平板对接接头电子束焊接残余应力研究
|
摘要
电子束焊接作为一种先进的连接技术,在我国制造业中蕴藏着巨大的应用潜力和广阔的开发空间。焊接残余应力是影响构件强度和寿命的主要因素之一,电子束焊接属于局部短时高温加热,焊缝窄而深,在焊接过程中会产生相当大的焊接应力,并在焊后形成残余应力,对结构的安全使用具有重要的影响。
随着数值分析、计算机技术和信息技术的迅速发展,数值模拟技术已经逐步渗透到焊接工程问题的研究中,采用有限元方法进行数值模拟焊接残余应力的研究,可以提供一种快捷而又准确的预先研究方法,从而来确定焊接各种结构和材料时的最佳设计、最佳工艺方法和最佳焊接参数。
本文以在军事装备、航空航天及其他制造领域中广泛应用的中碳调质钢和纯铝为验证对象,依据热弹塑性理论,采用ANSYS有限元分析软件对平板对接接头电子束焊接残余应力进行数值模拟分析计算,结合金相组织和基本力学性能的分析,研究焊接残余应力的分布特征和数值,同时,采用小孔法对接头残余应力进行了实际测量,将实际测量结果与计算值进行了对比验证,结果表明:焊接残余应力以纵向残余应力为主,纵向残余应力远大于横向残余应力。在焊缝中心处,残余拉应力的峰值低于材料的屈服极限。焊接残余应力模拟结果与试验测量结果基本一致。这说明本文所采用的模拟方法及试验手段具有一定的应用可行性,因此本文的研究成果可以为制定正确的焊接工艺,改善接头性能提供一定的理论依据,从而加速电子束焊接在工程实践中的广泛应用。
Electron beam welding have great application potential and broad development space as an advanced technology of joining in China in the manufacturing industry. Welding residual stress is the main affecting factors to strength and life of welding lathes. electron beam welding is a process that the local sector is heated to high temperatures in short-term, Weld seam is narrow and deep ,in the welding process will have a large welding stress, and after welding formation residual stress to the safe use of the structure has important implications.
With rapid developing of the numerical analysis, computer technology and the information technology, numerical simulation technology has gradually penetrate into the welding engineering,with the method of finite element to numerical simulate the weld residual stress research that can provide a quick and accurate Advance research methods, to determine the best design, best technological method and best welding parameters in all kinds of structure and welding materials.
In this paper, medium carbon hardend tempered steel and aluminum that was used widely in military equipment\aerospace and other industrition is target of studing, according to the thermal elastic and plastic theory, using ANSYS finite element analysis software for residual stress in plate welded joints which was joined with electron beam welding to numerical Analysis, with the analysis of microstructure and mechanical properties, study the distribution and value of welding residual stress, at the same time, measured the joint residual stress with hole drilling method, the actual measurement results Compare for the calculation of the value , The results showed that: welding residual stress is mainly longitudinal residual stress, longitudinal residual stress is far greater than the transversal residual stress. in the Weld center, the maximum value of residual stresses is lower than its yield strength. The simulation results about the welded residual stresses are almost identical with the experimental results by measuring. This shows that the paper used the simulation method and test method have the feasibility of certain applications, the results of research on this paper can be the theoretical basis for the correct welding technology, to improve joint performance ,thereby accelerating the electron beam welding applications widely in engineering.
随着数值分析、计算机技术和信息技术的迅速发展,数值模拟技术已经逐步渗透到焊接工程问题的研究中,采用有限元方法进行数值模拟焊接残余应力的研究,可以提供一种快捷而又准确的预先研究方法,从而来确定焊接各种结构和材料时的最佳设计、最佳工艺方法和最佳焊接参数。
本文以在军事装备、航空航天及其他制造领域中广泛应用的中碳调质钢和纯铝为验证对象,依据热弹塑性理论,采用ANSYS有限元分析软件对平板对接接头电子束焊接残余应力进行数值模拟分析计算,结合金相组织和基本力学性能的分析,研究焊接残余应力的分布特征和数值,同时,采用小孔法对接头残余应力进行了实际测量,将实际测量结果与计算值进行了对比验证,结果表明:焊接残余应力以纵向残余应力为主,纵向残余应力远大于横向残余应力。在焊缝中心处,残余拉应力的峰值低于材料的屈服极限。焊接残余应力模拟结果与试验测量结果基本一致。这说明本文所采用的模拟方法及试验手段具有一定的应用可行性,因此本文的研究成果可以为制定正确的焊接工艺,改善接头性能提供一定的理论依据,从而加速电子束焊接在工程实践中的广泛应用。
Electron beam welding have great application potential and broad development space as an advanced technology of joining in China in the manufacturing industry. Welding residual stress is the main affecting factors to strength and life of welding lathes. electron beam welding is a process that the local sector is heated to high temperatures in short-term, Weld seam is narrow and deep ,in the welding process will have a large welding stress, and after welding formation residual stress to the safe use of the structure has important implications.
With rapid developing of the numerical analysis, computer technology and the information technology, numerical simulation technology has gradually penetrate into the welding engineering,with the method of finite element to numerical simulate the weld residual stress research that can provide a quick and accurate Advance research methods, to determine the best design, best technological method and best welding parameters in all kinds of structure and welding materials.
In this paper, medium carbon hardend tempered steel and aluminum that was used widely in military equipment\aerospace and other industrition is target of studing, according to the thermal elastic and plastic theory, using ANSYS finite element analysis software for residual stress in plate welded joints which was joined with electron beam welding to numerical Analysis, with the analysis of microstructure and mechanical properties, study the distribution and value of welding residual stress, at the same time, measured the joint residual stress with hole drilling method, the actual measurement results Compare for the calculation of the value , The results showed that: welding residual stress is mainly longitudinal residual stress, longitudinal residual stress is far greater than the transversal residual stress. in the Weld center, the maximum value of residual stresses is lower than its yield strength. The simulation results about the welded residual stresses are almost identical with the experimental results by measuring. This shows that the paper used the simulation method and test method have the feasibility of certain applications, the results of research on this paper can be the theoretical basis for the correct welding technology, to improve joint performance ,thereby accelerating the electron beam welding applications widely in engineering.
引文
[1]陈芙蓉.电子束局部热处理对焊接接头组织和力学性能影响的研究[D].天津大学博士研究生毕业论文.2002
[2]张志勇,田志凌,彭云等.铝合金先进焊接工艺[J].焊接.2003(7):5-11
[3]张秉刚,吴林,冯吉才.国内外电子束焊接技术研究现状[J].焊接.2004(2)5-8
[4]刘春飞,张益坤.电子束焊接技术发展历史、现状及展望(Ⅲ)[J].航天制造技术.2003,6(3):27-31
[5]Ellis M B D.Joining of aluminum based metal matrix composites[J].International Materials Reviews.1996,41(2):41-58
[6]刘志华,赵兵,赵青等.21世纪航天工业铝合金焊接工艺技术展望[J].导弹与航天运载技术.2002(5):63-68
[7]美国焊接学会编.焊接手册[M].北京:机械工业出版社.1991
[8]刘春飞.运载贮箱用2219类铝合金的电子束焊[J].航天制造技术.2002(8):4-9
[9]Chen S C,Huang J C.Comparison of post-weld microstructures and mechanical properties of electron and laser-beam welded 8089Al-Lialloy plates[J].Materials Transactions.JIM 1999,4(10):1039-1078
[10]王世卿,刘方军.电子束回扫间距对焊缝金属的可控细化作用[J].材料研究学报.1996,10(3):161-163
[11 刘志华,雷学锋,赵兵等.铝合金局部真空电子束焊接工艺研究[J].核技术.2002,25(9):754-757
[12]Ulrich Drougelates,Belkacem Bouaifi,Brahim Ouaissa High-speed non-vacuum electron-beam welding of aluminum alloy[J].Schweissen & Schneiden.2000(7):30-35
[13]刘小文,傅莉,段立宇等.摩擦焊接头残余应力应变场的激光全息法研究[J].机械科学与技术.2000,19(2):301-303
[14]焦馥杰.焊接结构分析基础[M].上海科学技术文献出版社.1991
[15]Mochizuki M,Hayashi M,Hattori T.Comparison of five evaluation methods residual stress in a welded pipe joint[J].JSME International Journal.1999,42(1):104-110
[16]Kannengiesser T,Florian W,Herold H.Incremental hold-drilling method for the determination of residual stresses on welds[J].Welding Research Abroad.2000,46(3):12-19
[17]唐慕尧.焊接测试技术[M].北京:机械工业出版社.1988,3
[18]游敏,郑小玲,王福得等.盲孔法测定焊接残余应力适宜时间研究[J].武汉水 利电力大学(宜昌)学报.1999,21(2):54-57
[19]傅积和,孙玉林主编.焊接数据资料手册[M].北京:机械工业出版社.1994
[20]M.E.S.Abdel Moneim,et al.Assesament of Residual Stresses of Nonferrous Tubes Joined by Friction Welding EXP.Mech.March,1986
[21]邹大庆等.用高温高频光栅研究激光焊接的残余应变场[J].清华大学学报.1997(8):58-61
[22]陈勇,高德平,陈士煊等.钛合金平板电子束焊接残余应力的小孔法测量[J].理化检验-物理分册.2001,37(10):427-430
[23]王树宏,左敦稳等.LY12,B95П.Ч,7075铝合金预拉伸厚板内部残余应力分布特征评估与分析[J].材料工程.2004(10):32-35
[24]Susumu Tsukamoto et al.Melting process and spiking phenomenon in electron beam welding [J].Transactions of the Japan Welding Society.1993,24(1):10-15
[25]Franticiek kolenlc et al.The influence of electron beam focusing on the shape and depth of the weld[J].Welding and Cutting.1992,11:24-26
[26]Andews.J.G,Atthey.D.R.The response of a weld pool to perturbations on power [J].International Journal of Heat Transfer.1979,22(11):1533-1538
[27]C.K.Hsieh.Exact solution of stefan problems related to a moving line heat source in a quasi-stationary state[J].Journal of Heat Transfer.1995,117(11):1076-1079
[28]V.N.Lastovirya,D.A.Mosin.Connection of Vapor-gaseous channel parameters with conditions of energetic balance on crater first wall under electron beam welding[J].Fizika I khimiya Obraboki Materialov.1991,2(3):134-39
[29]P.S.Wei,M.D.Shian.Three-dimensional analytical temperature field around the welding cavity produced by a moving distributed high-intensity beam[J].Transactions of the ASME.1993,115(11):848-856
[30]P.S.Wei,C.Y.Ho,M.D.Shian,C.L.Hu.Three-dimensional analytical temperature field and its application to solidification characteristics in high- or low-power-density- beam welding[J].International Journal of Heat Mass Transfer.1997,40(10):2283-2292
[31]P Petron et al.Real time optical barometry in electron beam welding[J].International Journal for the Joining of Materials.1996,8(4):152-155
[32]P Petron.Numerical modeling of temperature distributions in electron beam welding [J].International Journal for the Joining of Materials.1992,4(4):110-115
[33]Chang Jengming,Tang Wucheng.Finite element modeling of heat transfer and residual stress analysis for electron beam welding[J].Journal of the Chinese Society of Mechanical Engineera 1994,15(1):1-10
[34]Z Paley,P D Hibbort.Computation of Temperature in Actual Weld Designs[J].Welding Journal.1975,54(3):12-15
[36]G W Krutz,L J Segerlined.Finite Element Analysis of Welded Structures[J].Welding Journal.1978,57(2):23
[37]H A Nied.The Finite Element Modeling of the Resistance Spot Welding Process[J].Welding Journal.1984,63(5):27
[38]陈楚,汪建华,杨洪庆.非线性焊接热传导的有限元分析和计算[J].焊接学报.1983,4(1):26-28
[39]郭绍庆等.GH909 电子束焊接温度场的有限元分析[J].航空材料学报.2000,20(3):98-101
[40]刘敏等.Ti合金电子束焊接三维温度场计算[J].金属学报.2001,37(3):301-30
[41]董平等.铍环电子束焊接温度场和应力场的有限元分析[J].原子能科学技术.2002,36(3):209-213
[42]张海泉等.电子束焊接动态过程仿真分析[J].材料科学与工艺.2002.10(3):256-259
[43]吴会强,冯吉才,何景山.电子束焊接深熔产生机理的研究现状与发展[J].焊接.2003,(8):5-7,12
[44]秦颖等.强流脉冲电子束表面改性的物理模型及数值模拟[J].强激光与粒子束.2003,(15):701-704
[45]陈芙蓉等.BT20钛合金电子束焊接残余应力三维有限元数值模拟[J].焊接学报.2004,1(25):61-64,70
[46]L.Dufrene,J.Truc,R.Martin.Modeling of thermal stresses during an electron-beam welding progress[J].Journal of Thermal Stresses.1996,19:211-236
[47]L.E.Lindgren,H.A.Haggbland,J.M.J.McDill,A.S.Oddy.Automatic remeshing for three-dimensional finite element simulation welding[J].Comput Methods Appl,Mech.Engrg.1997,11(147):401-409
[48]Leon Cizelj,Heinz Riesch-Oppermann.Stresses in the first wall of a dual-coolant liquid-metal breeder blanket during electron-beam welding[J].Fusion Technology.1997,32(8):14-22
[49]R.C.Reed,H.J.Stone,S.M.Roberts,J.M.Robinson.Development and validation of a model for the electron beam welding of aero-engine components.Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers[J].Part G:Journal of Aerospace Engineering 1997,211(6):421-428
[50]J.M J.McDill,A.S.Oddy,R.C.Reed.Predicting residual stresses and distortion when welding aeroengine alloys[J].Canadian Aeronautics and Space Journal.1988,44(2):68-72
[51]J.R.Cho.Residual Stresses in an Electron Beam Weld of Ti-834:Characterization and Numerical Modeling[J].Metallurgical And Materials Transactions A.2003,12(34A):2935-2946
[52]N.Gouret.Assessment of the Origin of Porosity in Electron-Beam-Welded TA6V Plates [J].Metallurgical And Materials Transactions A 2004,3(35A):879-889
[53]张建勋等.钴基合金静叶片焊接裂纹力学因素研究[J].西安交通大学学报.1994,28(4):86-90
[54]凌泽民等.铍环电子束焊接接头残余应力分析[J].焊接技术.2000,29(1):4-5
[55]陈芙蓉等.电子束局部热处理对30CrMnSi2A钢焊接接头组织和断裂性能的影响[J].焊接学报.2001,32(6):53-66
[56]刘敏等.钛合金平板电子束焊接残余应力数值分析[J].航空动力学报.2001,16(1):63-66
[57]刘敏等.钛合金大厚板试件电子束焊接残余应力有限元分析[J].机械工程学报.2003,39(9):142-145
[58]《中国航空材料手册》编辑委员会编.中国航空材料手册(第2版)[M].北京:中国标准出版社.2002
[59]王祝堂,田荣璋等.铝合金及其加工手册[M].中南工业大学出版社.1989
[60]王之康,高永华,徐宾等.真空电子束焊接设备及工艺[M].北京:原子能出版社.1990
[61]刘志华,雷学锋,赵兵等.铝合金局部真空电子束焊接工艺研究[J].核技术.2002,25(9):754-757
[62]沈世瑶主编.电渣焊与特种焊[M].北京:机械工业出版社.1983
[63]李亚江,王娟,刘鹏等.特种焊接技术及应用[M].北京:化学工业出版社.2004
[64]Huang.C.C,PAN.Y.C,and Chuang.T.H.Effect of post-weldheat treatment on the residual stresses and mechanical properties of electron-beam-welded AISI 4130 steel plates[J].Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance.1997,6(1):61-68
[65]H.J.Stone,Comparison of three different techniques for measuring the residual stresses in an electron beam-welded plate of WASPALOY[J].Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A.1999, V30A(7):1797-1838
[67]陆才善.残余应力测试--小孔释放法[M].西安:西安交通大学出版社.1991
[68]袁荣发,伍尚礼.残余应力测试与计算[M].长沙:湖南大学出版社.1987
[2]张志勇,田志凌,彭云等.铝合金先进焊接工艺[J].焊接.2003(7):5-11
[3]张秉刚,吴林,冯吉才.国内外电子束焊接技术研究现状[J].焊接.2004(2)5-8
[4]刘春飞,张益坤.电子束焊接技术发展历史、现状及展望(Ⅲ)[J].航天制造技术.2003,6(3):27-31
[5]Ellis M B D.Joining of aluminum based metal matrix composites[J].International Materials Reviews.1996,41(2):41-58
[6]刘志华,赵兵,赵青等.21世纪航天工业铝合金焊接工艺技术展望[J].导弹与航天运载技术.2002(5):63-68
[7]美国焊接学会编.焊接手册[M].北京:机械工业出版社.1991
[8]刘春飞.运载贮箱用2219类铝合金的电子束焊[J].航天制造技术.2002(8):4-9
[9]Chen S C,Huang J C.Comparison of post-weld microstructures and mechanical properties of electron and laser-beam welded 8089Al-Lialloy plates[J].Materials Transactions.JIM 1999,4(10):1039-1078
[10]王世卿,刘方军.电子束回扫间距对焊缝金属的可控细化作用[J].材料研究学报.1996,10(3):161-163
[11 刘志华,雷学锋,赵兵等.铝合金局部真空电子束焊接工艺研究[J].核技术.2002,25(9):754-757
[12]Ulrich Drougelates,Belkacem Bouaifi,Brahim Ouaissa High-speed non-vacuum electron-beam welding of aluminum alloy[J].Schweissen & Schneiden.2000(7):30-35
[13]刘小文,傅莉,段立宇等.摩擦焊接头残余应力应变场的激光全息法研究[J].机械科学与技术.2000,19(2):301-303
[14]焦馥杰.焊接结构分析基础[M].上海科学技术文献出版社.1991
[15]Mochizuki M,Hayashi M,Hattori T.Comparison of five evaluation methods residual stress in a welded pipe joint[J].JSME International Journal.1999,42(1):104-110
[16]Kannengiesser T,Florian W,Herold H.Incremental hold-drilling method for the determination of residual stresses on welds[J].Welding Research Abroad.2000,46(3):12-19
[17]唐慕尧.焊接测试技术[M].北京:机械工业出版社.1988,3
[18]游敏,郑小玲,王福得等.盲孔法测定焊接残余应力适宜时间研究[J].武汉水 利电力大学(宜昌)学报.1999,21(2):54-57
[19]傅积和,孙玉林主编.焊接数据资料手册[M].北京:机械工业出版社.1994
[20]M.E.S.Abdel Moneim,et al.Assesament of Residual Stresses of Nonferrous Tubes Joined by Friction Welding EXP.Mech.March,1986
[21]邹大庆等.用高温高频光栅研究激光焊接的残余应变场[J].清华大学学报.1997(8):58-61
[22]陈勇,高德平,陈士煊等.钛合金平板电子束焊接残余应力的小孔法测量[J].理化检验-物理分册.2001,37(10):427-430
[23]王树宏,左敦稳等.LY12,B95П.Ч,7075铝合金预拉伸厚板内部残余应力分布特征评估与分析[J].材料工程.2004(10):32-35
[24]Susumu Tsukamoto et al.Melting process and spiking phenomenon in electron beam welding [J].Transactions of the Japan Welding Society.1993,24(1):10-15
[25]Franticiek kolenlc et al.The influence of electron beam focusing on the shape and depth of the weld[J].Welding and Cutting.1992,11:24-26
[26]Andews.J.G,Atthey.D.R.The response of a weld pool to perturbations on power [J].International Journal of Heat Transfer.1979,22(11):1533-1538
[27]C.K.Hsieh.Exact solution of stefan problems related to a moving line heat source in a quasi-stationary state[J].Journal of Heat Transfer.1995,117(11):1076-1079
[28]V.N.Lastovirya,D.A.Mosin.Connection of Vapor-gaseous channel parameters with conditions of energetic balance on crater first wall under electron beam welding[J].Fizika I khimiya Obraboki Materialov.1991,2(3):134-39
[29]P.S.Wei,M.D.Shian.Three-dimensional analytical temperature field around the welding cavity produced by a moving distributed high-intensity beam[J].Transactions of the ASME.1993,115(11):848-856
[30]P.S.Wei,C.Y.Ho,M.D.Shian,C.L.Hu.Three-dimensional analytical temperature field and its application to solidification characteristics in high- or low-power-density- beam welding[J].International Journal of Heat Mass Transfer.1997,40(10):2283-2292
[31]P Petron et al.Real time optical barometry in electron beam welding[J].International Journal for the Joining of Materials.1996,8(4):152-155
[32]P Petron.Numerical modeling of temperature distributions in electron beam welding [J].International Journal for the Joining of Materials.1992,4(4):110-115
[33]Chang Jengming,Tang Wucheng.Finite element modeling of heat transfer and residual stress analysis for electron beam welding[J].Journal of the Chinese Society of Mechanical Engineera 1994,15(1):1-10
[34]Z Paley,P D Hibbort.Computation of Temperature in Actual Weld Designs[J].Welding Journal.1975,54(3):12-15
[36]G W Krutz,L J Segerlined.Finite Element Analysis of Welded Structures[J].Welding Journal.1978,57(2):23
[37]H A Nied.The Finite Element Modeling of the Resistance Spot Welding Process[J].Welding Journal.1984,63(5):27
[38]陈楚,汪建华,杨洪庆.非线性焊接热传导的有限元分析和计算[J].焊接学报.1983,4(1):26-28
[39]郭绍庆等.GH909 电子束焊接温度场的有限元分析[J].航空材料学报.2000,20(3):98-101
[40]刘敏等.Ti合金电子束焊接三维温度场计算[J].金属学报.2001,37(3):301-30
[41]董平等.铍环电子束焊接温度场和应力场的有限元分析[J].原子能科学技术.2002,36(3):209-213
[42]张海泉等.电子束焊接动态过程仿真分析[J].材料科学与工艺.2002.10(3):256-259
[43]吴会强,冯吉才,何景山.电子束焊接深熔产生机理的研究现状与发展[J].焊接.2003,(8):5-7,12
[44]秦颖等.强流脉冲电子束表面改性的物理模型及数值模拟[J].强激光与粒子束.2003,(15):701-704
[45]陈芙蓉等.BT20钛合金电子束焊接残余应力三维有限元数值模拟[J].焊接学报.2004,1(25):61-64,70
[46]L.Dufrene,J.Truc,R.Martin.Modeling of thermal stresses during an electron-beam welding progress[J].Journal of Thermal Stresses.1996,19:211-236
[47]L.E.Lindgren,H.A.Haggbland,J.M.J.McDill,A.S.Oddy.Automatic remeshing for three-dimensional finite element simulation welding[J].Comput Methods Appl,Mech.Engrg.1997,11(147):401-409
[48]Leon Cizelj,Heinz Riesch-Oppermann.Stresses in the first wall of a dual-coolant liquid-metal breeder blanket during electron-beam welding[J].Fusion Technology.1997,32(8):14-22
[49]R.C.Reed,H.J.Stone,S.M.Roberts,J.M.Robinson.Development and validation of a model for the electron beam welding of aero-engine components.Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers[J].Part G:Journal of Aerospace Engineering 1997,211(6):421-428
[50]J.M J.McDill,A.S.Oddy,R.C.Reed.Predicting residual stresses and distortion when welding aeroengine alloys[J].Canadian Aeronautics and Space Journal.1988,44(2):68-72
[51]J.R.Cho.Residual Stresses in an Electron Beam Weld of Ti-834:Characterization and Numerical Modeling[J].Metallurgical And Materials Transactions A.2003,12(34A):2935-2946
[52]N.Gouret.Assessment of the Origin of Porosity in Electron-Beam-Welded TA6V Plates [J].Metallurgical And Materials Transactions A 2004,3(35A):879-889
[53]张建勋等.钴基合金静叶片焊接裂纹力学因素研究[J].西安交通大学学报.1994,28(4):86-90
[54]凌泽民等.铍环电子束焊接接头残余应力分析[J].焊接技术.2000,29(1):4-5
[55]陈芙蓉等.电子束局部热处理对30CrMnSi2A钢焊接接头组织和断裂性能的影响[J].焊接学报.2001,32(6):53-66
[56]刘敏等.钛合金平板电子束焊接残余应力数值分析[J].航空动力学报.2001,16(1):63-66
[57]刘敏等.钛合金大厚板试件电子束焊接残余应力有限元分析[J].机械工程学报.2003,39(9):142-145
[58]《中国航空材料手册》编辑委员会编.中国航空材料手册(第2版)[M].北京:中国标准出版社.2002
[59]王祝堂,田荣璋等.铝合金及其加工手册[M].中南工业大学出版社.1989
[60]王之康,高永华,徐宾等.真空电子束焊接设备及工艺[M].北京:原子能出版社.1990
[61]刘志华,雷学锋,赵兵等.铝合金局部真空电子束焊接工艺研究[J].核技术.2002,25(9):754-757
[62]沈世瑶主编.电渣焊与特种焊[M].北京:机械工业出版社.1983
[63]李亚江,王娟,刘鹏等.特种焊接技术及应用[M].北京:化学工业出版社.2004
[64]Huang.C.C,PAN.Y.C,and Chuang.T.H.Effect of post-weldheat treatment on the residual stresses and mechanical properties of electron-beam-welded AISI 4130 steel plates[J].Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance.1997,6(1):61-68
[65]H.J.Stone,Comparison of three different techniques for measuring the residual stresses in an electron beam-welded plate of WASPALOY[J].Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A.1999, V30A(7):1797-1838
[67]陆才善.残余应力测试--小孔释放法[M].西安:西安交通大学出版社.1991
[68]袁荣发,伍尚礼.残余应力测试与计算[M].长沙:湖南大学出版社.1987