1993) and Incidental Vocabulary Learning (edited by Wesche and Paribakht in the journal Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 1999).
4 Schmidt defines 'noticing' as the subjective correlate of what psychologists call 'attention', roughly equivalent to 'clear perception' and 'detection within selective attention' (Laufer and Hulstijn, 2001). According to Richards et al. (2000), attention means the ability a person has to concentrate on something, or part of something, while ignoring things.
5 Gass (1999) discussed the definitions of the three words "Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition" respectively in details.
6 Word families consist of a base word, inflected forms, and transparent derivations Webster's Third has a vocabulary of around 54,000 word families (Nation and Waring, 1997).
7 Nation and Coady (1988, p 102) classified two contexts. Context within the text can be viewed as morphological, syntactic, and discourse information in a given text which can be classified and described in terms of general features. General context refers to the background knowledge of the subject matter of a given text.
8 Nation and Coady (1988,p104) noted that it was not an unrealistic goal to expect learners to guess between 60 percent to 80 percent of the unknown words if the density of the unknown words was not too high.
9 Strategy means procedures used in learning, thinking, etc. which serves as a way of reaching a goal. In language learning, learning strategies and communication strategies are those conscious or unconscious processes which language learners make use of in learning and using a language (Richards et al, 2000, p445). According to Segler (2001), most popular vocabulary learning strategies include guessing from context, the keyword method, dictionary look-up, and use of vocabulary/multimedia (hypermedia) glosses etc.
10 Nattinger (1988 ) listed several examples o f redundancy: synonym in apposition; antonym; cause and effect; association between an object and its purpose or use; description and example. Anaphora refers to the process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation (Richards et al., 2000, p21). Parallelism refers to the cues with grammatical relationship and semantic similarity between words (Chem, 1993).
11 According to Nation (1990), direct vocabulary learning is a conscious effort made to learn vocabulary either in context or in isolation, for example, by learning lists of word forms and their meanings, by doing vocabulary learning exercises, or by studying affixes and roots while indirect vocabulary learning means that new words are learned incidentally in reading or listening, usually as the result of information provided by the context information.
12 Selective attention means to draw learners' attention to target words; or to ensure that they notice it, e.g. underlining, bolding, circling. Recognition requires association of the target word form with at least one of its meanings, e.g. matching word with definition or synonym; recognizing meaning of target word from multiple choice responses. Manipulation requires structural analysis of target word to rearrange/organize given elements, e.g. changing grammatical category of target word; constructing words using stems and affixes. Interpretation involves semantic and syntactic analysis, including the relationship of target word with other words in given contexts (such as collocations, synonyms, antonyms), e.g. guessing meaning of target word in context; multiple-choice cloze exercises. Production requires retrieval and production of target word in appropriate novel contexts, e.g. open cloze exercises, answering a question requiring the target word.
13 According to Nattinger (1988, p66), the key-word method means that the student learns a word in the target language by associating it with its translation in the native language in a special way. For example, in learning that the Spanish word perro means "dog", one might notice that the first syllable of the new word sounds like "pear" and would then visualize a large pear-shaped dog waddling down the street.
14 Cognitive skill refers to the ability to perform various mental procedures (O'Malley and Chamot, 2001, p24).
15 Natural order hypothesis means that children acquiring their first language acquire linguistic forms, rules, and items in a similar order (Richards et al., 2000, p304).
16 It is generally believed that all perception implies mental organization and the ability to create internal representations of external events (Schmidt, 1990, p132).
17 Elaboration is the process of relating incoming information to information already stored in permanent memory (Carroll, 2000, p388).
18 Manipulation means processing operation (Skehan, 1999, p81).
19 Rehearsal means saying a new word or sentence to oneself(usually silently) in order to memorize it (Richards et al., 2000, p393).
20 Encoding means the process of turning a message into a set of symbols, as part of the act communications (Richards et al., 2000, p154).
21 Motivation refers to the factors that determine a person's desire to do something. In second language and foreign language learning, learning may be affected differently by different types of motivation (Richards et al., 2000, p298).
22 i+1 is a concept associated with the natural approach, which rests on the premise that there is a 'natural order' for language acquisition and that learners will acquire a structure when 'ready for it'. In the classroom, learners are supplied with 'comprehensible input' corresponding to their curtent level of competence (i) but also containing new language data relating to the next stage (+1) towards which they are moving 'along some natural order' (John_son and Johnson, 2001).
23 FORCAST Readability Formula=20-number of one-syllable words + 10. For example, a 150-word passage contains 109 one-syllable words. This total, 109, divided by 10 equals 10.9--which, when subtracted from 20, leaves a readability level of 9.1. This means that people who read below the ninth-grade level may have trouble reading this passage. For more details, see http ://agcomwww.tamu. edu/training/power/readabil .html.
24 Available at hap://132.208.224.131.
25 In Paul Nation's Vocabulary Levels Tests (Nation, 1990), words are classified into levels of 1000, 2000, 3000, 5000, University word List and 10,000. This test is designed to estimate examinees' basic knowledge of common word meanings, and, specifically, the extent to which they know the common meanings of words at different levels.
26 The website is http://www.educ.goteborg.se/usam/pforum/elpa/ar00.1.html.
27 I decided not to administer a pretest of the target words because it could have directed specific attention to the words when reading the text. This may affect the validity of the experiment.
28 The dictionaries that have been referred to include: Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary, Fourth edition, 1997, published by The Commercial Press and Oxford University Press; Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (English-Chinese), 1998, published by The Commercial Press and Addison Wesley Longman China Limited；英汉大词典，陆谷孙主编，1993，上海译文出版社；英语常用词汇分级词典，王彤福主编，1991，上海外语教育出版社etc．
29 Because most of the target words are of low frequency and English is a foreign language in China, it was highly unlikely that the subjects were exposed to the words between the immediate and the delayed tests. In terms of the time gap between the two tests, we found that some researchers chose three weeks [e.g. 董燕萍 (Dong Yanping), 2001; Brown, 1993; Groot, 2000; Sinhanayok and Hooper, 1998] and three weeks was also coincident with the administrative matters in the university. So I chose three weeks as our time gap between the two tests, but it was irrelevant to our study objective, which was to compare the effects of retention in three tasks. In the experiment, the same time delay was conducted for the three tasks.
30 The VKS designed by Paribakht and Wesche (1997) consists of two scales: elicitation scale and scoring scale. Elieitation scale ineludes 5 self-report categories: Ⅰ I don't remember having seen this word before. Ⅱ I have seen this word before, but I don't know what it means. Ⅲ I have seen this word before, and I think it means_____________, (synonym or translation) Ⅳ I know this word. It means______________. (synonym or translation) Ⅴ I can use this word in a sentence________________. (Write a sentence.) (If you so this section, please also do Section Ⅳ.) Corresponding to self-report categories, scoring scales includes 5 categories of meaning of scores: 1 The word is not familiar at all. 2 The word is familiar but its meaning is not known. 3 A correct synonym or translation is given. 4 The word is used with semantic appropriateness in a sentence. 5 The word is used with semantic appropriateness and grammatical accuracy in a sentence.
Arnaud P. J. L.and Savignon S. J. (1997). Rare words, complex lexical units and the advanced learner. In Coady, J. & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition." a rationale for pedagogy (pp. 157-173). Cambridge: CUP.
Bahns, J. (1993). Lexical collocations: a contrastive view. ELT Journa147, 1: 56-63.
Brown, C. (1993). Factors affecting the acquisition of vocabulary: Frequency and saliency of words. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp. 263-286). Norwood, N J: Ablex.
Brown, C., Sagers, S. L. & Laporte C. (1999). Incidental vocabulary acquisition from oral and written dialogue journals. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21:259-283.
Carrol, D. W. (2000). Psychology of language. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Chem, Chiou-Lan (1993). Chinese students' word-solving strategies in reading in English. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp. 67-85). Norwood, N J: Ablex.
Coady, J. (1993). Research on ESL/EFL vocabulary acquisition: Putting it in context. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp. 3-23). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Coady, J. (1997). L2 vocabulary acquisition through extensive reading. In Coady, J. & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: a rationale for pedagogy (pp. 225-237). Cambridge: CUP.
Day, R. R., Omura, C, and Hiramatsu, M. (1991). Incidental EFL Vocabulary Learning and Reading. Reading in a Foreign Language 7, 2:541-551.
De Ridder, I. (2002). Visible or invisible links: Does the highlighting of hyperlinks affect incidental vocabulary learning, text comprehension, and the reading process? Language Learning & Technology 6, 1: 123-146.
Dubin, F. and Olahtain, E. (1993). Predicting word meanings from contextual clues: evidence from L1 readers. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp181-202). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Ellis, N. (1995a). Vocabulary acquisition: Psychological Perspectives. The Language
Teacher 19, 2: 12-16.
Ellis, N. C. and Beaton, A (1993). Psycholinguistic determinants of foreign language vocabulary learning. Language Learning 43,4:559-617.
Ellis, R. (1995b). Modified oral input and the acquisition of word meaning. Applied Linguistics, 16:409-441.
Ellis, R., Tanaka, Y., & Yamazaki, A.(1994). Classroom interaction, comprehension and the acquisition of word meanings. Language Learning, 44: 449-491.
Ellis, R. & He, X. (1999). The roles of modified input and output in the incidental acquisition of word meanings. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21: 285-301.
Gaims, R. and Redman, S. (1986). Working with words: a guide to teaching and learning vocabulary. Cambridge: CUP.
Gass, S. (1999). Discussion: incidental vocabulary learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21:319-333.
Groot, E J. M. (2000). Computer assisted second language vocabulary acquisition. Language learning & Technology 4:60-81.
Hatch, E. and Brown, C. (2001). Vocabulary, semantics and language education. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Haynes, M. (1993). Patterns and perils of guessing in second language reading. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp46-64). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Haynes, M. and Baker, I. (1993). American and Chinese readers learning from lexical familiarization in English text. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp130-150). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Horst,M., Cobb, T. and Meara, P. (1998). Beyond a clockwork orange: acqhiring second language vocabulary through reading. Reading in a Foreign Language 11: 207-223.
Huckin, T., Haynes, M. & Coady, J. (Eds.) (1993). Second language reading and vocabulary learning. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Huckin, T. and Bloch, J. (1993). Strategies for inferring word-meanings in context: a cognitive model. In T. Huekin, M. Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language
reading and vocabulary learning(pp153-176). Norwood, N J: Ablex.
Huckin, T. & Coady, J. (1999). Incidental Vocabulary acquisition in a second language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21: 181-193.
Huckin, T. and Haynes, M. (1993). Summary and future directions. In T. Huckin, M.Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp289-298). Norwood, N J: Ablex.
Hulstijn J. H. and Laufer B. (2001). Some empirical evidence for the involvement load hypothesis in vocabulary acquisition. Language Learning 51: 539-558.
Jiang, N. (2000). Lexieal representation and development in a second language.Applied Linguistics 21:47-77.
Joe, A. (1998). What effects do text-based tasks promoting generation have on incidental vocabulary acquisition. Applied Linguistics 19/3: 357-377.
Johnson, K. and John H. (2001). Encyclopedic dictionary of applied linguistics: a handbook for language teaching. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Knight, S. (1994). Dictionary use while reading: The effects on comprehension and vocabulary acquisition for students of different verbal abilities. The Modern Language Journal 78:285-299.
Koren, S. (1999). Vocabulary instruction through hypertext: Are there advantages over conventional methods of teaching? TESL-EJ 4, 1, 1-14. Available at http://www.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/tesl-ej/ej 13/a2.html.
Krashen, S. (1989). We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading: Additional evidence for the input hypothesis. Modern Language Journal, 73: 440-464.
Laufer, B. (1997). The lexieal plight in second language reading. In Coady, J. & T.Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: a rationale for pedagogy (pp. 20-34). Cambridge:CUE
Laufer, B. and Hill, M. (2000). What lexical information do L2 learners select in a CALL dictionary and how does it affect word retention? Language learning & Technology 3, 2: 58-76.
Laufer, B. and Hulstijn, J. (2001). Incidental vocabulary acquisition in a second language: the construct of task-induced involvement. Applied Linguistics 22/1: 1-26.
Lawson, M.J. and Hogben, D. (1996). The vocabulary-learning strategies of foreign-language students. Language Learning 46/1: 101-135.
Lomicka, L.L. (1998). "To gloss or not to gloss": an investigation of reading comprehension on line. Language Learning & Technology 1/2: 41-50.
Luppescu, S. and Day R. R. (1993). Reading, dictionary, and vocabulary learning.Language Learning 43/2: 263-287.
Meara, P. (1997). Towards a new approach to modelling vocabulary acquisition. In Schmitt, N. & M. McCarty. (Eds.). Vocabulary: description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp 109-121). Cambridge: CUP.
Mondria, J. & De Boer, W. (1991). The effects of contextual richness on the guessability and the retention of words in a foreign language. Applied Linguistics,12: 249-267.
Nation, I.S.P. (1990). Teaching and learning vocabulary. New York: Newbury House.
Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: CUP.
Nation, P. & Coady J. (1988). Vocabulary and reading. In R. Carter & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary and language teaching (pp. 97-110). London and New York: Longman.
Nation, P. and Waring, R. (1997). Vocabulary size, text coverage and word lists. In Schmitt, N. & M. MeCarty. (Eds.). Vocabulary: description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp6-19). Cambridge: CUP.
Nagy, W. (1997). On the role of context in first- and second-language vocabulary learning. In Schmitt, N. & M. McCarty. (Eds.). Vocabulary: description,acquisition and pedagogy (pp64-83). Cambridge: CUP.
Nattinger, J. (1988). Some current trends in vocabulary teaching. In R. Carter & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary and language teaching (pp. 62-82). London and New York: Longman.
O'Malley, J.M. and Chamot, A.U. (2001). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Paribakht, T.S. & Wesehe, M. (1997). Vocabulary enhancement activities and reading for meaning in second language vocabulary acquisition. In Coady, J. & T.Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: a rationale for
pedagogy(pp.174-200). Cambridge: CUP.
Paribakht, T.S. & Wesche, M. (1999). Reading and "incidental" L2 vocabulary acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21: 195-224.
Richards, J. C. (1976). The role of vocabulary teaching. TESOL Quarterly 10, 77-89.
Richards, J. C., Platt, J. and Platt, H. (2000). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Robinson, B. (2003). Words, Words and Knowledge of Words: an interview with Norbert Schmitt. The Greta Magazine: Volume 9 No. 1. Available at http://www.infogreta.org/magazine/articles-9-1.htm
Schmidt, R. W. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning.Applied Linguistics 11/2: 129-158.
Schmitt, N. (1998). Tracking the incremental acquisition of second vocabulary: A longitudinal study. Language Learning 48: 281-317.
Schmitt, N. & Meara, P.(1997). Researching vocabulary through word knowledge framework: word association and verbal suffixes. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19: 17-36.
Schmitt, N. & M. McCarty. (Eds.). (1997). Vocabulary: description, acquisition and pedagogy. Cambridge: CUP.
Segler, T. M. (2001). PhD research proposal: second language vocabulary acquisition and learning strategies in ICALL environment. Available at http://www.dai.ed.ac.uk/homes/thomass/newprop.pdf/.
Singhanayok, Ch., and Hooper S. (1998). The effects of cooperative learning and learner control on students' achievement, options selections, and attitudes.Educational Technology, Research and Development, 46, 2, 17-33.
Singleton, D. (1999). Exploring the second language mental lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Skehan, P. (1999). A cognitive approach to language learning. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Skmen, A.J. (1997). Current trends in teaching second language vocabulary. In Schmitt, N. & M. McCarty, (Eds.), Vocabulary: description, acquisition and pedagogy(pp237-257). Cambridge: CUP.
Stein, M.J. (1993). The healthy inadequacy of contextual definition. In T. Huckin, M.Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp203-214). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Stem, H. H. (1999). Issues and options in language teaching. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Swanbom, M. S. L. and de Glopper, K. (2002). Impact of reading purpose on incidental word learning from context. Language learning 52, 1: 95-117.
Waring, R. (1997). A study of receptive and productive vocabulary learning from word cards. Draft [On-line]. Available at http://www1.harnet.ne.jp/～waring/papers/papers.html.
Watanabe, Y. (1997). Input, intake, and retention: Effects of increased processing on incidental learning of foreign language vocabulary. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19: 287-307.
Wesche, M. & Paribakht, S.. (Eds). (1999). Incidental L2 Vocabulary acquisition: Theory, current research, and instructional implications. [Special issue]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21(2).
Wesche, M. & Paribakht, S. (2000). Reading-based exercised in second language vocabulary learning: an introspective study. The Modern Language Journal 84: 196-213
Wode, H. (1999). Incidental vocabulary acquisition in the foreign language classroom. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21: 243-258.
董燕萍，2001，交际法教学中词汇的直接学习与间接学习，《外语教学与研究》，2001年第3期。
盖淑华，2003，英语专业学生词汇附带习得实证研究，《外语教学与研究》，2003年第4期。
柯崴、董燕萍，2001，上下文在二语词汇直接学习中的效果研究，《现代外语》，2001年第4期。
刘绍龙，2001，论二语词汇深度习得及发展特征——关于“词义”与“词缀”习得的实证研究，《外语教学与研究》，2001年第6期。
吴旭东、陈晓庆，2000，中国英语学生课堂环境下词汇能力的发展，《现代外语》，2000年第4期。
2 Cognition means the various mental processing used in thinking, remembering, perceiving, recognizing, classifying, etc. (Richards et al., 2000, p73).
3 Incidental vocabulary learning through reading is a hot concern in second language acquisition study recently and some books and the thematic collections of articles have been published in recent years, such as Second Language Reading and Vocabulary Learning (edited by Huckin and Coady, 1993) and Incidental Vocabulary Learning (edited by Wesche and Paribakht in the journal Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 1999).
4 Schmidt defines 'noticing' as the subjective correlate of what psychologists call 'attention', roughly equivalent to 'clear perception' and 'detection within selective attention' (Laufer and Hulstijn, 2001). According to Richards et al. (2000), attention means the ability a person has to concentrate on something, or part of something, while ignoring things.
5 Gass (1999) discussed the definitions of the three words "Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition" respectively in details.
6 Word families consist of a base word, inflected forms, and transparent derivations Webster's Third has a vocabulary of around 54,000 word families (Nation and Waring, 1997).
7 Nation and Coady (1988, p 102) classified two contexts. Context within the text can be viewed as morphological, syntactic, and discourse information in a given text which can be classified and described in terms of general features. General context refers to the background knowledge of the subject matter of a given text.
8 Nation and Coady (1988,p104) noted that it was not an unrealistic goal to expect learners to guess between 60 percent to 80 percent of the unknown words if the density of the unknown words was not too high.
9 Strategy means procedures used in learning, thinking, etc. which serves as a way of reaching a goal. In language learning, learning strategies and communication strategies are those conscious or unconscious processes which language learners make use of in learning and using a language (Richards et al, 2000, p445). According to Segler (2001), most popular vocabulary learning strategies include guessing from context, the keyword method, dictionary look-up, and use of vocabulary/multimedia (hypermedia) glosses etc.
10 Nattinger (1988 ) listed several examples o f redundancy: synonym in apposition; antonym; cause and effect; association between an object and its purpose or use; description and example. Anaphora refers to the process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation (Richards et al., 2000, p21). Parallelism refers to the cues with grammatical relationship and semantic similarity between words (Chem, 1993).
11 According to Nation (1990), direct vocabulary learning is a conscious effort made to learn vocabulary either in context or in isolation, for example, by learning lists of word forms and their meanings, by doing vocabulary learning exercises, or by studying affixes and roots while indirect vocabulary learning means that new words are learned incidentally in reading or listening, usually as the result of information provided by the context information.
12 Selective attention means to draw learners' attention to target words; or to ensure that they notice it, e.g. underlining, bolding, circling. Recognition requires association of the target word form with at least one of its meanings, e.g. matching word with definition or synonym; recognizing meaning of target word from multiple choice responses. Manipulation requires structural analysis of target word to rearrange/organize given elements, e.g. changing grammatical category of target word; constructing words using stems and affixes. Interpretation involves semantic and syntactic analysis, including the relationship of target word with other words in given contexts (such as collocations, synonyms, antonyms), e.g. guessing meaning of target word in context; multiple-choice cloze exercises. Production requires retrieval and production of target word in appropriate novel contexts, e.g. open cloze exercises, answering a question requiring the target word.
13 According to Nattinger (1988, p66), the key-word method means that the student learns a word in the target language by associating it with its translation in the native language in a special way. For example, in learning that the Spanish word perro means "dog", one might notice that the first syllable of the new word sounds like "pear" and would then visualize a large pear-shaped dog waddling down the street.
14 Cognitive skill refers to the ability to perform various mental procedures (O'Malley and Chamot, 2001, p24).
15 Natural order hypothesis means that children acquiring their first language acquire linguistic forms, rules, and items in a similar order (Richards et al., 2000, p304).
16 It is generally believed that all perception implies mental organization and the ability to create internal representations of external events (Schmidt, 1990, p132).
17 Elaboration is the process of relating incoming information to information already stored in permanent memory (Carroll, 2000, p388).
18 Manipulation means processing operation (Skehan, 1999, p81).
19 Rehearsal means saying a new word or sentence to oneself(usually silently) in order to memorize it (Richards et al., 2000, p393).
20 Encoding means the process of turning a message into a set of symbols, as part of the act communications (Richards et al., 2000, p154).
21 Motivation refers to the factors that determine a person's desire to do something. In second language and foreign language learning, learning may be affected differently by different types of motivation (Richards et al., 2000, p298).
22 i+1 is a concept associated with the natural approach, which rests on the premise that there is a 'natural order' for language acquisition and that learners will acquire a structure when 'ready for it'. In the classroom, learners are supplied with 'comprehensible input' corresponding to their curtent level of competence (i) but also containing new language data relating to the next stage (+1) towards which they are moving 'along some natural order' (John_son and Johnson, 2001).
23 FORCAST Readability Formula=20-number of one-syllable words + 10. For example, a 150-word passage contains 109 one-syllable words. This total, 109, divided by 10 equals 10.9--which, when subtracted from 20, leaves a readability level of 9.1. This means that people who read below the ninth-grade level may have trouble reading this passage. For more details, see http ://agcomwww.tamu. edu/training/power/readabil .html.
24 Available at hap://132.208.224.131.
25 In Paul Nation's Vocabulary Levels Tests (Nation, 1990), words are classified into levels of 1000, 2000, 3000, 5000, University word List and 10,000. This test is designed to estimate examinees' basic knowledge of common word meanings, and, specifically, the extent to which they know the common meanings of words at different levels.
26 The website is http://www.educ.goteborg.se/usam/pforum/elpa/ar00.1.html.
27 I decided not to administer a pretest of the target words because it could have directed specific attention to the words when reading the text. This may affect the validity of the experiment.
28 The dictionaries that have been referred to include: Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary, Fourth edition, 1997, published by The Commercial Press and Oxford University Press; Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (English-Chinese), 1998, published by The Commercial Press and Addison Wesley Longman China Limited；英汉大词典，陆谷孙主编，1993，上海译文出版社；英语常用词汇分级词典，王彤福主编，1991，上海外语教育出版社etc．
29 Because most of the target words are of low frequency and English is a foreign language in China, it was highly unlikely that the subjects were exposed to the words between the immediate and the delayed tests. In terms of the time gap between the two tests, we found that some researchers chose three weeks [e.g. 董燕萍 (Dong Yanping), 2001; Brown, 1993; Groot, 2000; Sinhanayok and Hooper, 1998] and three weeks was also coincident with the administrative matters in the university. So I chose three weeks as our time gap between the two tests, but it was irrelevant to our study objective, which was to compare the effects of retention in three tasks. In the experiment, the same time delay was conducted for the three tasks.
30 The VKS designed by Paribakht and Wesche (1997) consists of two scales: elicitation scale and scoring scale. Elieitation scale ineludes 5 self-report categories: Ⅰ I don't remember having seen this word before. Ⅱ I have seen this word before, but I don't know what it means. Ⅲ I have seen this word before, and I think it means_____________, (synonym or translation) Ⅳ I know this word. It means______________. (synonym or translation) Ⅴ I can use this word in a sentence________________. (Write a sentence.) (If you so this section, please also do Section Ⅳ.) Corresponding to self-report categories, scoring scales includes 5 categories of meaning of scores: 1 The word is not familiar at all. 2 The word is familiar but its meaning is not known. 3 A correct synonym or translation is given. 4 The word is used with semantic appropriateness in a sentence. 5 The word is used with semantic appropriateness and grammatical accuracy in a sentence.
Arnaud P. J. L.and Savignon S. J. (1997). Rare words, complex lexical units and the advanced learner. In Coady, J. & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition." a rationale for pedagogy (pp. 157-173). Cambridge: CUP.
Bahns, J. (1993). Lexical collocations: a contrastive view. ELT Journa147, 1: 56-63.
Brown, C. (1993). Factors affecting the acquisition of vocabulary: Frequency and saliency of words. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp. 263-286). Norwood, N J: Ablex.
Brown, C., Sagers, S. L. & Laporte C. (1999). Incidental vocabulary acquisition from oral and written dialogue journals. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21:259-283.
Carrol, D. W. (2000). Psychology of language. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Chem, Chiou-Lan (1993). Chinese students' word-solving strategies in reading in English. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp. 67-85). Norwood, N J: Ablex.
Coady, J. (1993). Research on ESL/EFL vocabulary acquisition: Putting it in context. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp. 3-23). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Coady, J. (1997). L2 vocabulary acquisition through extensive reading. In Coady, J. & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: a rationale for pedagogy (pp. 225-237). Cambridge: CUP.
Day, R. R., Omura, C, and Hiramatsu, M. (1991). Incidental EFL Vocabulary Learning and Reading. Reading in a Foreign Language 7, 2:541-551.
De Ridder, I. (2002). Visible or invisible links: Does the highlighting of hyperlinks affect incidental vocabulary learning, text comprehension, and the reading process? Language Learning & Technology 6, 1: 123-146.
Dubin, F. and Olahtain, E. (1993). Predicting word meanings from contextual clues: evidence from L1 readers. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp181-202). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Ellis, N. (1995a). Vocabulary acquisition: Psychological Perspectives. The Language
Teacher 19, 2: 12-16.
Ellis, N. C. and Beaton, A (1993). Psycholinguistic determinants of foreign language vocabulary learning. Language Learning 43,4:559-617.
Ellis, R. (1995b). Modified oral input and the acquisition of word meaning. Applied Linguistics, 16:409-441.
Ellis, R., Tanaka, Y., & Yamazaki, A.(1994). Classroom interaction, comprehension and the acquisition of word meanings. Language Learning, 44: 449-491.
Ellis, R. & He, X. (1999). The roles of modified input and output in the incidental acquisition of word meanings. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21: 285-301.
Gaims, R. and Redman, S. (1986). Working with words: a guide to teaching and learning vocabulary. Cambridge: CUP.
Gass, S. (1999). Discussion: incidental vocabulary learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21:319-333.
Groot, E J. M. (2000). Computer assisted second language vocabulary acquisition. Language learning & Technology 4:60-81.
Hatch, E. and Brown, C. (2001). Vocabulary, semantics and language education. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Haynes, M. (1993). Patterns and perils of guessing in second language reading. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp46-64). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Haynes, M. and Baker, I. (1993). American and Chinese readers learning from lexical familiarization in English text. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp130-150). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Horst,M., Cobb, T. and Meara, P. (1998). Beyond a clockwork orange: acqhiring second language vocabulary through reading. Reading in a Foreign Language 11: 207-223.
Huckin, T., Haynes, M. & Coady, J. (Eds.) (1993). Second language reading and vocabulary learning. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Huckin, T. and Bloch, J. (1993). Strategies for inferring word-meanings in context: a cognitive model. In T. Huekin, M. Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language
reading and vocabulary learning(pp153-176). Norwood, N J: Ablex.
Huckin, T. & Coady, J. (1999). Incidental Vocabulary acquisition in a second language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21: 181-193.
Huckin, T. and Haynes, M. (1993). Summary and future directions. In T. Huckin, M.Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp289-298). Norwood, N J: Ablex.
Hulstijn J. H. and Laufer B. (2001). Some empirical evidence for the involvement load hypothesis in vocabulary acquisition. Language Learning 51: 539-558.
Jiang, N. (2000). Lexieal representation and development in a second language.Applied Linguistics 21:47-77.
Joe, A. (1998). What effects do text-based tasks promoting generation have on incidental vocabulary acquisition. Applied Linguistics 19/3: 357-377.
Johnson, K. and John H. (2001). Encyclopedic dictionary of applied linguistics: a handbook for language teaching. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Knight, S. (1994). Dictionary use while reading: The effects on comprehension and vocabulary acquisition for students of different verbal abilities. The Modern Language Journal 78:285-299.
Koren, S. (1999). Vocabulary instruction through hypertext: Are there advantages over conventional methods of teaching? TESL-EJ 4, 1, 1-14. Available at http://www.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/tesl-ej/ej 13/a2.html.
Krashen, S. (1989). We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading: Additional evidence for the input hypothesis. Modern Language Journal, 73: 440-464.
Laufer, B. (1997). The lexieal plight in second language reading. In Coady, J. & T.Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: a rationale for pedagogy (pp. 20-34). Cambridge:CUE
Laufer, B. and Hill, M. (2000). What lexical information do L2 learners select in a CALL dictionary and how does it affect word retention? Language learning & Technology 3, 2: 58-76.
Laufer, B. and Hulstijn, J. (2001). Incidental vocabulary acquisition in a second language: the construct of task-induced involvement. Applied Linguistics 22/1: 1-26.
Lawson, M.J. and Hogben, D. (1996). The vocabulary-learning strategies of foreign-language students. Language Learning 46/1: 101-135.
Lomicka, L.L. (1998). "To gloss or not to gloss": an investigation of reading comprehension on line. Language Learning & Technology 1/2: 41-50.
Luppescu, S. and Day R. R. (1993). Reading, dictionary, and vocabulary learning.Language Learning 43/2: 263-287.
Meara, P. (1997). Towards a new approach to modelling vocabulary acquisition. In Schmitt, N. & M. McCarty. (Eds.). Vocabulary: description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp 109-121). Cambridge: CUP.
Mondria, J. & De Boer, W. (1991). The effects of contextual richness on the guessability and the retention of words in a foreign language. Applied Linguistics,12: 249-267.
Nation, I.S.P. (1990). Teaching and learning vocabulary. New York: Newbury House.
Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: CUP.
Nation, P. & Coady J. (1988). Vocabulary and reading. In R. Carter & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary and language teaching (pp. 97-110). London and New York: Longman.
Nation, P. and Waring, R. (1997). Vocabulary size, text coverage and word lists. In Schmitt, N. & M. MeCarty. (Eds.). Vocabulary: description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp6-19). Cambridge: CUP.
Nagy, W. (1997). On the role of context in first- and second-language vocabulary learning. In Schmitt, N. & M. McCarty. (Eds.). Vocabulary: description,acquisition and pedagogy (pp64-83). Cambridge: CUP.
Nattinger, J. (1988). Some current trends in vocabulary teaching. In R. Carter & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary and language teaching (pp. 62-82). London and New York: Longman.
O'Malley, J.M. and Chamot, A.U. (2001). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Paribakht, T.S. & Wesehe, M. (1997). Vocabulary enhancement activities and reading for meaning in second language vocabulary acquisition. In Coady, J. & T.Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: a rationale for
pedagogy(pp.174-200). Cambridge: CUP.
Paribakht, T.S. & Wesche, M. (1999). Reading and "incidental" L2 vocabulary acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21: 195-224.
Richards, J. C. (1976). The role of vocabulary teaching. TESOL Quarterly 10, 77-89.
Richards, J. C., Platt, J. and Platt, H. (2000). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Robinson, B. (2003). Words, Words and Knowledge of Words: an interview with Norbert Schmitt. The Greta Magazine: Volume 9 No. 1. Available at http://www.infogreta.org/magazine/articles-9-1.htm
Schmidt, R. W. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning.Applied Linguistics 11/2: 129-158.
Schmitt, N. (1998). Tracking the incremental acquisition of second vocabulary: A longitudinal study. Language Learning 48: 281-317.
Schmitt, N. & Meara, P.(1997). Researching vocabulary through word knowledge framework: word association and verbal suffixes. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19: 17-36.
Schmitt, N. & M. McCarty. (Eds.). (1997). Vocabulary: description, acquisition and pedagogy. Cambridge: CUP.
Segler, T. M. (2001). PhD research proposal: second language vocabulary acquisition and learning strategies in ICALL environment. Available at http://www.dai.ed.ac.uk/homes/thomass/newprop.pdf/.
Singhanayok, Ch., and Hooper S. (1998). The effects of cooperative learning and learner control on students' achievement, options selections, and attitudes.Educational Technology, Research and Development, 46, 2, 17-33.
Singleton, D. (1999). Exploring the second language mental lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Skehan, P. (1999). A cognitive approach to language learning. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Skmen, A.J. (1997). Current trends in teaching second language vocabulary. In Schmitt, N. & M. McCarty, (Eds.), Vocabulary: description, acquisition and pedagogy(pp237-257). Cambridge: CUP.
Stein, M.J. (1993). The healthy inadequacy of contextual definition. In T. Huckin, M.Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp203-214). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Stem, H. H. (1999). Issues and options in language teaching. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Swanbom, M. S. L. and de Glopper, K. (2002). Impact of reading purpose on incidental word learning from context. Language learning 52, 1: 95-117.
Waring, R. (1997). A study of receptive and productive vocabulary learning from word cards. Draft [On-line]. Available at http://www1.harnet.ne.jp/～waring/papers/papers.html.
Watanabe, Y. (1997). Input, intake, and retention: Effects of increased processing on incidental learning of foreign language vocabulary. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19: 287-307.
Wesche, M. & Paribakht, S.. (Eds). (1999). Incidental L2 Vocabulary acquisition: Theory, current research, and instructional implications. [Special issue]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21(2).
Wesche, M. & Paribakht, S. (2000). Reading-based exercised in second language vocabulary learning: an introspective study. The Modern Language Journal 84: 196-213
Wode, H. (1999). Incidental vocabulary acquisition in the foreign language classroom. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21: 243-258.
董燕萍，2001，交际法教学中词汇的直接学习与间接学习，《外语教学与研究》，2001年第3期。
盖淑华，2003，英语专业学生词汇附带习得实证研究，《外语教学与研究》，2003年第4期。
柯崴、董燕萍，2001，上下文在二语词汇直接学习中的效果研究，《现代外语》，2001年第4期。
刘绍龙，2001，论二语词汇深度习得及发展特征——关于“词义”与“词缀”习得的实证研究，《外语教学与研究》，2001年第6期。
吴旭东、陈晓庆，2000，中国英语学生课堂环境下词汇能力的发展，《现代外语》，2000年第4期。