十八、十九世纪奥斯曼帝国与欧洲文化交往研究
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摘要
本论文以马克思主义唯物史观为指导,坚持既重史实又重分析的原则,对十八、十九奥斯曼帝国与欧洲的文化关系进行研究。在写作方法上注重用发展和变化的眼光看问题,既分析了特定历史条件下的具体事件,又将其置于错综复杂的时代背景之下进行剖析。论文通过对十八世纪以后欧洲国家与奥斯曼帝国内部各种因素及各自文化特点的分析等来探究奥斯曼帝国文化与欧洲文化交往的特点。
作为一个地跨亚、非、欧三大洲,并且与西欧国家接壤的帝国,奥斯曼帝国在其存续的五百多年时间里与欧洲国家之间有着形式多样的文化交往。十八世纪以来,包括交通工具及通讯手段在内的科学技术在欧洲得到突飞猛进的发展,欧州国家迅速强大;它们开始向世界其它地区扩展,客观上加强了同各地的文化交往,奥斯曼帝国作为欧洲国家向东方发展的第一个邻国,首当其冲地与欧洲文化相遇。自1683年围攻维也纳失败后,奥斯曼帝国对于欧洲转变为以守为主的形势:1798年拿破仑登陆埃及,标志着资本主义欧洲对奥斯曼帝国全面入侵的开始,它引发了近代史上的“东方问题”,开启了奥斯曼帝国文化与欧洲文化深入交往的历史,因此本文旨在对十八世纪末到十九世纪末期间双方的文化交往进行分析与探讨。
本文分作绪论、正文六章、结论等共八部分。
绪论主要阐释了本文的研究目的和意义、国内外研究现状、写作的指导思想和方法、论文的主要内容和特色。指出本文是针对十八、十九世纪作为交往两大主体的奥斯曼帝国文化和欧洲文化之间的交往进行研究的,对于两者之间的文化交往研究有着历史的现实的意义。
第一章主要针对作为交往主体之一的奥斯曼帝国传统文化的构成、特征和成就进行了探讨。分析构成奥斯曼帝国文化中的伊斯兰因素、突厥因素和其他因素:奥斯曼文化的独特性、宽容性和开放性特征以及奥斯曼文化在建筑、文学和其他方面所取得的成就。
第二章分析了交往的另一主体——欧洲文化的构成、特征和成就。分析欧洲文化中的希腊罗马因素、基督教因素和其他因素;欧洲文化中的基督教影响、重商主义传统和扩张主义的特征以及欧洲文化在思想领域、科技领域和其他领域所取得的成就。
第三章则分析了两种文化交往的时代特征。即双方的交往处于欧洲的迅速发展和上升及帝国的衰落时期。这一时代特征决定了在双方的交往中奥斯曼帝国文化更多地受到欧洲文化的挑战以及由此而来的影响。
第四章重点论述了奥斯曼帝国后期的改革对双方文化交往的影响。帝国的改革本身是与欧洲文化交往的结果。帝国后期的穆罕默德·阿里改革为帝国本土的改革提供了参考;谢里姆三世和麦哈迈德二世改革为帝国后期更大的改革——坦齐马特改革奠定了基础;坦齐马特改革在很多方面借鉴和吸纳了欧洲文化的成就,是帝国后期较为成功的一次改革;哈米德二世时期在一定程度上延续着前面的改革。
第五章则探讨欧洲文化对帝国文化的影响。分析欧洲文化对帝国文化产生影响的方式和主要表现;并分别阐述了英国、法国和德国对帝国文化的影响。
第六章探讨了在与欧洲文化交往的作用下帝国现代性的生成。奥斯曼帝国后期与欧洲文化的交往为帝国现代性的生成产生了重要影响。帝国后期的现代性在物质文明和精神文明领域都显示出来。另外,伊斯坦布尔作为帝国后期与欧洲文化交往比较集中的一座城市,它的现代化变化充分显示了双方文化交往的成果。
本文关于奥斯曼帝国与欧洲文化交往的研究结论如下:1.十八、十九世纪奥斯曼帝国文化与欧洲文化之间是一种“挑战-应战”的逻辑关系与交往结构,但二者之间明显存在差异。2.双方文化交往的矛盾与不对等更多地表现为欧洲文化对帝国文化的影响以及社会形态发展的错位。3.欧洲文化与奥斯曼帝国文化交往结构为多样性主体(英、法、德等)影响单一性客体(奥斯曼帝国)的关系。4.奥斯曼帝国与欧洲文化交往的历史成为现代土耳其继承和革新的资源。5.考察双方文化交往在学术视角与方法论上应摒弃欧洲中心论的思想。
The dissertation is guided by Marxist historical materialism; it pertains to the principle of valuing the history itself as well as analysis of it. The analysis is primarily concerned about the relationship between Ottoman culture and the Eropearn culture in its late years. Regarding the approach of its composition, the dissertation pays great attention to the analysis with respect to the vision of development and changes; it not only analyzes the specific events under specific historical circumstance, but also puts it under the complex historical background for probing. The dissertation analyzes the characteristics of communication between the two cultures through the analysis of the characteristics of the Ottoman Empire and the European countries of their internal problems and cultures respectively.
As an empire that covers the three continents of Asia, Africa and Europe and also being the close neighbor of the European countries, the empire had had various ways of cultural communication with the European countries during it's about six hundred years of history. During the late years of the empire, the scientific development of Europe was enormous; Europe became powerful very fast owing to the invention of things including transportation vehicles, and communication approaches, and so on. As a matter of fact, they began to expand to other areas of the world, and this involved cultural communication with the covered regions. As the nearest country to its east, it turned out that Ottoman Empire encountered the European culture first and foremost. Since the failure of besieging Vienna in 1683, the Ottomans began to be in the lower hand in its confrontation with the Europeans; the Napoleonic landing on Egypt in 1798 marked the overall intrusion of Europe to the Ottoman Empire, and the "Eastern Issue" came about as the aftermath, the channels of communication between the two cultures began to have an all around communication thereafter. So the dissertation mainly focuses on the analysis of the cultural communication of them of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
The dissertation consists of 8 parts of introduction, six chapters of the body, and conclusion.
In introduction, it points out the goal, the significance, the current situation of the research about the theme, the guiding principles and methodology, the main content and characteristics of the dissertation. The dissertation is focused on the study of cultural communication between Ottoman Empire and Europe during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. There is great significance of studying the cultural communication between the two cultures.
Chapter 1 focuses on the analysis of the composition, characteristic and achievements of Ottoman culture. It points out that Ottoman culture is composed of Islamic culture, Turkish culture and other elements; the uniqueness, tolerance and openness characteristics of the culture, and the achivements of the culture in the field of architecture, literature, and so on.
Chapter 2 analyzes the other part of communication, European culture of its composition, characteristics and achievements. The culture is composed of Greek culture, Roman Culture, Christian culture and other elements; the culture has the characteristics of influence by Christianity, commerciality and expansion, the culture achieved a lot in many fields including ideology, science and others.
Chapter 3 deals with the background of the cultural communiction. It was carried out in a time when Ottoman Empire was declining and Europe was developing very fast. It leads to the communiction between the two with the characteristics of Ottoman culture meeting challenges from European culture and there are impacts caused following it.
Chapter 4 discusses about the influence of reformation in the empire to the cultural communication between the two. The reformation itself is a result of the communication. Mohammed·Ali Reform served as example to the reform in the hinterland of the empire; Selim III Reform and Mahmud II Reform led to strongerand more powerful reform------Tanzimat Reform; Tanzimat Reform adopted andabsorbed many aspects of European culture, its one of the most successful reforms of the empire; during the reign of Abdulhamit II, the reform was still underway.
Chapter 5 discusses about the impact of European culture to Ottoman culture. It deals with the approaches and manifestations of European culture to Ottoman culture; the impact of French culture, British culture and German culture to the empire are illustrated respectively.
Chapter 6 probes the issue of the modernization emergence in the empire with the impact of the cultural communication. There is great influence of the European culture to Ottoman culture in terms of the emergence of its modernization. The modernized characteristics were revealed in both the spiritual realm and the material realm. As the capital of the empire, and with concentrated cultural communication, the modernization of Istanbul represents the full fledged achievements of the cultural communication.
In the conclusion part, the conclusion of the dissertation is concluded as the follows: 1. During the eighteenth and nineteenth century cultural communication between Ottoman Empire and the European countries, the relationship is as 'challenge-response', as a matter of fact, there was great difference between Ottoman culture and European culture. 2. The difference between the two culutures leads to the result that European culture affects Ottoman culture than vice versa, and the offset of social patterns. 3. The cultural communicational structure between Ottoman Empire and Europe happened as the multibodies of Britain, France and Germany exerting impact on the monobody of Ottoman Empire. 4. The legacy of the cultural communication between the two cultures became the sources for the heritage and innovation of modern Turkey. 5. In respect of the scholasitic perspective and methodology of the study about the cultural communiction between the two, European centered approach should be discarded.
作为一个地跨亚、非、欧三大洲,并且与西欧国家接壤的帝国,奥斯曼帝国在其存续的五百多年时间里与欧洲国家之间有着形式多样的文化交往。十八世纪以来,包括交通工具及通讯手段在内的科学技术在欧洲得到突飞猛进的发展,欧州国家迅速强大;它们开始向世界其它地区扩展,客观上加强了同各地的文化交往,奥斯曼帝国作为欧洲国家向东方发展的第一个邻国,首当其冲地与欧洲文化相遇。自1683年围攻维也纳失败后,奥斯曼帝国对于欧洲转变为以守为主的形势:1798年拿破仑登陆埃及,标志着资本主义欧洲对奥斯曼帝国全面入侵的开始,它引发了近代史上的“东方问题”,开启了奥斯曼帝国文化与欧洲文化深入交往的历史,因此本文旨在对十八世纪末到十九世纪末期间双方的文化交往进行分析与探讨。
本文分作绪论、正文六章、结论等共八部分。
绪论主要阐释了本文的研究目的和意义、国内外研究现状、写作的指导思想和方法、论文的主要内容和特色。指出本文是针对十八、十九世纪作为交往两大主体的奥斯曼帝国文化和欧洲文化之间的交往进行研究的,对于两者之间的文化交往研究有着历史的现实的意义。
第一章主要针对作为交往主体之一的奥斯曼帝国传统文化的构成、特征和成就进行了探讨。分析构成奥斯曼帝国文化中的伊斯兰因素、突厥因素和其他因素:奥斯曼文化的独特性、宽容性和开放性特征以及奥斯曼文化在建筑、文学和其他方面所取得的成就。
第二章分析了交往的另一主体——欧洲文化的构成、特征和成就。分析欧洲文化中的希腊罗马因素、基督教因素和其他因素;欧洲文化中的基督教影响、重商主义传统和扩张主义的特征以及欧洲文化在思想领域、科技领域和其他领域所取得的成就。
第三章则分析了两种文化交往的时代特征。即双方的交往处于欧洲的迅速发展和上升及帝国的衰落时期。这一时代特征决定了在双方的交往中奥斯曼帝国文化更多地受到欧洲文化的挑战以及由此而来的影响。
第四章重点论述了奥斯曼帝国后期的改革对双方文化交往的影响。帝国的改革本身是与欧洲文化交往的结果。帝国后期的穆罕默德·阿里改革为帝国本土的改革提供了参考;谢里姆三世和麦哈迈德二世改革为帝国后期更大的改革——坦齐马特改革奠定了基础;坦齐马特改革在很多方面借鉴和吸纳了欧洲文化的成就,是帝国后期较为成功的一次改革;哈米德二世时期在一定程度上延续着前面的改革。
第五章则探讨欧洲文化对帝国文化的影响。分析欧洲文化对帝国文化产生影响的方式和主要表现;并分别阐述了英国、法国和德国对帝国文化的影响。
第六章探讨了在与欧洲文化交往的作用下帝国现代性的生成。奥斯曼帝国后期与欧洲文化的交往为帝国现代性的生成产生了重要影响。帝国后期的现代性在物质文明和精神文明领域都显示出来。另外,伊斯坦布尔作为帝国后期与欧洲文化交往比较集中的一座城市,它的现代化变化充分显示了双方文化交往的成果。
本文关于奥斯曼帝国与欧洲文化交往的研究结论如下:1.十八、十九世纪奥斯曼帝国文化与欧洲文化之间是一种“挑战-应战”的逻辑关系与交往结构,但二者之间明显存在差异。2.双方文化交往的矛盾与不对等更多地表现为欧洲文化对帝国文化的影响以及社会形态发展的错位。3.欧洲文化与奥斯曼帝国文化交往结构为多样性主体(英、法、德等)影响单一性客体(奥斯曼帝国)的关系。4.奥斯曼帝国与欧洲文化交往的历史成为现代土耳其继承和革新的资源。5.考察双方文化交往在学术视角与方法论上应摒弃欧洲中心论的思想。
The dissertation is guided by Marxist historical materialism; it pertains to the principle of valuing the history itself as well as analysis of it. The analysis is primarily concerned about the relationship between Ottoman culture and the Eropearn culture in its late years. Regarding the approach of its composition, the dissertation pays great attention to the analysis with respect to the vision of development and changes; it not only analyzes the specific events under specific historical circumstance, but also puts it under the complex historical background for probing. The dissertation analyzes the characteristics of communication between the two cultures through the analysis of the characteristics of the Ottoman Empire and the European countries of their internal problems and cultures respectively.
As an empire that covers the three continents of Asia, Africa and Europe and also being the close neighbor of the European countries, the empire had had various ways of cultural communication with the European countries during it's about six hundred years of history. During the late years of the empire, the scientific development of Europe was enormous; Europe became powerful very fast owing to the invention of things including transportation vehicles, and communication approaches, and so on. As a matter of fact, they began to expand to other areas of the world, and this involved cultural communication with the covered regions. As the nearest country to its east, it turned out that Ottoman Empire encountered the European culture first and foremost. Since the failure of besieging Vienna in 1683, the Ottomans began to be in the lower hand in its confrontation with the Europeans; the Napoleonic landing on Egypt in 1798 marked the overall intrusion of Europe to the Ottoman Empire, and the "Eastern Issue" came about as the aftermath, the channels of communication between the two cultures began to have an all around communication thereafter. So the dissertation mainly focuses on the analysis of the cultural communication of them of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
The dissertation consists of 8 parts of introduction, six chapters of the body, and conclusion.
In introduction, it points out the goal, the significance, the current situation of the research about the theme, the guiding principles and methodology, the main content and characteristics of the dissertation. The dissertation is focused on the study of cultural communication between Ottoman Empire and Europe during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. There is great significance of studying the cultural communication between the two cultures.
Chapter 1 focuses on the analysis of the composition, characteristic and achievements of Ottoman culture. It points out that Ottoman culture is composed of Islamic culture, Turkish culture and other elements; the uniqueness, tolerance and openness characteristics of the culture, and the achivements of the culture in the field of architecture, literature, and so on.
Chapter 2 analyzes the other part of communication, European culture of its composition, characteristics and achievements. The culture is composed of Greek culture, Roman Culture, Christian culture and other elements; the culture has the characteristics of influence by Christianity, commerciality and expansion, the culture achieved a lot in many fields including ideology, science and others.
Chapter 3 deals with the background of the cultural communiction. It was carried out in a time when Ottoman Empire was declining and Europe was developing very fast. It leads to the communiction between the two with the characteristics of Ottoman culture meeting challenges from European culture and there are impacts caused following it.
Chapter 4 discusses about the influence of reformation in the empire to the cultural communication between the two. The reformation itself is a result of the communication. Mohammed·Ali Reform served as example to the reform in the hinterland of the empire; Selim III Reform and Mahmud II Reform led to strongerand more powerful reform------Tanzimat Reform; Tanzimat Reform adopted andabsorbed many aspects of European culture, its one of the most successful reforms of the empire; during the reign of Abdulhamit II, the reform was still underway.
Chapter 5 discusses about the impact of European culture to Ottoman culture. It deals with the approaches and manifestations of European culture to Ottoman culture; the impact of French culture, British culture and German culture to the empire are illustrated respectively.
Chapter 6 probes the issue of the modernization emergence in the empire with the impact of the cultural communication. There is great influence of the European culture to Ottoman culture in terms of the emergence of its modernization. The modernized characteristics were revealed in both the spiritual realm and the material realm. As the capital of the empire, and with concentrated cultural communication, the modernization of Istanbul represents the full fledged achievements of the cultural communication.
In the conclusion part, the conclusion of the dissertation is concluded as the follows: 1. During the eighteenth and nineteenth century cultural communication between Ottoman Empire and the European countries, the relationship is as 'challenge-response', as a matter of fact, there was great difference between Ottoman culture and European culture. 2. The difference between the two culutures leads to the result that European culture affects Ottoman culture than vice versa, and the offset of social patterns. 3. The cultural communicational structure between Ottoman Empire and Europe happened as the multibodies of Britain, France and Germany exerting impact on the monobody of Ottoman Empire. 4. The legacy of the cultural communication between the two cultures became the sources for the heritage and innovation of modern Turkey. 5. In respect of the scholasitic perspective and methodology of the study about the cultural communiction between the two, European centered approach should be discarded.
引文
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8 Roderic H.Davison,Turkey,A Short History,The Eothen Press,Huntingdon,1988..
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6 纳忠,《阿拉伯通史》,商务印书馆1999年版.
7 李植楞,《宏观世界史》,武汉大学出版社1999年版.
8 吴于廑,齐世荣,《世界史·近代史编》,高等教育出版社,2001年版.
9 吴于廑,齐世荣主编.刘祚昌,王觉非分册主编《世界史·近代史编》,高等教育出版社2001年版.
10 马克垚,《世界文明史》,北京大学出版社2004年版.
11 陈佛松,《世界文化史》,华中科技大学出版社2002年版.
1 参见杨善民、韩锋,《文化哲学》,山东大学出版社,济南,2002年版,第76-84页.
2 See Larry A.Samovar,Richard E.Porter,Intercultural Communication,Eighth Edition,Wadsworth Publishing,Company,California,1997,P12.
1 张骥.刘中民,《文化与当代国际政治》,人民出版社,北京.2003年,第28-29页.
1 彭树智,《文明交往论》.陕西人民出版社,西安,2002年,第520页.
1 Wilfred T.F.Castle,M.A.,Grand Turk,A Historical Outline of Life and Events,of Culture and Politics,of Trade and Travel during the Last Years of the Ottoman Empire and the First Years of the Turkish Republic,Hutchinson &Co.,Ltd,London,1945.p 10.
1 彭树智,《文明交往论》,陕西人民出版社,西安,2002年.第24页.
2[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著,范中廉译,《现代土耳其的兴起》,商务印书馆,北京,1982年,第8页.
3 See Ibid.p21.
1 黄维民,《奥斯曼帝国》,三秦出版社,西安,2000年,第11页.
2 See Ibid,p165.
1 黄维民,《奥斯曼帝国》,三秦出版社,西安,2000年,第13页.
2[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著,范中廉译,《现代土耳其的兴起》,商务印书馆,北京.1982年,第20-21页.
3 See Ibid,p21.
1[美]斯坦福.肖著,许序雅,张忠样译.《奥斯曼帝国》,青海人民出版社,西宁.2006年,第354页.
2 黄维民,《奥斯曼帝国》,三秦出版社,西安,2000年,第161页.
1[美]斯坦福·肖著,许序雅,张忠祥译,《奥斯曼帝国》,青海人民出版社.西宁,2006年,第355页.
2 Roderic H.Davison,Essays in Ottoman Empire and Turkish History,1774-1923,The Impact of the West,University of Texas Press,Texas,1990,p12.
1[美]斯坦福·肖著,许序雅,张忠祥译,《奥斯曼帝国》,青海人民出版社.西宁,2006年,第19页.
2 Kemal H.Karpat,Ottoman Past and Today's Turkey,Brill,Leiden,2000,p5.
3[美]斯坦福·肖著,许序雅,张忠样译,《奥斯曼帝国》,青海人民出版社,西宁,2006年,第16页.
1 黄维民,《奥斯曼帝国》,三秦出版社,西安,2000年,第7页.
2 See Ibid,p5.
3 Kemal H.Karpat,Ottoman Past and Today's Turkey,Brill,Leiden,2000.p31.
1 彭树智主编,黄维民著,《中东国家通史-土耳其卷》,商务印书馆,北京,2002年,第90页.
2[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著,范中廉译.《现代土耳其的兴起》,商务印书馆,北京,1982年,第12页.
3 See Ibid,p12.
4 See Ibid,p13.
1[美]斯坦福·肖著,许序雅,张忠祥译,《奥斯曼帝国》,青海人民出版社.西宁,2006年,第36页.
2 See Ibid,p84.
1 田瑾,《奥斯曼帝国后期中东与西方的文化交流》.《西北工业大学学报》,西安,第25卷第3期,2005年第9月.第12页。
2 刘文龙,袁传伟.《世界文化史·近代卷》,浙江人民出版社,杭州,1999年,第278页。
3 Eric J·Zuecher,Turkey:A Modern Hiatory,I.B.Tauris &Co.Ltd,London,1998.P243.
4 Charles A·Frazee,Catholics and Sultans,The Church and the Ottoman Empire,1453-1923,Cambridge University Press,1983,P155.
Will-red T·ECastle,Grand Turk,An Historical Outline of Life and Events,of Culture and Politics,of Trade and Travel during the Last Years of the Ottoam Empire and The First Years of the Turkish Republic,Hutchinson &Co.Ltd,1980,p14.
1 L.Carl Brown,Imperial Legacy,The Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and The Middle East,Columbia University Press,New York,1996,p14
2 See Ibid,P24.
3 Bruce Masters,Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World:The Roots of Secarianism,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,2001,P235.
1 L.Carl Brown,Imperial Legacy,The Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East,Columbia University Press,New York,1996,P24.
1 Justin McCarthy,the Ottoman Peoples and the End of the Empire,London,2001,p35.
2 Donald Quataert,the Ottoman Empire,1700- 1922,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,2000,p6.
1 Colin Imber & Keiko Kiyotaki,Frontiers of Ottoman Studies,Volume L I.B Tauris & Co.Ltd,London,2005,P3.
2 Donald Quataert,the Ottoman Empire,1700- 1922,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,2000,p166.
3 L.Carl Brown,Imperial Legacy,The Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East,Columbia University Press,New York,1996,p24.
1 Adigor Levy,Jews,Turks,Ottomans,A Shared History,Fifteenth through the Twentieth Century,Sypacuse University Press,2003,p149.
2 Donald Quataert,The Ottoman Empire,1700- 1922,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,2000,176.
1 Donald Quataert,the Ottoman Empire.1700- 1922,Cambridge University Press,The Edinburg Building,Cambridge,2000,p178.
1 Donald Quataert,the Ottoman Empire,1700- 1922,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge.2000,p182.
2 彭树智主绢,贾维民看,《中东国家通史·土耳其卷》,商务印书馆2002年,第98页.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History,1774-1923,The Impact of the West,University of Texas Press,Austin,1990,p116.
1 Kemal H.Karpat,Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History,Selected Articles and Essays,Leiden,Brill,2002,P30.
2 Benjamin C.Fortna,Imperial Classroom,Islam,the State,and the Education in the Late Ottoman Empire,Oxford University Press,2003,p13.
3 Elisabeth(O|¨)zdalga,Late Ottoman Society,The Intellectual Legacy,Routledge Curzon,London,2005,p5.
1 Ekmeleddin IhsanoGlu,Science.Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire,Western Influence,Local Institutions,and the Transfer of Knowledge,Ashgate Publishing Company,Burlington,2004,p248.
2 See lbid,p243.
1 黄维民,《奥斯曼帝国》.三秦出版社.西安,2000年,第208页.
1 http://baike.baidu.com/view/39712.htm#9.
2 http://www.mooncn.net/forum/showthread.php=889999
1 斯坦福·肖著,许序雅,张忠祥译《奥斯曼帝国史》,青海人民出版社,西宁,2006年,第359页。
2 See Ibid,p362.
1[美]斯坦福·肖著,许序雅,张忠样译《奥斯曼帝国》.青海人民出版社.西宁,2006年,第368页.
2[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著,范中廉译,《现代土耳其的兴起》,商务印书馆,北京.1982年,第464页.
1 王风岐,《世界音乐简史》,山西教育出版社,太原,2002年,第107页.
2 http://www.cat898.com/html/2006/08/20060802141606.asp
1[法]费尔南·布罗代尔著,肖昶,冯棠,张文英,王明毅译.《文明史纲》,桂林,广西师范大学出版社,2003年,第371页.
1 阎宗临,《欧洲文化史论》,桂林,广西师范大学出版社,2007年,第112页.
2 陈乐民,周弘,《欧洲文明的进程》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,北京,2003年,第15页.
3 See Ibid,p13.
4 See Ibid,p19.
5 阎宗临,《欧洲文化史论》,广西师范大学出版社,桂林,2007年,第133页.
1 裔昭印.《世界文化史》,华东师范大学出版社,上海.2000年,第122页.
2 陈乐民,周弘,《欧洲文明的进程》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,北京,2003年,第23-24页.
1 陈乐民,周弘,《欧洲文明的进程》,生活 读书 新知三联书店.北京,2003年.第26页.
2[法]阿尔德伯特Aldebert,J.著,蔡鸿滨等译,《欧洲史》,海南出版社,2000年,第11页.
3 裔昭印,《世界文化史》,华东师范大学出版社,上海,2000年,第135页.
4 陈乐民,周弘,《欧洲文明的进程》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,北京.2003年,第28页.
5 See Ibid,p29.
1 阎宗临.《欧洲文化史论》,广西师范大学出版社,桂林,2007年.第112页。
2[法]费尔南·布罗代尔著,肖昶,张文英,王明毅译,《文明史纲》,广西师范大学出版社,桂林,2003年.第311页。
3 马克垚,《世界文明史·上》,北京大学出版社,北京,2004年,第342页。
4 董小川,《世界文化史》,北京,高等教育出版社,2002年,第78页。
1 裔昭印,《世界文化史》,华东师范大学出版社,上海,2000年,第259页.
2[美]斯塔夫里阿诺夫,吴象婴,梁赤民,《全球通史--1500年以后的世界》,上海社会科学院出版社,上海,1999年,第11页.
3[美]马文·佩里.胡万里,王世民,姜开军,黄英译,《西方文明史》,商务印书馆,北京,1993年,第305页.
4 See Ibid,p316.
5 裔昭印,《世界文化史》,华东师范大学出版社,上海,2000年.第290页.
1 唐逸.《基督教史》,中国社会科学院出版社,北京,1993年,第134页.
2 马克垚.《世界文明史·上》.北京.北京大学出版社,2004年,第342页.
3 See Ibid,p342.
1 阎宗临,《欧洲文化史论》,广西师范大学出版社,桂林,2007年,第112页.
1 唐逸,《基督教史》,中国社会科学出版社.北京,1993年,第324页.
1[美]斯塔夫里阿诺斯著,吴象婴,梁赤民译,《全球通史:1500年以后的世界》,上海社会科学出版社,上海,1999年,第562页.
2 陈乐民,《欧洲文明十五讲》.北京大学出版社,北京.2004年,第190页.
1 阎照祥:《英国史》,人民出版社.北京.2003年.第235-236页.
2 计秋枫,冯粱等著,《英国文化与外交》,世界知识出版社,北京,2001年,第166页.
1 陈乐民,《欧洲文明的进程》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,北京,2003年,第165页.
1[美]斯塔夫里阿诺斯著,吴象婴等译,《世界通史:1500年以后的世界》,上海社会科学出版社,上海,1999年,第316页.
2 陈乐民,周弘著.《欧洲文明的进程》,生活·读书·新知三联书店北京,2003年,第309-310页.
3[美]斯塔夫里阿诺斯著,《全球通史-1500年以后的世界》,吴象要,梁赤民译.上海社会科学院出版社,上海.1999年,第315页.
1 参见[美]罗兹·墨菲著,黄磷译,《亚洲史》.海南出版社,三环出版社,海口,2004年,第427页.
2[美]J.M.布劳特,《殖民者的世界模式--地理传播主义和欧洲中心主义史观》,社会科学文献出版社.北京.2002年,第29页.
3 http://zhidao.baidu.com/ouestion/25592273.html.
1[美]J.M.布劳特,《殖民者的世界模式--地理传播主义和欧洲中心主义史观》,社会科学文献出版社,北京.2002年,第24页.
2 See Ibid,p24-27.
3[美]罗兹·墨菲著,黄磷译.《亚洲史》,海南出版社,三环出版社,海口,2004年,第432页.
1 董小川,《世界文化史》,北京,高等教育出版社.2002年,第138页.
2 裔昭印,《世界文化史》.上海,华东师范大学出版社,2000年,第369页.
1 陈乐民.《欧洲文明的进程》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,北京,2003年,第203页.
1 裔昭印.《世界文化史》,华东师范大学出版社,上海.2000年,第404页.
2 马克垚,《世界文明史·中》.北京大学出版社,北京,2004年,第271页.
1 马克垚,《世界文明史·中》,北京大学出版社,北京,2004年,第306页.
1 商昭印《世界文化史》.华东师范大学出版社,上海,2002年,第365页.
2 马克垚.《世界文明史·中》,北京大学出版社,北京,2004年,第400页.
1 Enric J.Zucher,Turkey:A Modern History,I.B.Tauris&Co.Ltd,Victoria House,London,1998,p40.
1 阎宗临,《欧洲文化史论》,广西师范大学出版社,桂林,2007年,第318页.
2[英]伯纳德.刘易斯著,郑之书译,《中东:自基督教兴起至二十世纪末》,北京,中国友谊出版公司,2004年,第293页.
1 Donald Quataert,The Ottoman Empire,17019-1922,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,2000,p85.
2 Charles A.Frazee,Catholic and Sultans:The Church and the Ottoman Empire 1453-1923,California,California University Press,1983,p225.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Turkey:A Short History,Huntingdon,The Eothen Press,1988,p79.
2 彭树智,《文明交往论》.陕西人民出版社.西安,2002年,第399页.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Turkey:A Short History,Huntingdon,The Eothen Press,1988,p81.
2 http://njyg.blog.163.com/blog/static/386416200741013050689/fromRe.
1 Stanford J.Shaw,Ezel Kural Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire And Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ:Reform,Revolution,and Republic:The Rise of the Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press,p141.
1[美]斯坦福·肖,《奥斯曼帝国》,青海人民出版社,西宁.2006年,第356页.
1 Erik,J.ZUrcher,Turkey:A Modern History,I.B.Tauris&Co.Ltd,London,1998,p53.
2 Halil Inalcik,An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire,1300-1914,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,1994,p765.
3 L.Carl Brown,Imperial Legacy:The Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East,Columbia University Press,New York,1996,p24.
1 Asli Cirakman,From the'Terror of the World'to the 'Sick Man of the Europe ',Eropean Images of Ottoman Empire and Society from the Sixteenth Century to the Nineteenth.Peter Lang Publishing,Inc.,New York,2002,p132.
2 Halil Inalcik,An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire,1300-1914,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,1994,p767.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History.1774-1923,The Impact of the West,University of Texas Press,Austin,1990,p23.
2 Standford Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,1977,p41.
1 Stanford Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ,Reform,Revolution,and Republic:The Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press,Cambridte,1977,P86.
2 Erik J.ZUrchcr,Turkey:A Modern History,I.B.Tauris&Co Lid,London,1997,p60.
3 Stanford.Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ.Reform,Revolution,and Republic:The Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press,Cambridtc,1977,P245.
4 See Ibid,p245.
1 Stanford Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ:Reform,Revolution,and Republic:The Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press,Cambridte,1977,P246.
1 Svket Pamuk,the Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism,1820-1913.Trade,investment and production.Camnbridge University Press,Cambridge,1987,p5.
2 Erik J ZUrcher,Turkey,A Modern History,I.B.Tamris &Co Ltd,London,1998,p45.
3 See Ibid,p49.
4 See Ibid,p51.
1 Erik J ZUrcher,Turkey,A Modern History,I.B.Tauris &Co Lid,London,1998,p67.
1 Sevket Pamuk,The Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism,1820-1913,Trade.investment andproduction.Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,1987,p12.
2[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著,范中廉译,《现代土耳其的兴起》,商务印书馆,北京,1982年,第126页.
1 Fatma M(U|¨)ge GOCek,Rise of the Bourgeoisie,Demise of the Empire,Ottoman Westernization and Social Change,Oxford University Press,Oxford,1996.p86.
2 Sevket Pamuk,The Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism,1820-1913,Trade,investment andproduction,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,1987,p15.
3 Roderic H.Davison,Turkey:A Short History,The Eothen Press,Huntingdon,1981,p97.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Turkey:A Short History.The Eothen Press,Huntingdon,1981,p99.
1 车效梅,《中东中世纪城市的产生、发展与嬗变》,中国社会科学出版社.北京,2004年,第147页.
2 彭树智主编,《阿拉伯国家史》,高等教育出版社,北京.2002年,第166页.
1[美]斯坦福·肖著,许序雅,张忠祥译,《奥斯曼帝国》,青海人民出版社,西宁,2006年,第225页.
2 彭树智主编,《阿拉伯国家史》,高等教育出版社,北京,2002年,第169页.
1 彭树智主编,《阿拉伯国家史》,高等教育出版社,北京,2002年,第178页.
1 彭树智主编:《阿拉伯国家史》,高等教育出版社.北京.2002年,第182页.
2[美]斯塔夫里阿诺斯著,吴象晏.梁赤民译,《全球通史:1500年以后的世界》,上海社会科学院出版社,1999年,第421页.
1[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著,郑之书译,《中东:自基督教兴起至二十世纪末》,北京,中国友谊出版公司.2004年,第306页.
1 Erik J.Z(O|¨)rcher,Turkey:A Modern History,I.B.Tauris&Co.Ltd,London,1998,p46.
1 Stanford J.Shaw,Ezel Kural Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey.I'oluume Ⅱ:Reform,Revolution,and Republic:The Rise of Modern Turkey,]808-/975.Cambridge,Cambridge University Press,1977,p85.
1 Ekmeleddin IhsanGoglu,Science,Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire,Western Influence,Local Institutions,and the Transfer of Knowledge,Ashgate Publishing House,Burlington,2004,p35.
2 See Ibid,p35.
1 Erik J.Z(U|¨)rcher,Turkey:A Mordern History,I.B.Tauris&Co Ltd,London,1993,p65-66.
1 Ekmeleddin IhsanoGlu,Science,Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire,Western Influence,Local Institutions.and the and the Transfer of Knowledge,Ashgate Publishingh House,Burlington,2004,p35.
2 See Ibid,p36.
1 Kemal H.Karpat,Politization of Islam,Reconstructingldentity,State,Faith,andCommunity in the Late Ottoman State,Oxford University Press,2001,p159.
1[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著,范中廉译,《现代土耳其的兴起》,商务印书馆,北京,1982年,第134页.
1 Kemal H.Karpat,The Politicization of Islam,Reconstructing Identity,State,Faith,and Community in the Late Ottoman State,Oxford University Press,2001,p183.
2 Kemal H.Karpat,Ottoman Past and Today's Turkey,Brill,Leiden,2000,p18.
3 Roderic H.Davison,Turkey:A Short History,London,The Eothen Press,1988,p94.
4 See Ibid,p94
1 Kemal H.Karpat,The Politicization of Islam,Reconstructing Identity,State,Faith,and Community in the Late Ottoman State,Oxford University Press,2001,P160.
1 Selim Deringil,The Well-Protected Domains:Ideology and the Legitimation of Power in the Ottoman Empire 1876-1909,London,I.B.Tauris,1998,p95.
2 See Ibid,p9.
3 Selim Deringil,the Well-Protected Domains:Ideology and the Legitimation of Power in the Ottoman Empire 1876-1909.London,I.B.Tauris,1998,p98.
1 Kemal H.Kayat,Ottoman Past and Today's Tufty,Leiden,2000,p17.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Essays in Ottoman Empire and Turkish History,1774-1923,the impact of the west,University of Texas Press,Austin,1990,p99.
1[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著.郑之书译,《中东:自基督教兴起至二十世纪末》,北京,中国友谊出版公司,2004年,第306页.
1 Fatma Muge GOCek,Rise of the Bourgeoisie,Demise of Empire Ottoman Westernization and Social Change,Oxford University Press,1996,p5.
1 注:库鲁斯(Kurus).货币单位,一里拉=10库鲁斯
2 Stanford J.Shaw,Ezel Kural Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ:Reform,Revolutio,and Republic:The Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,p226-227.
3 Wilfrel T.F.Castle.,Grand Turk,,4n Historical Outline of Life and Events,of Culture and Politics,of Trade and Travel during the Last Years of the Ottoman Empire and the First Years of the Turkish Republic,Hutchinson & Co.(Publishers),LTD.London,1950,P55.
1 Sevket Pamuk,the Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism,1820-1913,Trade,Investment and Production,Camnbridg University Press,p35.
2 Donald Quataert,The Ottoman Empire,1700-1922,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,2000,p118.
1 Sevket Pamuk,the Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism,1820-1913,Trade,investment and production,Cambridge University Press,1957,P99.
2 Stanford J.Shaw,Ezel Kural Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey Volume Ⅱ:Reform,Revolution,and Republic:The Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press 1977,p228.
3 See Ibid,p229.
1 Fatma MOge GOCek,Rise of the Bourgeoisie,Demise of the Empire,Ottman Westernization and Social Change,Oxford University Press,1996,p86.
2 Stanford J.Shaw,Ezel Kural Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ:Reform,Revolution,and Republic:The Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press,1977,p251.
1 Stanford J.Shaw,Ezel Kurai Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ:Reform,Revolution,and Republic:The Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press,1977,p241.
1[美]斯塔夫里阿诺斯著,吴象婴等译,《全球通史:1500年以后的世界》.上海社会科学出版社,上海.1999,第243页.
1[美]斯塔夫里阿诺斯著,吴象婴等译,《全球通史:1500年以后的世界》,上海社会科学出版社,上海,1999.第312页.
2 Roderic H.Davison,Turkey,A Short History,The Eothen Press,Huntingdon,second edition,1988,p 68.
1 伯纳德·刘易斯著,范忠廉译.《现代土耳其的兴起》,商务印书馆,北京,1982年,第61页.
2 Erik J.Z(U|¨)rcher,Turkey:A Modern History,I.B.Tauris&Co Ltd,London,1998,p3.
1.Erik J.Z(U|¨)ercher,Turkey,A Modern History,I.B.Tauris&Co Ltd,London,1998,p25.
2 Roderic H.Davison,Essays in Ottoman and.Turkish History,1774-1923,The Impact of the West,University of Texas press,Austin,1990,p23.
3 Erik J.Z(U|¨)ercher,Turkey,A Modern History,I.B.Tauris&Co Ltd,London,1998,p59.
4 Donald Quataert,Ottoman Empire,1700-1922,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,2000,p63.
1 Claire Kramsch,Language and Culture,Oxford University Press and Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,Shanghai,2000,p3.
2 Fatma M(U|¨)ge G(O|¨)ek,Rise of the Bourgeoisie,Demise of the Empire Ottoman Westernization and Social Change,Oxford University Press,1996,p121.
1 Farina M(U|¨)ge G(O|¨)Cek,Rise of the Bourgeoisie,Demise of the Empire Ottoman Westernization and Social Change,Oxford University Press,1996,p122.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History,1774-1923,the Impact of the West,University of Texas Press,Austin,1990.p25.
2 Roderic H.Davison,Turkey:A Short History,The Eothen Press,Huntingdon,second edition,1988.p78.
1 Erik J.Z(U|¨)cher,Turkey:A Modern History,I.B.Tauris&Co Ltd,London,1998,p64.
1 Bernard Lewis,The Middle East,2000 years of History from the Rise of Christianify to the Present Day,The Orion Publishing Group Ltd,London,1995,p331.
2.Caesar E.Farah,Decision Making and Change in the Ottoman Empire,The Thomas Jefferson University Press,Missouri,1993,p207.
1 David Dushner,Palestine in the late Ottoman Period Political Social and Economic Transformation,Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi Press,Jerusalem,Israel,1986,p310.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History,1774-1923 The Impact of the West,University of Texas Press,1990,p135.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History,1774-1923 The Impact of the West,University of Texas Press 1990,p144.
1[英]约翰·劳尔著,刘玉霞、龚文启译,《英国与英国外交:1815-1885》,上海译文出版社.上海.2003年,第136页.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Turkey:A Short History.Second Edition,The Eothen Press,Huntingdon,England,1988,p97.
1 Jonathan S.McMurray,Distant Ties,Germany,the Ottoman Empire,and the Construction of the Baghdad Railway,Westport,Connecticut,2001,p9.
1 Jonathan S.McMurray,Distant Ties,Germany,the Ottoman Empire,and the Construction of the Baghdad Railway,Westport,Connecticut,2001,p1.
2 Betig(U|¨)l Ercan Argun,Turkey in Germany,The Transnational Sphere of Deutchkei,London,Taylor &Francis Books Inc.2003,p53.
1 Stanford J.Shaw,Ezel Kural Shaw,History of Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ:Reform,Revolution,and Republic." the Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,1977,p230.
2 See Ibid,p232.
1 Erik J.Z(U|¨)rcher,Turkey:A Modern History,London,I.B.Tauris&Co Ltd,1997,p82.
2 See Ibid,p81.
1 Halil Inalcik,Donald Quataert,An Economic andSocial History of the Ottoman Empire,1300-1914,Cambridge University Press,1994,p808 -809.
1 Stanford Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ:Reform.Revolution.and Republic,The Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,1977 p237.
2 See Ibid,p237.
1 Stanford J.Shaw,Ezel Kural Shaw,History of Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ:Reform.Revolution,and Republic.The Rise of Modern Turkey 1808-1975,1977,p249.
1 Stamford J.Shaw,Ezel Kural Shaw,History of Ottoman Empire and Modern Furry,Volume Ⅱ:Reform,Revolution,and Republic,The Rise of Modern Turkey 1808-1975,1977,p150.
1 SelCuk AkSin Somel,the Modernization of Public Education in the Ottoman Empire,1839-1908,Islamization,Autocracy and Discipline,Koninklijke Brill,Leiden,2001,p3.
1 David Kushner,Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period,Political Social and Economic Transformation,Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi Press,Jerusalem,1986,p47.
1 Kemal H.Karpat,the Politicizzation of Islam,Reconstructing ldentity,State,Faith,and Community in the Late Ottoman,State,Oxford University Press,2001,P168.
2 See Ibid,p169.
1 Kemal H.Karpat,Ottoman Past and Today's Turkey,Brill of Leiden,Leiden,2000,p49.
1 http://baike.baidu.com/view/32606.htm
2 Wilfred T.F.Castle,M.A.,Grand Turk,An Historical Outline of life and Events,of Culture and Politics,of Trade and Travel during the Last Years of the Ottoman Empire and the First Years of the Turkish Republic,Hutchinson &Co.Ltd,London,1998,,P29.
3 See reid,P30.
4 See ibid,p29.
1 Zeynep Celik,The Remaking of Istanbul,Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century,University of Washington Press,Seattle and London,1986,introduction,pⅹⅵ.
1 Zeynep Celik,The Remaking of Istanbul,Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century,University of Washington Press,Seattle and London,1986,introduction,pⅹⅶ.
2 车效梅,《中东中世纪城市的产生、发展与嬗变》,中国社会科学出版社,北京,2004年,第173页.
1 Zeynep Celik,the Remaking oflstanbul,Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century,University of Washington Press,Seattle and London,1986,p46.
2 See Ibid,p46
1 Kemal H.Karpat,Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History,Selected Articles and Essays,Koninklijke,Brill NV,Leiden,2002,p247.
1 Kemal H.Karpat,Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History,Selected Articles and Easays,Koninldijke,Brill NV,Leiden,2002,p262.
2 See Ibid,p270.
1 Zejnep Celik,the Remaking of Istanbul,Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century,University of Washington Press,Seattle and London,1986,p134.
2 车效梅,《中东中世纪城市的产生、发展与嬗变》,中国社会科学出版社,北京,2004年,第217页.
1 Kemal H.Karpat,Ottoman Past and Today's Turkey,Brill,Leiden,2000,pⅷ.
1、[英]阿诺德·汤因比著,刘北成、郭小凌译,《历史研究》,上海:上海人民出版社2000年版.
2、[美]爱德华·萨义德著,王宇根译《东方学》,北京:三联书店2000年版.
3、[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著,范中廉译,《现代土耳其的兴起》,北京:商务印书馆1982年版.
4、[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著,郑之书译,《中东--自基督教兴起至二十世纪末》,北京:中国友谊出版公司2004年版.
5、[美]戴维森著,张增健、刘同舜译:《从瓦解到新生:土耳其的现代化历程》,上海:学林出版社1996年版.
6、《古兰经》,马坚译,北京:中国社会科学出版社2003年版.
7、黄民兴著,《中东国家通史·伊拉克卷》,北京:商务印书馆2002年版.
8、黄维民著,《奥斯曼帝国》,西安:三秦出版社2000年版.
9、彭树智主编,黄维民著,《中东国家通史·土耳其卷》,北京:商务印书馆2002年版.
10、马克垚主编,《世界文明史》,北京:北京大学出版社2004年版.
11、彭树智著,《伊斯兰教与中东现代化进程》,西安:西北大学出版社1997年版.
12、马明良著,《简明伊斯兰史》,北京:经济日报出版社2001年版.
13、彭树智主编,《阿拉伯国家史》,北京:高等教育出版社2002年版.
14、[美]斯塔夫里阿诺斯著,吴象婴、梁赤民译,《全球通史:1500年 以后的世界》,上海:上海社会科学院出版社1999年版。
15、黄民兴主编,《世界古都丛书--巴黎》,西安,三秦出版社2006年版。
16、何蓉著,《奥匈帝国》,西安:三秦出版社2001年版。
17、阎照祥著,《英国史》,北京:人民出版社2003年版。
18、吕一民著《法兰西的兴衰》,西安:三秦出版社2005年版。
19、[美]斯坦福·肖著,许序雅,张忠祥译,《奥斯曼帝国》,西宁:青海人民出版社2006年版。
20、[美]罗兹·墨菲著,黄磷译,《亚洲史》,海口:海南出版社,三环出版社2004年版。
21、[美]J.M.布劳特著,谭荣根译,《殖民者的世界模式--地理传播主义和欧洲中心主义史观》,北京:社会科学文献出版社2002年版。
22、张骥,刘中民著,《文化与当代国际政治》,北京:人民出版社2003年版。
23、纳忠著,《阿拉伯通史》,北京:商务印书馆1999年版。
24、李植枬著,《宏观世界史》,武汉:武汉大学出版社1999年版。
25、吴于廑,齐世荣主编,刘祚昌,王觉非分册主编《世界史·近代史编》,北京:高等教育出版社2001年版。
26、陈佛松著,《世界文化史》,武汉:华中科技大学出版社2002年版。
27、杨善民,韩锋著,《文化哲学》,济南:山东大学出版社2002年版。
28、刘文龙,袁传伟,《世界文化史·近代卷》,杭州:浙江人民出版社1999年版。
29、崔连仲著,《世界通史》,北京:人民出版社2000年版。
30、阎宗临著,《欧洲文化史论》,桂林,广西师范大学出版社2007年版。
31、裔昭印著,《世界文化史》,上海:华东大学出版社2000年版。
32、杨昌栋著,《基督教在中古欧洲的贡献》,北京:社会科学文献出版社2000年版。
32、[法]德尼兹·加亚尔,贝尔纳代特·德尚,J·阿尔德伯特等著,蔡鸿滨等译,《欧洲史》,海口:海南出版社2000年版.
33、董小川主编,《世界文化史》,北京:高等教育出版社,2002年版.
33、[法]费尔南·布罗代尔著,肖昶等译,《文明史纲》,桂林:广西师范大学出版社2003年版.
34、计秋枫,冯梁等著,《英国文化与外交》,北京:世界知识出版社2002年版.
35、车效梅著,《中东中世纪城市的产生、发展与嬗变》,北京:中国社会科学出版社2004年版.
36、[英]克拉姆著《语言与文化》,上海:上海外语教育出版社2000年版.
37、彭树智著,《文明交往论》,西安,陕西人民出版社2002年版.
38、[德]阿尔弗雷德·韦伯著,姚燕译,《文化社会学视域中的文化史》,上海:上海人民出版社2006年版.
39、陈乐民,周弘著,《欧洲文明的进程》,北京:生活·读书·新知三联书店2003年版.
40、[英]韦尔斯著,琚宏,张军,李志伟译,《文明的故事》,北京:五洲传播出版社2004年版.
41、唐逸主编,《基督教史》,北京:中国社会科出版社1993年版.
42、[英]约翰·劳尔著,刘玉霞,龚文启译,《英国与英国外交(1815.1885)》,上海:上海译文出版社2003年版.
1.田瑾:《奥斯曼帝国后期中东与西方的文化交流》,载《西北工业大学学报》,2005年第3期.
2.http://njygj.blog.163.com/blog/static/386416200741013050689/?fromRe
3.http://zhidao.baidu.com/question/25592273.html
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1 Stanford J.Shaw,Ezel Kural Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,VolumeⅡ:Reform,Revolution,and Republic:The Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,1977.
2 Erik J.ZUercher,Turkey,a Modern History,I.B Tauris&Co Ltd,London,1998.
3 SeiCuk Aksin Somel,The Modernization of Public Education in the Ottoman Empire 1839-1908,Islamization,Autocracy and Discipline,Brill,Leiden,2001.
4 Charles A.Frazee,Catholics and Sultans,the Church and the Ottoman Empire 1453-1923,Cambridge University Press,London,1983.
1 Christopher Clay,Gold for the Sultan,Western Bankers and the Ottoman Finance 1856-1881:A Contribution to Ottoman and to International Financial History,I.B.Tauris Publishers,London,2000.
2 Martin Sicker,the Islamic World in Decline,From the Treaty of Karlowitz to the Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire,Westport,2001.
3 Jonathan S.McMurray,Distant Ties:Germany,the Ottoman Empire,and the Construction of the Baghdad Rai/way,Westport,2001.
4 Halil Inalcid,Donald Quataert,Economic And Social History of the Ottoman Empire,1300-1914.Cambridge University Press,1994.
5 Sevket Pamuk,,The Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism,1820-1923,Trade,investment andproduction,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,1987.
6 Ekmeleddin IhsanoGlu,Science,Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire,Western Influence,Local Institutions,and the Transfer of Knowledge,Ashgate Publishing House,Hampshire,2004.
7 Jacob M.Landau.Ottoman Past and Today's Turkey,Hurst &Company,London,2004.
8 Roderic H.Davison,Turkey,A Short History,The Eothen Press,Huntingdon,1988..
9 Kemal H.Knrpat,Ottoman Past and Today's Turkey,Brill,Leiden,2000.
1[美]斯塔夫里阿诺斯著,吴象婴,梁赤民译,《全球通史,1500年以后的世界》,上海社会科学出版社,上海,2002.
2 Asli Cirakman,From the "Terror of the World" to the "Sickman of Eruope ",European Images of Ottoman Empire and Society from the Sixteenth Century to the Nineteenth,Peter Lang publishing,Inc.,New York,2002.
3 黄维民,《奥斯曼帝国》,三秦出版社2000年版.
4 崔连仲,《世界通史》,人民出版社2000年版.
5 彭树智主编,黄维民著《中东国家通史·土耳其卷》,商务印书馆2002年版.
6 纳忠,《阿拉伯通史》,商务印书馆1999年版.
7 李植楞,《宏观世界史》,武汉大学出版社1999年版.
8 吴于廑,齐世荣,《世界史·近代史编》,高等教育出版社,2001年版.
9 吴于廑,齐世荣主编.刘祚昌,王觉非分册主编《世界史·近代史编》,高等教育出版社2001年版.
10 马克垚,《世界文明史》,北京大学出版社2004年版.
11 陈佛松,《世界文化史》,华中科技大学出版社2002年版.
1 参见杨善民、韩锋,《文化哲学》,山东大学出版社,济南,2002年版,第76-84页.
2 See Larry A.Samovar,Richard E.Porter,Intercultural Communication,Eighth Edition,Wadsworth Publishing,Company,California,1997,P12.
1 张骥.刘中民,《文化与当代国际政治》,人民出版社,北京.2003年,第28-29页.
1 彭树智,《文明交往论》.陕西人民出版社,西安,2002年,第520页.
1 Wilfred T.F.Castle,M.A.,Grand Turk,A Historical Outline of Life and Events,of Culture and Politics,of Trade and Travel during the Last Years of the Ottoman Empire and the First Years of the Turkish Republic,Hutchinson &Co.,Ltd,London,1945.p 10.
1 彭树智,《文明交往论》,陕西人民出版社,西安,2002年.第24页.
2[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著,范中廉译,《现代土耳其的兴起》,商务印书馆,北京,1982年,第8页.
3 See Ibid.p21.
1 黄维民,《奥斯曼帝国》,三秦出版社,西安,2000年,第11页.
2 See Ibid,p165.
1 黄维民,《奥斯曼帝国》,三秦出版社,西安,2000年,第13页.
2[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著,范中廉译,《现代土耳其的兴起》,商务印书馆,北京.1982年,第20-21页.
3 See Ibid,p21.
1[美]斯坦福.肖著,许序雅,张忠样译.《奥斯曼帝国》,青海人民出版社,西宁.2006年,第354页.
2 黄维民,《奥斯曼帝国》,三秦出版社,西安,2000年,第161页.
1[美]斯坦福·肖著,许序雅,张忠祥译,《奥斯曼帝国》,青海人民出版社.西宁,2006年,第355页.
2 Roderic H.Davison,Essays in Ottoman Empire and Turkish History,1774-1923,The Impact of the West,University of Texas Press,Texas,1990,p12.
1[美]斯坦福·肖著,许序雅,张忠祥译,《奥斯曼帝国》,青海人民出版社.西宁,2006年,第19页.
2 Kemal H.Karpat,Ottoman Past and Today's Turkey,Brill,Leiden,2000,p5.
3[美]斯坦福·肖著,许序雅,张忠样译,《奥斯曼帝国》,青海人民出版社,西宁,2006年,第16页.
1 黄维民,《奥斯曼帝国》,三秦出版社,西安,2000年,第7页.
2 See Ibid,p5.
3 Kemal H.Karpat,Ottoman Past and Today's Turkey,Brill,Leiden,2000.p31.
1 彭树智主编,黄维民著,《中东国家通史-土耳其卷》,商务印书馆,北京,2002年,第90页.
2[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著,范中廉译.《现代土耳其的兴起》,商务印书馆,北京,1982年,第12页.
3 See Ibid,p12.
4 See Ibid,p13.
1[美]斯坦福·肖著,许序雅,张忠祥译,《奥斯曼帝国》,青海人民出版社.西宁,2006年,第36页.
2 See Ibid,p84.
1 田瑾,《奥斯曼帝国后期中东与西方的文化交流》.《西北工业大学学报》,西安,第25卷第3期,2005年第9月.第12页。
2 刘文龙,袁传伟.《世界文化史·近代卷》,浙江人民出版社,杭州,1999年,第278页。
3 Eric J·Zuecher,Turkey:A Modern Hiatory,I.B.Tauris &Co.Ltd,London,1998.P243.
4 Charles A·Frazee,Catholics and Sultans,The Church and the Ottoman Empire,1453-1923,Cambridge University Press,1983,P155.
Will-red T·ECastle,Grand Turk,An Historical Outline of Life and Events,of Culture and Politics,of Trade and Travel during the Last Years of the Ottoam Empire and The First Years of the Turkish Republic,Hutchinson &Co.Ltd,1980,p14.
1 L.Carl Brown,Imperial Legacy,The Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and The Middle East,Columbia University Press,New York,1996,p14
2 See Ibid,P24.
3 Bruce Masters,Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World:The Roots of Secarianism,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,2001,P235.
1 L.Carl Brown,Imperial Legacy,The Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East,Columbia University Press,New York,1996,P24.
1 Justin McCarthy,the Ottoman Peoples and the End of the Empire,London,2001,p35.
2 Donald Quataert,the Ottoman Empire,1700- 1922,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,2000,p6.
1 Colin Imber & Keiko Kiyotaki,Frontiers of Ottoman Studies,Volume L I.B Tauris & Co.Ltd,London,2005,P3.
2 Donald Quataert,the Ottoman Empire,1700- 1922,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,2000,p166.
3 L.Carl Brown,Imperial Legacy,The Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East,Columbia University Press,New York,1996,p24.
1 Adigor Levy,Jews,Turks,Ottomans,A Shared History,Fifteenth through the Twentieth Century,Sypacuse University Press,2003,p149.
2 Donald Quataert,The Ottoman Empire,1700- 1922,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,2000,176.
1 Donald Quataert,the Ottoman Empire.1700- 1922,Cambridge University Press,The Edinburg Building,Cambridge,2000,p178.
1 Donald Quataert,the Ottoman Empire,1700- 1922,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge.2000,p182.
2 彭树智主绢,贾维民看,《中东国家通史·土耳其卷》,商务印书馆2002年,第98页.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History,1774-1923,The Impact of the West,University of Texas Press,Austin,1990,p116.
1 Kemal H.Karpat,Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History,Selected Articles and Essays,Leiden,Brill,2002,P30.
2 Benjamin C.Fortna,Imperial Classroom,Islam,the State,and the Education in the Late Ottoman Empire,Oxford University Press,2003,p13.
3 Elisabeth(O|¨)zdalga,Late Ottoman Society,The Intellectual Legacy,Routledge Curzon,London,2005,p5.
1 Ekmeleddin IhsanoGlu,Science.Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire,Western Influence,Local Institutions,and the Transfer of Knowledge,Ashgate Publishing Company,Burlington,2004,p248.
2 See lbid,p243.
1 黄维民,《奥斯曼帝国》.三秦出版社.西安,2000年,第208页.
1 http://baike.baidu.com/view/39712.htm#9.
2 http://www.mooncn.net/forum/showthread.php=889999
1 斯坦福·肖著,许序雅,张忠祥译《奥斯曼帝国史》,青海人民出版社,西宁,2006年,第359页。
2 See Ibid,p362.
1[美]斯坦福·肖著,许序雅,张忠样译《奥斯曼帝国》.青海人民出版社.西宁,2006年,第368页.
2[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著,范中廉译,《现代土耳其的兴起》,商务印书馆,北京.1982年,第464页.
1 王风岐,《世界音乐简史》,山西教育出版社,太原,2002年,第107页.
2 http://www.cat898.com/html/2006/08/20060802141606.asp
1[法]费尔南·布罗代尔著,肖昶,冯棠,张文英,王明毅译.《文明史纲》,桂林,广西师范大学出版社,2003年,第371页.
1 阎宗临,《欧洲文化史论》,桂林,广西师范大学出版社,2007年,第112页.
2 陈乐民,周弘,《欧洲文明的进程》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,北京,2003年,第15页.
3 See Ibid,p13.
4 See Ibid,p19.
5 阎宗临,《欧洲文化史论》,广西师范大学出版社,桂林,2007年,第133页.
1 裔昭印.《世界文化史》,华东师范大学出版社,上海.2000年,第122页.
2 陈乐民,周弘,《欧洲文明的进程》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,北京,2003年,第23-24页.
1 陈乐民,周弘,《欧洲文明的进程》,生活 读书 新知三联书店.北京,2003年.第26页.
2[法]阿尔德伯特Aldebert,J.著,蔡鸿滨等译,《欧洲史》,海南出版社,2000年,第11页.
3 裔昭印,《世界文化史》,华东师范大学出版社,上海,2000年,第135页.
4 陈乐民,周弘,《欧洲文明的进程》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,北京.2003年,第28页.
5 See Ibid,p29.
1 阎宗临.《欧洲文化史论》,广西师范大学出版社,桂林,2007年.第112页。
2[法]费尔南·布罗代尔著,肖昶,张文英,王明毅译,《文明史纲》,广西师范大学出版社,桂林,2003年.第311页。
3 马克垚,《世界文明史·上》,北京大学出版社,北京,2004年,第342页。
4 董小川,《世界文化史》,北京,高等教育出版社,2002年,第78页。
1 裔昭印,《世界文化史》,华东师范大学出版社,上海,2000年,第259页.
2[美]斯塔夫里阿诺夫,吴象婴,梁赤民,《全球通史--1500年以后的世界》,上海社会科学院出版社,上海,1999年,第11页.
3[美]马文·佩里.胡万里,王世民,姜开军,黄英译,《西方文明史》,商务印书馆,北京,1993年,第305页.
4 See Ibid,p316.
5 裔昭印,《世界文化史》,华东师范大学出版社,上海,2000年.第290页.
1 唐逸.《基督教史》,中国社会科学院出版社,北京,1993年,第134页.
2 马克垚.《世界文明史·上》.北京.北京大学出版社,2004年,第342页.
3 See Ibid,p342.
1 阎宗临,《欧洲文化史论》,广西师范大学出版社,桂林,2007年,第112页.
1 唐逸,《基督教史》,中国社会科学出版社.北京,1993年,第324页.
1[美]斯塔夫里阿诺斯著,吴象婴,梁赤民译,《全球通史:1500年以后的世界》,上海社会科学出版社,上海,1999年,第562页.
2 陈乐民,《欧洲文明十五讲》.北京大学出版社,北京.2004年,第190页.
1 阎照祥:《英国史》,人民出版社.北京.2003年.第235-236页.
2 计秋枫,冯粱等著,《英国文化与外交》,世界知识出版社,北京,2001年,第166页.
1 陈乐民,《欧洲文明的进程》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,北京,2003年,第165页.
1[美]斯塔夫里阿诺斯著,吴象婴等译,《世界通史:1500年以后的世界》,上海社会科学出版社,上海,1999年,第316页.
2 陈乐民,周弘著.《欧洲文明的进程》,生活·读书·新知三联书店北京,2003年,第309-310页.
3[美]斯塔夫里阿诺斯著,《全球通史-1500年以后的世界》,吴象要,梁赤民译.上海社会科学院出版社,上海.1999年,第315页.
1 参见[美]罗兹·墨菲著,黄磷译,《亚洲史》.海南出版社,三环出版社,海口,2004年,第427页.
2[美]J.M.布劳特,《殖民者的世界模式--地理传播主义和欧洲中心主义史观》,社会科学文献出版社.北京.2002年,第29页.
3 http://zhidao.baidu.com/ouestion/25592273.html.
1[美]J.M.布劳特,《殖民者的世界模式--地理传播主义和欧洲中心主义史观》,社会科学文献出版社,北京.2002年,第24页.
2 See Ibid,p24-27.
3[美]罗兹·墨菲著,黄磷译.《亚洲史》,海南出版社,三环出版社,海口,2004年,第432页.
1 董小川,《世界文化史》,北京,高等教育出版社.2002年,第138页.
2 裔昭印,《世界文化史》.上海,华东师范大学出版社,2000年,第369页.
1 陈乐民.《欧洲文明的进程》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,北京,2003年,第203页.
1 裔昭印.《世界文化史》,华东师范大学出版社,上海.2000年,第404页.
2 马克垚,《世界文明史·中》.北京大学出版社,北京,2004年,第271页.
1 马克垚,《世界文明史·中》,北京大学出版社,北京,2004年,第306页.
1 商昭印《世界文化史》.华东师范大学出版社,上海,2002年,第365页.
2 马克垚.《世界文明史·中》,北京大学出版社,北京,2004年,第400页.
1 Enric J.Zucher,Turkey:A Modern History,I.B.Tauris&Co.Ltd,Victoria House,London,1998,p40.
1 阎宗临,《欧洲文化史论》,广西师范大学出版社,桂林,2007年,第318页.
2[英]伯纳德.刘易斯著,郑之书译,《中东:自基督教兴起至二十世纪末》,北京,中国友谊出版公司,2004年,第293页.
1 Donald Quataert,The Ottoman Empire,17019-1922,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,2000,p85.
2 Charles A.Frazee,Catholic and Sultans:The Church and the Ottoman Empire 1453-1923,California,California University Press,1983,p225.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Turkey:A Short History,Huntingdon,The Eothen Press,1988,p79.
2 彭树智,《文明交往论》.陕西人民出版社.西安,2002年,第399页.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Turkey:A Short History,Huntingdon,The Eothen Press,1988,p81.
2 http://njyg.blog.163.com/blog/static/386416200741013050689/fromRe.
1 Stanford J.Shaw,Ezel Kural Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire And Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ:Reform,Revolution,and Republic:The Rise of the Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press,p141.
1[美]斯坦福·肖,《奥斯曼帝国》,青海人民出版社,西宁.2006年,第356页.
1 Erik,J.ZUrcher,Turkey:A Modern History,I.B.Tauris&Co.Ltd,London,1998,p53.
2 Halil Inalcik,An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire,1300-1914,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,1994,p765.
3 L.Carl Brown,Imperial Legacy:The Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East,Columbia University Press,New York,1996,p24.
1 Asli Cirakman,From the'Terror of the World'to the 'Sick Man of the Europe ',Eropean Images of Ottoman Empire and Society from the Sixteenth Century to the Nineteenth.Peter Lang Publishing,Inc.,New York,2002,p132.
2 Halil Inalcik,An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire,1300-1914,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,1994,p767.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History.1774-1923,The Impact of the West,University of Texas Press,Austin,1990,p23.
2 Standford Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,1977,p41.
1 Stanford Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ,Reform,Revolution,and Republic:The Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press,Cambridte,1977,P86.
2 Erik J.ZUrchcr,Turkey:A Modern History,I.B.Tauris&Co Lid,London,1997,p60.
3 Stanford.Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ.Reform,Revolution,and Republic:The Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press,Cambridtc,1977,P245.
4 See Ibid,p245.
1 Stanford Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ:Reform,Revolution,and Republic:The Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press,Cambridte,1977,P246.
1 Svket Pamuk,the Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism,1820-1913.Trade,investment and production.Camnbridge University Press,Cambridge,1987,p5.
2 Erik J ZUrcher,Turkey,A Modern History,I.B.Tamris &Co Ltd,London,1998,p45.
3 See Ibid,p49.
4 See Ibid,p51.
1 Erik J ZUrcher,Turkey,A Modern History,I.B.Tauris &Co Lid,London,1998,p67.
1 Sevket Pamuk,The Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism,1820-1913,Trade.investment andproduction.Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,1987,p12.
2[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著,范中廉译,《现代土耳其的兴起》,商务印书馆,北京,1982年,第126页.
1 Fatma M(U|¨)ge GOCek,Rise of the Bourgeoisie,Demise of the Empire,Ottoman Westernization and Social Change,Oxford University Press,Oxford,1996.p86.
2 Sevket Pamuk,The Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism,1820-1913,Trade,investment andproduction,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,1987,p15.
3 Roderic H.Davison,Turkey:A Short History,The Eothen Press,Huntingdon,1981,p97.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Turkey:A Short History.The Eothen Press,Huntingdon,1981,p99.
1 车效梅,《中东中世纪城市的产生、发展与嬗变》,中国社会科学出版社.北京,2004年,第147页.
2 彭树智主编,《阿拉伯国家史》,高等教育出版社,北京.2002年,第166页.
1[美]斯坦福·肖著,许序雅,张忠祥译,《奥斯曼帝国》,青海人民出版社,西宁,2006年,第225页.
2 彭树智主编,《阿拉伯国家史》,高等教育出版社,北京,2002年,第169页.
1 彭树智主编,《阿拉伯国家史》,高等教育出版社,北京,2002年,第178页.
1 彭树智主编:《阿拉伯国家史》,高等教育出版社.北京.2002年,第182页.
2[美]斯塔夫里阿诺斯著,吴象晏.梁赤民译,《全球通史:1500年以后的世界》,上海社会科学院出版社,1999年,第421页.
1[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著,郑之书译,《中东:自基督教兴起至二十世纪末》,北京,中国友谊出版公司.2004年,第306页.
1 Erik J.Z(O|¨)rcher,Turkey:A Modern History,I.B.Tauris&Co.Ltd,London,1998,p46.
1 Stanford J.Shaw,Ezel Kural Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey.I'oluume Ⅱ:Reform,Revolution,and Republic:The Rise of Modern Turkey,]808-/975.Cambridge,Cambridge University Press,1977,p85.
1 Ekmeleddin IhsanGoglu,Science,Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire,Western Influence,Local Institutions,and the Transfer of Knowledge,Ashgate Publishing House,Burlington,2004,p35.
2 See Ibid,p35.
1 Erik J.Z(U|¨)rcher,Turkey:A Mordern History,I.B.Tauris&Co Ltd,London,1993,p65-66.
1 Ekmeleddin IhsanoGlu,Science,Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire,Western Influence,Local Institutions.and the and the Transfer of Knowledge,Ashgate Publishingh House,Burlington,2004,p35.
2 See Ibid,p36.
1 Kemal H.Karpat,Politization of Islam,Reconstructingldentity,State,Faith,andCommunity in the Late Ottoman State,Oxford University Press,2001,p159.
1[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著,范中廉译,《现代土耳其的兴起》,商务印书馆,北京,1982年,第134页.
1 Kemal H.Karpat,The Politicization of Islam,Reconstructing Identity,State,Faith,and Community in the Late Ottoman State,Oxford University Press,2001,p183.
2 Kemal H.Karpat,Ottoman Past and Today's Turkey,Brill,Leiden,2000,p18.
3 Roderic H.Davison,Turkey:A Short History,London,The Eothen Press,1988,p94.
4 See Ibid,p94
1 Kemal H.Karpat,The Politicization of Islam,Reconstructing Identity,State,Faith,and Community in the Late Ottoman State,Oxford University Press,2001,P160.
1 Selim Deringil,The Well-Protected Domains:Ideology and the Legitimation of Power in the Ottoman Empire 1876-1909,London,I.B.Tauris,1998,p95.
2 See Ibid,p9.
3 Selim Deringil,the Well-Protected Domains:Ideology and the Legitimation of Power in the Ottoman Empire 1876-1909.London,I.B.Tauris,1998,p98.
1 Kemal H.Kayat,Ottoman Past and Today's Tufty,Leiden,2000,p17.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Essays in Ottoman Empire and Turkish History,1774-1923,the impact of the west,University of Texas Press,Austin,1990,p99.
1[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著.郑之书译,《中东:自基督教兴起至二十世纪末》,北京,中国友谊出版公司,2004年,第306页.
1 Fatma Muge GOCek,Rise of the Bourgeoisie,Demise of Empire Ottoman Westernization and Social Change,Oxford University Press,1996,p5.
1 注:库鲁斯(Kurus).货币单位,一里拉=10库鲁斯
2 Stanford J.Shaw,Ezel Kural Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ:Reform,Revolutio,and Republic:The Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,p226-227.
3 Wilfrel T.F.Castle.,Grand Turk,,4n Historical Outline of Life and Events,of Culture and Politics,of Trade and Travel during the Last Years of the Ottoman Empire and the First Years of the Turkish Republic,Hutchinson & Co.(Publishers),LTD.London,1950,P55.
1 Sevket Pamuk,the Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism,1820-1913,Trade,Investment and Production,Camnbridg University Press,p35.
2 Donald Quataert,The Ottoman Empire,1700-1922,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,2000,p118.
1 Sevket Pamuk,the Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism,1820-1913,Trade,investment and production,Cambridge University Press,1957,P99.
2 Stanford J.Shaw,Ezel Kural Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey Volume Ⅱ:Reform,Revolution,and Republic:The Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press 1977,p228.
3 See Ibid,p229.
1 Fatma MOge GOCek,Rise of the Bourgeoisie,Demise of the Empire,Ottman Westernization and Social Change,Oxford University Press,1996,p86.
2 Stanford J.Shaw,Ezel Kural Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ:Reform,Revolution,and Republic:The Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press,1977,p251.
1 Stanford J.Shaw,Ezel Kurai Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ:Reform,Revolution,and Republic:The Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press,1977,p241.
1[美]斯塔夫里阿诺斯著,吴象婴等译,《全球通史:1500年以后的世界》.上海社会科学出版社,上海.1999,第243页.
1[美]斯塔夫里阿诺斯著,吴象婴等译,《全球通史:1500年以后的世界》,上海社会科学出版社,上海,1999.第312页.
2 Roderic H.Davison,Turkey,A Short History,The Eothen Press,Huntingdon,second edition,1988,p 68.
1 伯纳德·刘易斯著,范忠廉译.《现代土耳其的兴起》,商务印书馆,北京,1982年,第61页.
2 Erik J.Z(U|¨)rcher,Turkey:A Modern History,I.B.Tauris&Co Ltd,London,1998,p3.
1.Erik J.Z(U|¨)ercher,Turkey,A Modern History,I.B.Tauris&Co Ltd,London,1998,p25.
2 Roderic H.Davison,Essays in Ottoman and.Turkish History,1774-1923,The Impact of the West,University of Texas press,Austin,1990,p23.
3 Erik J.Z(U|¨)ercher,Turkey,A Modern History,I.B.Tauris&Co Ltd,London,1998,p59.
4 Donald Quataert,Ottoman Empire,1700-1922,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,2000,p63.
1 Claire Kramsch,Language and Culture,Oxford University Press and Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,Shanghai,2000,p3.
2 Fatma M(U|¨)ge G(O|¨)ek,Rise of the Bourgeoisie,Demise of the Empire Ottoman Westernization and Social Change,Oxford University Press,1996,p121.
1 Farina M(U|¨)ge G(O|¨)Cek,Rise of the Bourgeoisie,Demise of the Empire Ottoman Westernization and Social Change,Oxford University Press,1996,p122.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History,1774-1923,the Impact of the West,University of Texas Press,Austin,1990.p25.
2 Roderic H.Davison,Turkey:A Short History,The Eothen Press,Huntingdon,second edition,1988.p78.
1 Erik J.Z(U|¨)cher,Turkey:A Modern History,I.B.Tauris&Co Ltd,London,1998,p64.
1 Bernard Lewis,The Middle East,2000 years of History from the Rise of Christianify to the Present Day,The Orion Publishing Group Ltd,London,1995,p331.
2.Caesar E.Farah,Decision Making and Change in the Ottoman Empire,The Thomas Jefferson University Press,Missouri,1993,p207.
1 David Dushner,Palestine in the late Ottoman Period Political Social and Economic Transformation,Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi Press,Jerusalem,Israel,1986,p310.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History,1774-1923 The Impact of the West,University of Texas Press,1990,p135.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History,1774-1923 The Impact of the West,University of Texas Press 1990,p144.
1[英]约翰·劳尔著,刘玉霞、龚文启译,《英国与英国外交:1815-1885》,上海译文出版社.上海.2003年,第136页.
1 Roderic H.Davison,Turkey:A Short History.Second Edition,The Eothen Press,Huntingdon,England,1988,p97.
1 Jonathan S.McMurray,Distant Ties,Germany,the Ottoman Empire,and the Construction of the Baghdad Railway,Westport,Connecticut,2001,p9.
1 Jonathan S.McMurray,Distant Ties,Germany,the Ottoman Empire,and the Construction of the Baghdad Railway,Westport,Connecticut,2001,p1.
2 Betig(U|¨)l Ercan Argun,Turkey in Germany,The Transnational Sphere of Deutchkei,London,Taylor &Francis Books Inc.2003,p53.
1 Stanford J.Shaw,Ezel Kural Shaw,History of Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ:Reform,Revolution,and Republic." the Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,1977,p230.
2 See Ibid,p232.
1 Erik J.Z(U|¨)rcher,Turkey:A Modern History,London,I.B.Tauris&Co Ltd,1997,p82.
2 See Ibid,p81.
1 Halil Inalcik,Donald Quataert,An Economic andSocial History of the Ottoman Empire,1300-1914,Cambridge University Press,1994,p808 -809.
1 Stanford Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ:Reform.Revolution.and Republic,The Rise of Modern Turkey,1808-1975,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,1977 p237.
2 See Ibid,p237.
1 Stanford J.Shaw,Ezel Kural Shaw,History of Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey,Volume Ⅱ:Reform.Revolution,and Republic.The Rise of Modern Turkey 1808-1975,1977,p249.
1 Stamford J.Shaw,Ezel Kural Shaw,History of Ottoman Empire and Modern Furry,Volume Ⅱ:Reform,Revolution,and Republic,The Rise of Modern Turkey 1808-1975,1977,p150.
1 SelCuk AkSin Somel,the Modernization of Public Education in the Ottoman Empire,1839-1908,Islamization,Autocracy and Discipline,Koninklijke Brill,Leiden,2001,p3.
1 David Kushner,Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period,Political Social and Economic Transformation,Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi Press,Jerusalem,1986,p47.
1 Kemal H.Karpat,the Politicizzation of Islam,Reconstructing ldentity,State,Faith,and Community in the Late Ottoman,State,Oxford University Press,2001,P168.
2 See Ibid,p169.
1 Kemal H.Karpat,Ottoman Past and Today's Turkey,Brill of Leiden,Leiden,2000,p49.
1 http://baike.baidu.com/view/32606.htm
2 Wilfred T.F.Castle,M.A.,Grand Turk,An Historical Outline of life and Events,of Culture and Politics,of Trade and Travel during the Last Years of the Ottoman Empire and the First Years of the Turkish Republic,Hutchinson &Co.Ltd,London,1998,,P29.
3 See reid,P30.
4 See ibid,p29.
1 Zeynep Celik,The Remaking of Istanbul,Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century,University of Washington Press,Seattle and London,1986,introduction,pⅹⅵ.
1 Zeynep Celik,The Remaking of Istanbul,Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century,University of Washington Press,Seattle and London,1986,introduction,pⅹⅶ.
2 车效梅,《中东中世纪城市的产生、发展与嬗变》,中国社会科学出版社,北京,2004年,第173页.
1 Zeynep Celik,the Remaking oflstanbul,Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century,University of Washington Press,Seattle and London,1986,p46.
2 See Ibid,p46
1 Kemal H.Karpat,Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History,Selected Articles and Essays,Koninklijke,Brill NV,Leiden,2002,p247.
1 Kemal H.Karpat,Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History,Selected Articles and Easays,Koninldijke,Brill NV,Leiden,2002,p262.
2 See Ibid,p270.
1 Zejnep Celik,the Remaking of Istanbul,Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century,University of Washington Press,Seattle and London,1986,p134.
2 车效梅,《中东中世纪城市的产生、发展与嬗变》,中国社会科学出版社,北京,2004年,第217页.
1 Kemal H.Karpat,Ottoman Past and Today's Turkey,Brill,Leiden,2000,pⅷ.
1、[英]阿诺德·汤因比著,刘北成、郭小凌译,《历史研究》,上海:上海人民出版社2000年版.
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4、[英]伯纳德·刘易斯著,郑之书译,《中东--自基督教兴起至二十世纪末》,北京:中国友谊出版公司2004年版.
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6、《古兰经》,马坚译,北京:中国社会科学出版社2003年版.
7、黄民兴著,《中东国家通史·伊拉克卷》,北京:商务印书馆2002年版.
8、黄维民著,《奥斯曼帝国》,西安:三秦出版社2000年版.
9、彭树智主编,黄维民著,《中东国家通史·土耳其卷》,北京:商务印书馆2002年版.
10、马克垚主编,《世界文明史》,北京:北京大学出版社2004年版.
11、彭树智著,《伊斯兰教与中东现代化进程》,西安:西北大学出版社1997年版.
12、马明良著,《简明伊斯兰史》,北京:经济日报出版社2001年版.
13、彭树智主编,《阿拉伯国家史》,北京:高等教育出版社2002年版.
14、[美]斯塔夫里阿诺斯著,吴象婴、梁赤民译,《全球通史:1500年 以后的世界》,上海:上海社会科学院出版社1999年版。
15、黄民兴主编,《世界古都丛书--巴黎》,西安,三秦出版社2006年版。
16、何蓉著,《奥匈帝国》,西安:三秦出版社2001年版。
17、阎照祥著,《英国史》,北京:人民出版社2003年版。
18、吕一民著《法兰西的兴衰》,西安:三秦出版社2005年版。
19、[美]斯坦福·肖著,许序雅,张忠祥译,《奥斯曼帝国》,西宁:青海人民出版社2006年版。
20、[美]罗兹·墨菲著,黄磷译,《亚洲史》,海口:海南出版社,三环出版社2004年版。
21、[美]J.M.布劳特著,谭荣根译,《殖民者的世界模式--地理传播主义和欧洲中心主义史观》,北京:社会科学文献出版社2002年版。
22、张骥,刘中民著,《文化与当代国际政治》,北京:人民出版社2003年版。
23、纳忠著,《阿拉伯通史》,北京:商务印书馆1999年版。
24、李植枬著,《宏观世界史》,武汉:武汉大学出版社1999年版。
25、吴于廑,齐世荣主编,刘祚昌,王觉非分册主编《世界史·近代史编》,北京:高等教育出版社2001年版。
26、陈佛松著,《世界文化史》,武汉:华中科技大学出版社2002年版。
27、杨善民,韩锋著,《文化哲学》,济南:山东大学出版社2002年版。
28、刘文龙,袁传伟,《世界文化史·近代卷》,杭州:浙江人民出版社1999年版。
29、崔连仲著,《世界通史》,北京:人民出版社2000年版。
30、阎宗临著,《欧洲文化史论》,桂林,广西师范大学出版社2007年版。
31、裔昭印著,《世界文化史》,上海:华东大学出版社2000年版。
32、杨昌栋著,《基督教在中古欧洲的贡献》,北京:社会科学文献出版社2000年版。
32、[法]德尼兹·加亚尔,贝尔纳代特·德尚,J·阿尔德伯特等著,蔡鸿滨等译,《欧洲史》,海口:海南出版社2000年版.
33、董小川主编,《世界文化史》,北京:高等教育出版社,2002年版.
33、[法]费尔南·布罗代尔著,肖昶等译,《文明史纲》,桂林:广西师范大学出版社2003年版.
34、计秋枫,冯梁等著,《英国文化与外交》,北京:世界知识出版社2002年版.
35、车效梅著,《中东中世纪城市的产生、发展与嬗变》,北京:中国社会科学出版社2004年版.
36、[英]克拉姆著《语言与文化》,上海:上海外语教育出版社2000年版.
37、彭树智著,《文明交往论》,西安,陕西人民出版社2002年版.
38、[德]阿尔弗雷德·韦伯著,姚燕译,《文化社会学视域中的文化史》,上海:上海人民出版社2006年版.
39、陈乐民,周弘著,《欧洲文明的进程》,北京:生活·读书·新知三联书店2003年版.
40、[英]韦尔斯著,琚宏,张军,李志伟译,《文明的故事》,北京:五洲传播出版社2004年版.
41、唐逸主编,《基督教史》,北京:中国社会科出版社1993年版.
42、[英]约翰·劳尔著,刘玉霞,龚文启译,《英国与英国外交(1815.1885)》,上海:上海译文出版社2003年版.
1.田瑾:《奥斯曼帝国后期中东与西方的文化交流》,载《西北工业大学学报》,2005年第3期.
2.http://njygj.blog.163.com/blog/static/386416200741013050689/?fromRe
3.http://zhidao.baidu.com/question/25592273.html
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60http://bbs.qq.com/cgi-bin/bbs/show/content?club=3&groupid=117:11044&messageid=23246