兰州市大气颗粒物理化特性及其对人群健康的影响
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摘要
城市大气污染尤其是颗粒物污染长期以来威胁着人类的健康，而在我国，随着城市化进程的加快，经济的快速增长，大气污染问题尤为严重。大量研究表明大气颗粒物，尤其是细颗粒物能导致呼吸系统、循环系统等损伤，其毒性作用与颗粒物粒径及化学组成密切相关。为此，本论文选择兰州市这个以大气污染闻名的城市为研究对象，收集兰州市近二十年大气污染资料，同时连续监测2005～2007年不同粒径颗粒物浓度，分析其变化特征；采集兰州市不同功能区(工业区、交通繁忙区、郊区)、不同季节、不同粒径颗粒物样品，分析测定颗粒物中水溶性离子和20种无机元素；用GAM模型探讨大气污染物对呼吸系统疾病和心脑血管疾病日入院人数的影响并通过毒理学实验初步探讨颗粒物对人群健康影响的生物学机制，取得了一些有意义的研究成果。
(1)兰州市主要大气污染物PM_(10)、SO_2、NO_2，近二十年来总体呈现逐年递减趋势，且冬春季高于夏秋季节，采暖期高于非采暖期；PM_(10)在12月至次年1月和3～4月出现明显高峰，说明燃煤和扬尘均对PM_(10)有较大贡献；SO_2和NO_2年变化呈典型的U型曲线，其中NO_2变化相对比较平缓，说明冬季燃煤对SO_2贡献比NO_2大，NO_2主要来源于汽车尾气，部分来源于燃煤。不同粒径颗粒物的污染特征表现为粗颗粒物TSP、PM_(10)的最高峰在3～4月份，以春季风沙活动期污染最重，采暖期次之，非采暖期最轻；细颗粒物PM_(2．5)、PM_(1．0)最高峰出现在12月份，以冬季采暖期污染最重，风沙期和非采暖期差异并不明显。
(2)兰州市不同粒径颗粒物中水溶性离子均以SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-、Ca~(2+)、NH_4~+离子为主，不同功能区SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-、NH_4~+季节变化基本相似：冬季＞春季＞秋季＞夏季；Ca~(2+)、Mg~(2+)则呈现出春季浓度最高，冬季次之，夏季最低。水溶性离子对细颗粒物质量浓度贡献较粗颗粒物大，即颗粒物粒径越小，水溶性离子的贡献越大，其中Ca~(2+)、Mg~(2+)、K~+等矿质元素在粗颗粒物TSP中富集较高，二次气溶胶离子SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-、NH_4~+则正好相反，在细颗粒物PM_(2．5)富集较高，而在TSP和PM_(10)富集相对较低。颗粒物中NO_3~-／SO_4~(2-)的比值均在0．2～0．5之间，工业区和交通繁忙区在夏季NO_3~-／SO_4~(2-)值最大为0．49，冬季最小为0．21，说明冬季燃煤对大气污染的贡献要大于机动车尾气，而在郊区四季NO_3~-／SO_4~(2-)比值相差并不大，平均为0．34，说明燃煤和汽车尾气对SO_2和NO_2的贡献相近。
(3)不同功能区、不同粒径颗粒物中无机元素主要包括Ca、S、Fe、Mg、K、Zn、Pb、P、Mn、Na及Ba等十一种元素，且污染水平有明显差异，在西固工业区污染最重，城关交通繁忙区次之，榆中郊区最轻；不同功能区颗粒物中无机元素季节变化特征相似，榆中郊区为春季最高，秋冬季次之，夏季最低，而城关区和西固区均呈现冬季最高，春季次之，夏季最低。典型地壳元素Ca和Mg呈现类似季节变化，春季最高，夏季最低，污染元素中，燃煤的标识性元素S、Zn、As均呈现出冬季最高，春秋季次之，夏季最低的季节变化，来源于工业污染的元素Mn、Cd、Ni、Cu、V等季节变化并不明显，考虑与工业污染全年持续排放有关，Pb主要来源于汽车尾气，因此季节变化也不明显，但污染水平较高。
(4)兰州市大气污染物对呼吸系统疾病的影响均表现出明显的滞后效应，PM_(10)基本在滞后3～5d时相对危险度(RR)达到最大值；SO_2在滞后1～3d(上呼吸道感染6d)时RR达到最大值；NO_2大多数在2～4d时RR达到最大值，且具有统计学意义上的显著性；PM_(10)、SO_2和NO_2日平均浓度每增加10μg／m~3，总呼吸系统疾病全人群日入院人数的RR分别为1．002(95%CI：1．000～1．003)、1．005(95%CI：1．000～1．010)、1．011(95%CI：1．002～1．019)；污染物对不同疾病的影响程度不同，从强到弱依次为：肺炎＞上呼吸道感染＞COPD，而且女性及65岁以上的老年人群对污染物较男性和65岁以下人群更加敏感。
(5)兰州市不同大气污染物对心脑血管疾病别、年龄别及不同性别日入院人数RR的影响并不相同，三种主要污染物对总心脑血管疾病在滞后2～4d时RR达到最大值，且具有统计学意义上的显著性；PM_(10)对缺血性心血管疾病在滞后2d时RR达到最大值，SO_2和NO_2对缺血性心血管疾病的影响为即时效应；PM_(10)对高血压在滞后7d(老年人群为2d)，SO_2和NO_2则主要在滞后2～4d时RR达到最大值；PM_(10)对脑卒中在滞后6d(男性人群为2d)，SO_2和NO_2则主要在滞后3～4d(女性人群为7d)时RR达到最大值；PM_(10)、SO_2和NO_2日平均浓度每增加10μg／m~3，总心脑血管疾病全人群日入院人数的RR分别为1．001(95%CI：1．000～1．003)、1．007(95%CI：1．003～1．012)、1．008(95%CI：1．001～1．016)。
(6)兰州市不同功能区细颗粒物PM_(2．5)对RAW264．7细胞具有细胞毒性，郊区诱导细胞凋亡能力较弱，工业区与交通繁忙区较强；且细胞凋亡能力表现出明显的季节性，各功能区均呈现出冬季最强，春季和夏季次之，秋季最弱；对于细胞死亡，呈现出明显的剂量效应关系，但各功能区差别不大，其致死能力亦表现出季节性差异，以冬季最强，春秋次之，夏季最弱。
Urban air pollution especially particulate matter pollution has been a threat to human healthfor a long period of time. In China, air pollution is a particularly serious problem with the rapidurbanization and economic growth. Numerous studies indicated that the atmospheric particulatematter, especially fine particulate matter are responsible for respiratory and cardiovascularmorbidity and mortality, and their toxicity is closely associated with their size and chemicalcomposition. In this thesis, Lanzhou city is chosen as the study area which was famous for airpollution. Both the change characteristics of the air pollution in recent 20 years and theconcentrations of particle matter with different sizes from 2005 to 2007 were analyzed. Thedifferent sizes of particle matter samples from different functional areas (industrial areas, heavytraffic areas, rural areas) and different seasons were collected and the water-soluble ions and 20kinds of inorganic elements were analyzed. Furthermore, the relationship between air pollutionand daily hospital admissions respiratory and cardio-cerebralvascular diseases were studiedusing GAM model. The biological mechanisms of toxic effects on human health induced byparticulate matters were also investigated through the toxicological experiments. Somemeaningful results were obtained.
(1) In recent 20 years, the main air pollutants( PM_(10), SO_2, NO_2) in Lanzhou city have beendecreasing gradually, and in winter and spring their concentrations were higher than that insummer and autumn, heating period were higher than that in the non-heating period. Two peaksof PM_(10) were appeared, one was between December and January the next year, and the otherwas between March and April, indicating that both coal-burning and dust were contributed toPM_(10); annual variation of SO_2 and NO_2 were shown as U-curve and change of NO_2 wassmoother, indicating that coal-burning was main contributor to SO_2 in winter and NO_2 mainlycame from vehicle exhaust. The characteristics of different sizes of particulate matter weredifferent, concentrations of TSP and PM_(10) were the highest in spring or dust period, followed byheating period, and the non-heating period was the lightest; fine particulate matter PM_(2.5) andPM_(1.0) were the highest in winter or the heating period, dust period and non-heating period hadno difference.
(2) The main water-soluble ions of different sizes of particles in Lanzhou were dominant bySO_4~(2)-,NO_3~-, Ca~(2+), NH_4~+. In different functional areas, the change trend of SO_4~(2-) , NO_3~-, NH_4~+were similar with winter＞spring＞autumn＞summer. However, the concentrations of Ca~(2+) andMg ~(2+) were the highest in spring than that in other seasons. The contribution of water-solubleions to the quality of fine particles was greater than to the coarse particulate matter. Mineralelements such as Ca~(2+), Mg~(2+) and K~+ were higher in TSP than that in the fine particulate matters.In contrary, the secondary aerosol ions including SO_4~(2-), NO_3~- and NH_4~+ were higher in the fineparticulate matter PM_(2.5). The ratios of NO~(3-)/SO_4~(2-) in particulate matter were between 0.2 and0.5, and in industrial areas and heavy traffic areas, the maximum value was 0.49 in summer andthe minimum was 0.21 in winter, indicating that the contribution of coal-burning to air pollutionwas higher than motor vehicle exhaust in winter; in rural areas, the ratios of NO~(3-)/SO_4~(2-) werestable in difference seasons and the average value was 0.34, suggesting that the contributions ofcoal-burning and motor vehicle exhaust to SO_2 and NO_2 were closely.
(3) With significant differences of pollution level at different functional areas, the mainelements of different sizes of particles include Ca, S, Fe, Mg, K, Zn, Pb, P, Mn, Na and Ba. Inindustrial areas such as Xigu district, the pollution level is the most serious, followed by heavytraffic areas and the rural areas are the most slightly. The seasonal variations of elements indifferent function areas were similar. In Yuzhong it was the highest in spring, followed byautumn and winter, the summer was the lowest, while in Chengguan district and Xigu districtwere the highest in winter. Typical crustal elements, such as Ca and Mg, showed the similarseasonal variations, the highest in spring, lowest in summer, and pollution elements, theidentification elements for coal-burning, such as S, Zn, As, were the highest in winter, followedby spring and autumn, the lowest in summer. The pollution elements come from industrialpollution such as Mn, Cd, Ni, Cu, V didn't show obvious seasonal variations because industrialemissions was continuous throughout the whole year. Pb had a high pollution level because ofvehicle exhaust.
(4) There was a lag effect of air pollutants on different respiratory diseases in Lanzhou. RRvalues reached the maximum in the following sequences: PM_(10) with a lag of 3～5d, SO_2 with alag of 1～3d (upper respiratory tract infection 6d) and NO_2 with a lag of 2～4d, and there weresignificantly associated with disease. Furthermore, with increase of PM_(10), SO_2 and NO_2 for 10μg/m~3, RRs of daily hospital admissions for total respiratory diseases were 1.002(95%CI:1.000～1.003), 1.005(95%CI: 1.000～1.010) and 1.011(95%CI: 1.002～1.019) respectively. Thesensitivity of air pollutants to different diseases is not the same. The sequence from strong toweak is as follows: pneumonia＞upper respiratory tract infection＞COPD, and female andpeople over 65 years old to pollutants were more sensitive than male and under 65 years.
(5) The effects of air pollutants on different cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseaseincluding different age and gender in Lanzhou were different. There are significantlyassociations between the three main pollutants and total cardio-cerebrovascular disease with alag of 2～4d; PM_(10) with a lag of 2d, SO_2 and NO_2 on ischemic cardiovascular disease wereimmediate effect; PM_(10) with a lag of 7d (elderly group 2d), SO_2 and NO_2 with a lag of 2～4d onhypertension; PM_(10) with a lag of 6d (male 2d), SO_2 and NO_2 with a lag of 3～4d (female 7d) onstroke. Furthermore, when PM_(10), SO_2 and NO_2 increase l0μg/m~3, the RRs of daily hospitaladmissions for total cardio-cerebrovascular diseases were 1.001 (95%CI: 1.000～1.003),1.007(95%CI: 1.003～1.012) and 1.008(95%CI: 1.001～1.016) respectively.
(6) Fine particulate matter PM_(2.5) shows cell toxicity to RAW264.7 cell line. The particlesfrom countryside show a weak apoptosis effect on the cell but particles from industrial areasand heavy traffic areas show a stronger effects; There is a seasonal variance of the apoptosiseffect: the strongest in winter, followed by spring and summer, the weakest in autumn; for celldeath, there is a clear dose-response relationship, but is not very different between eachfunctional areas. The lethal capacity of PM_(25) also shows a seasonal variation: the strongest inwinter, followed by spring and autumn, the weakest in summer.
(1)兰州市主要大气污染物PM_(10)、SO_2、NO_2，近二十年来总体呈现逐年递减趋势，且冬春季高于夏秋季节，采暖期高于非采暖期；PM_(10)在12月至次年1月和3～4月出现明显高峰，说明燃煤和扬尘均对PM_(10)有较大贡献；SO_2和NO_2年变化呈典型的U型曲线，其中NO_2变化相对比较平缓，说明冬季燃煤对SO_2贡献比NO_2大，NO_2主要来源于汽车尾气，部分来源于燃煤。不同粒径颗粒物的污染特征表现为粗颗粒物TSP、PM_(10)的最高峰在3～4月份，以春季风沙活动期污染最重，采暖期次之，非采暖期最轻；细颗粒物PM_(2．5)、PM_(1．0)最高峰出现在12月份，以冬季采暖期污染最重，风沙期和非采暖期差异并不明显。
(2)兰州市不同粒径颗粒物中水溶性离子均以SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-、Ca~(2+)、NH_4~+离子为主，不同功能区SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-、NH_4~+季节变化基本相似：冬季＞春季＞秋季＞夏季；Ca~(2+)、Mg~(2+)则呈现出春季浓度最高，冬季次之，夏季最低。水溶性离子对细颗粒物质量浓度贡献较粗颗粒物大，即颗粒物粒径越小，水溶性离子的贡献越大，其中Ca~(2+)、Mg~(2+)、K~+等矿质元素在粗颗粒物TSP中富集较高，二次气溶胶离子SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-、NH_4~+则正好相反，在细颗粒物PM_(2．5)富集较高，而在TSP和PM_(10)富集相对较低。颗粒物中NO_3~-／SO_4~(2-)的比值均在0．2～0．5之间，工业区和交通繁忙区在夏季NO_3~-／SO_4~(2-)值最大为0．49，冬季最小为0．21，说明冬季燃煤对大气污染的贡献要大于机动车尾气，而在郊区四季NO_3~-／SO_4~(2-)比值相差并不大，平均为0．34，说明燃煤和汽车尾气对SO_2和NO_2的贡献相近。
(3)不同功能区、不同粒径颗粒物中无机元素主要包括Ca、S、Fe、Mg、K、Zn、Pb、P、Mn、Na及Ba等十一种元素，且污染水平有明显差异，在西固工业区污染最重，城关交通繁忙区次之，榆中郊区最轻；不同功能区颗粒物中无机元素季节变化特征相似，榆中郊区为春季最高，秋冬季次之，夏季最低，而城关区和西固区均呈现冬季最高，春季次之，夏季最低。典型地壳元素Ca和Mg呈现类似季节变化，春季最高，夏季最低，污染元素中，燃煤的标识性元素S、Zn、As均呈现出冬季最高，春秋季次之，夏季最低的季节变化，来源于工业污染的元素Mn、Cd、Ni、Cu、V等季节变化并不明显，考虑与工业污染全年持续排放有关，Pb主要来源于汽车尾气，因此季节变化也不明显，但污染水平较高。
(4)兰州市大气污染物对呼吸系统疾病的影响均表现出明显的滞后效应，PM_(10)基本在滞后3～5d时相对危险度(RR)达到最大值；SO_2在滞后1～3d(上呼吸道感染6d)时RR达到最大值；NO_2大多数在2～4d时RR达到最大值，且具有统计学意义上的显著性；PM_(10)、SO_2和NO_2日平均浓度每增加10μg／m~3，总呼吸系统疾病全人群日入院人数的RR分别为1．002(95%CI：1．000～1．003)、1．005(95%CI：1．000～1．010)、1．011(95%CI：1．002～1．019)；污染物对不同疾病的影响程度不同，从强到弱依次为：肺炎＞上呼吸道感染＞COPD，而且女性及65岁以上的老年人群对污染物较男性和65岁以下人群更加敏感。
(5)兰州市不同大气污染物对心脑血管疾病别、年龄别及不同性别日入院人数RR的影响并不相同，三种主要污染物对总心脑血管疾病在滞后2～4d时RR达到最大值，且具有统计学意义上的显著性；PM_(10)对缺血性心血管疾病在滞后2d时RR达到最大值，SO_2和NO_2对缺血性心血管疾病的影响为即时效应；PM_(10)对高血压在滞后7d(老年人群为2d)，SO_2和NO_2则主要在滞后2～4d时RR达到最大值；PM_(10)对脑卒中在滞后6d(男性人群为2d)，SO_2和NO_2则主要在滞后3～4d(女性人群为7d)时RR达到最大值；PM_(10)、SO_2和NO_2日平均浓度每增加10μg／m~3，总心脑血管疾病全人群日入院人数的RR分别为1．001(95%CI：1．000～1．003)、1．007(95%CI：1．003～1．012)、1．008(95%CI：1．001～1．016)。
(6)兰州市不同功能区细颗粒物PM_(2．5)对RAW264．7细胞具有细胞毒性，郊区诱导细胞凋亡能力较弱，工业区与交通繁忙区较强；且细胞凋亡能力表现出明显的季节性，各功能区均呈现出冬季最强，春季和夏季次之，秋季最弱；对于细胞死亡，呈现出明显的剂量效应关系，但各功能区差别不大，其致死能力亦表现出季节性差异，以冬季最强，春秋次之，夏季最弱。
Urban air pollution especially particulate matter pollution has been a threat to human healthfor a long period of time. In China, air pollution is a particularly serious problem with the rapidurbanization and economic growth. Numerous studies indicated that the atmospheric particulatematter, especially fine particulate matter are responsible for respiratory and cardiovascularmorbidity and mortality, and their toxicity is closely associated with their size and chemicalcomposition. In this thesis, Lanzhou city is chosen as the study area which was famous for airpollution. Both the change characteristics of the air pollution in recent 20 years and theconcentrations of particle matter with different sizes from 2005 to 2007 were analyzed. Thedifferent sizes of particle matter samples from different functional areas (industrial areas, heavytraffic areas, rural areas) and different seasons were collected and the water-soluble ions and 20kinds of inorganic elements were analyzed. Furthermore, the relationship between air pollutionand daily hospital admissions respiratory and cardio-cerebralvascular diseases were studiedusing GAM model. The biological mechanisms of toxic effects on human health induced byparticulate matters were also investigated through the toxicological experiments. Somemeaningful results were obtained.
(1) In recent 20 years, the main air pollutants( PM_(10), SO_2, NO_2) in Lanzhou city have beendecreasing gradually, and in winter and spring their concentrations were higher than that insummer and autumn, heating period were higher than that in the non-heating period. Two peaksof PM_(10) were appeared, one was between December and January the next year, and the otherwas between March and April, indicating that both coal-burning and dust were contributed toPM_(10); annual variation of SO_2 and NO_2 were shown as U-curve and change of NO_2 wassmoother, indicating that coal-burning was main contributor to SO_2 in winter and NO_2 mainlycame from vehicle exhaust. The characteristics of different sizes of particulate matter weredifferent, concentrations of TSP and PM_(10) were the highest in spring or dust period, followed byheating period, and the non-heating period was the lightest; fine particulate matter PM_(2.5) andPM_(1.0) were the highest in winter or the heating period, dust period and non-heating period hadno difference.
(2) The main water-soluble ions of different sizes of particles in Lanzhou were dominant bySO_4~(2)-,NO_3~-, Ca~(2+), NH_4~+. In different functional areas, the change trend of SO_4~(2-) , NO_3~-, NH_4~+were similar with winter＞spring＞autumn＞summer. However, the concentrations of Ca~(2+) andMg ~(2+) were the highest in spring than that in other seasons. The contribution of water-solubleions to the quality of fine particles was greater than to the coarse particulate matter. Mineralelements such as Ca~(2+), Mg~(2+) and K~+ were higher in TSP than that in the fine particulate matters.In contrary, the secondary aerosol ions including SO_4~(2-), NO_3~- and NH_4~+ were higher in the fineparticulate matter PM_(2.5). The ratios of NO~(3-)/SO_4~(2-) in particulate matter were between 0.2 and0.5, and in industrial areas and heavy traffic areas, the maximum value was 0.49 in summer andthe minimum was 0.21 in winter, indicating that the contribution of coal-burning to air pollutionwas higher than motor vehicle exhaust in winter; in rural areas, the ratios of NO~(3-)/SO_4~(2-) werestable in difference seasons and the average value was 0.34, suggesting that the contributions ofcoal-burning and motor vehicle exhaust to SO_2 and NO_2 were closely.
(3) With significant differences of pollution level at different functional areas, the mainelements of different sizes of particles include Ca, S, Fe, Mg, K, Zn, Pb, P, Mn, Na and Ba. Inindustrial areas such as Xigu district, the pollution level is the most serious, followed by heavytraffic areas and the rural areas are the most slightly. The seasonal variations of elements indifferent function areas were similar. In Yuzhong it was the highest in spring, followed byautumn and winter, the summer was the lowest, while in Chengguan district and Xigu districtwere the highest in winter. Typical crustal elements, such as Ca and Mg, showed the similarseasonal variations, the highest in spring, lowest in summer, and pollution elements, theidentification elements for coal-burning, such as S, Zn, As, were the highest in winter, followedby spring and autumn, the lowest in summer. The pollution elements come from industrialpollution such as Mn, Cd, Ni, Cu, V didn't show obvious seasonal variations because industrialemissions was continuous throughout the whole year. Pb had a high pollution level because ofvehicle exhaust.
(4) There was a lag effect of air pollutants on different respiratory diseases in Lanzhou. RRvalues reached the maximum in the following sequences: PM_(10) with a lag of 3～5d, SO_2 with alag of 1～3d (upper respiratory tract infection 6d) and NO_2 with a lag of 2～4d, and there weresignificantly associated with disease. Furthermore, with increase of PM_(10), SO_2 and NO_2 for 10μg/m~3, RRs of daily hospital admissions for total respiratory diseases were 1.002(95%CI:1.000～1.003), 1.005(95%CI: 1.000～1.010) and 1.011(95%CI: 1.002～1.019) respectively. Thesensitivity of air pollutants to different diseases is not the same. The sequence from strong toweak is as follows: pneumonia＞upper respiratory tract infection＞COPD, and female andpeople over 65 years old to pollutants were more sensitive than male and under 65 years.
(5) The effects of air pollutants on different cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseaseincluding different age and gender in Lanzhou were different. There are significantlyassociations between the three main pollutants and total cardio-cerebrovascular disease with alag of 2～4d; PM_(10) with a lag of 2d, SO_2 and NO_2 on ischemic cardiovascular disease wereimmediate effect; PM_(10) with a lag of 7d (elderly group 2d), SO_2 and NO_2 with a lag of 2～4d onhypertension; PM_(10) with a lag of 6d (male 2d), SO_2 and NO_2 with a lag of 3～4d (female 7d) onstroke. Furthermore, when PM_(10), SO_2 and NO_2 increase l0μg/m~3, the RRs of daily hospitaladmissions for total cardio-cerebrovascular diseases were 1.001 (95%CI: 1.000～1.003),1.007(95%CI: 1.003～1.012) and 1.008(95%CI: 1.001～1.016) respectively.
(6) Fine particulate matter PM_(2.5) shows cell toxicity to RAW264.7 cell line. The particlesfrom countryside show a weak apoptosis effect on the cell but particles from industrial areasand heavy traffic areas show a stronger effects; There is a seasonal variance of the apoptosiseffect: the strongest in winter, followed by spring and summer, the weakest in autumn; for celldeath, there is a clear dose-response relationship, but is not very different between eachfunctional areas. The lethal capacity of PM_(25) also shows a seasonal variation: the strongest inwinter, followed by spring and autumn, the weakest in summer.
引文
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