《红楼梦》中的修辞造词研究
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摘要
语音、词汇和语法被称作语言的三要素。而修辞是人们运用语言三要素的方法和手段。交际中为追求最佳的表达效果,使用语言的人们总是尽力选择各种方法和手段。因此,修辞是从表达方式、表达效果的角度去研究语音、词汇、语法的运用的。它同语言三要素的关系既不是并列的,也不是从属的,而是存在着复杂的交叉关系。
以往关于修辞与词汇的研究中,人们一直比较关注修辞对词义演变的作用。认为修辞是词义发展的动因之一,临时的修辞用法上升为词语的固定义项是词义引申的重要方式。其实,修辞与词汇相互作用还有另外一种表现方式——修辞造词。“修辞是人们运用语言的方法和手段。在造词活动中,人们也往往运用这些方法和手段进行造词,如把某种像螺蛳的事物称为‘螺丝',把木头做的一种马形的玩具称做‘木马',就是运用修辞的手法进行造词的。”“修辞是语言的艺术,把这种艺术方法用来创造新词,就成了修辞学造词法”。
最初的时候,这些由两个或两个以上的语素组成的相当于词的结构只是临时的修辞用法,如“雀斑”(用麻雀屎比喻脸上的小斑点)、“笑面虎”(用笑着的虎比喻装得善良而心地凶狠的人)、“呼噜”(通过模拟粗重的呼吸声来表示打鼾的意思)、“作古”(用作了古人婉称人死)等。但逐渐地,由于这些结构在清晰表达概念意义的同时,更鲜明地表达出了色彩意义,因此不断地被越来越多的人认同、接受和袭用(有的被减缩),最终上升为固定的词素组合(即词)。因为在这些词的创制过程中修辞方式始终起着链接造词材料的作用,因此我们称其为修辞造词。从本质上说,修辞造词其实是修辞方式在词汇系统中最终固化的结果。
学者们提出修辞造词理论,是建立在两个认识的基础之上的。首先是区分造词与构词的不同。这是因为:很多的词,仅从构词的角度,无法说明构词方法相同,表义却完全不同的原因所在。例如,同为偏正式复合词,“菠菜”是菜,“木耳”却不是“耳”。还有一些词,造词材料和构词方法完全相同,但表义仍然大相径庭。例如,“绿豆”是“绿色的豆”,“豆绿”却是“像(青)豆子一样的绿”。按照葛本仪先生的造词法理论,词序的不同仅仅是其表象,关键在于它们使用的造词法不同:“菠菜”、“绿豆”使用了说明造词法,而“木耳“、“豆绿”使用了比拟造词法。
其次是区分一般造词法和修辞造词法的不同。这是因为:很多词,仅从传统造词法的角度,无法解释造词方法相同,为什么词的色彩意义却大不相同。例如,同为句法学造词法,“龙眼“比“桂圆”更形象生动,“归西”比“死亡”更含蓄委婉,“垂青”比“重视”更有古典韵味等。正是为了揭示该问题,任学良先生建立了修辞学造词法体系。他说“句法学造词法都是注重科学性的造词法,修辞学造词法则是注重艺术性的造词法”。
汉语中一切词语的创制都离不开语音、语法、词汇(已有的)等语言的要素。造词方法就是对这些语言要素的运用。但是,造词的素材被使用的是形式还是内容,抑或形式与内容并重?是在什么方式下被使用,是直接使用还是用来打比方,或者只是用来作为语法标记?依靠何种组织关系使用,是一般的意合还是修辞的方式?等等。这些都关系着一个词产生之后的概念义、色彩义等的不同。如果说,用一般造词法创制出的词语是对语言要素的常规运用,侧重表达的是词的理性义的话,用修辞造词法造出的词语则是变异运用语言要素的结果,侧重表达的是词的附加义。如“短暂”和“眨眼”、“好笑”和“喷饭”、“黑色”和“黑魃魃”等。如果说,一般造词法的研究对象涵盖了汉语中所有词,修辞造词法的研究对象则只是汉语词汇中那些造词时借助了修辞方式因而有独特附加意义的成员。如葛本仪先生造词法体系中属于说明法造出的“鸡胸”、“瓜分”、“鸭舌帽”等同时也属于比拟法造词。因此,修辞造词法与一般造词法理论并不冲突或对立。二者是全体和部分的关系,也是相互交叉的关系,同时还是两个不同层面的关系。对其进行专门研究非常有必要。
但综观汉语研究史,虽然不乏学者曾经对其进行过有益的探索(如前面提到的孙常叙、任学良、葛本仪等先生),但目前更多的研究或局限于修辞学的角度,满足于对修辞造词类型的简单列举;或从词汇学的角度,将其附属于造词类型之一而简单带过。总的来说,还缺乏对汉语修辞造词现象的系统研究和相关理论建树。
本文在前辈学者研究成果的基础上,以修辞造词类型、数量丰富的经典巨著《红楼梦》为基本语料,综合运用词汇学、修辞学、认知语言学和心理学的相关理论,通过对《红楼梦》中修辞造词概貌的整理、统计、分析,描写出不同类型修辞造词的静态分布(包括定义、类型、审美特征、与民族传统思维方式的关系、形成的心理过程以及认知机制等);通过结合具体的上下文,分析出《红楼梦》修辞造词的特色——丰富性和唯美性——与整部小说语言艺术风格形成的不可分割的关系。通过对不同性质语料的收集、对比、分析,尽可能真实地构拟出汉语修辞造词这一语言现象,从个性化的临时修辞格固化为大众化的稳定词语的动态过程、固化途径、影响其固化的因素等等。
本论文共分为四大部分。
第一章是修辞造词概说。分别从以下四个方面进行了综述:
第一节是对“造词”、“造词理据”和“修辞造词”这三个相关概念相互关系的阐述。造词的目的是为了满足交际需要。最初的词,名称和所指称事物之间的关系是任意的,而到后来,用什么样的语音表达什么样的概念往往是有“理据”可说的,即词“有理据性”。促使一个词从无到有地被创造出来的动因有很多,也就是词有很多不同的理据。以修辞方式作为方法和手段,把语音、词汇等语言要素结合起来,创制出新词,通俗地称作修辞造词,其实质就是以修辞方式作为造词理据的造词方法。
第二节粗线条梳理了汉语修辞造词发展的历史和现状。从上古早期的《诗经》中摹声、重言词的出现,到上古末期《汉书》中借代造词类型的异彩纷呈,再到现代汉语中仿拟和缩略替代比喻、借代成为最强势的修辞造词方式,汉语修辞造词在不断发展。
第三节分析了汉语修辞造词研究的历史和现状。对修辞造词的研究还刚刚起步,集中于语言事实的罗列,缺乏对修辞造词过程的动态研究,深度挖掘不足,还未有重大理论的建树。
第四节阐述了汉语修辞造词研究的必要性和意义。以修辞方式创制的词除了表达词汇义之外,更重要的是它的色彩义。对这些词来说,仅仅从构词上来分析是远远不够的。而从造词的角度分析,它也区别于一般造词法造出的词。因此,把修辞造词从传统的构词法中分离出来、从传统的造词法中突显出来专门研究非常有必要。
第二章是《红楼梦》修辞造词概貌的描述。也是整篇论文的核心部分。
第一节是比喻造词。将比喻辞格应用于词的创制,即比喻造词。依据比喻四成分:本体、喻体、喻词和喻解在词语表层的出现情况,把比喻造词分为三类:借喻式、暗喻式和明喻式。在深层心理层面,比喻造词总是按照感知本体一捕捉“边”一发散联想一找寻喻体表象的轨迹进行的。比喻最突出的美质是具象美。这充分体现了汉民族长于形象思维的特征。从认知语言学的角度来看,比喻造词还不仅仅是一种语言现象,更是作为人的一种心理认知机制——隐喻的反映,是人类将某一领域的经验用来说明理解另一领域经验的认知活动规律的折射。
第二节是借代造词。将借代辞格应用于词的创制,即借代造词。根据角度和标准的不同,借代造词可以分出不同的类型。根据语义划分则是最传统的分类方法。与比喻造词基于“相似联想”的心理机制不同,借代造词基于“关系联想”。借代造词有多种美质,但最突出的仍是具象美。反映出汉民族重直观、感性的具象思维传统。与比喻造词一样,从人的认知角度来分析,借代造词也不仅仅是一种语言现象,还是我们说话、思维甚至行为的一种惯常模式之一。是在一个认知框架内,用一个概念实体去帮助理解另一个概念实体的转喻认知机制在语言上的反映。
第三节对委婉造词、摹绘造词等其他修辞造词类型作了相对粗略的介绍。委婉造词是汉族人崇尚含蓄委婉的文化传统的重要体现,夸张造词则是汉族人重于写意、轻于写实的内在思维特征的语言外化,本论文对这两种修辞造词类型也作了较为细致的考察。此外,本节的研究还涉及用典、摹绘等修辞造词的类型。
第三章从丰富性和唯美性两个方面归纳概括了《红楼梦》修辞造词的显著特色。
第一节是《红楼梦》修辞造词的丰富性。在语体上,《红楼梦》修辞造词包含了官话、口语、文言和方言多种风格。在内容上,《红楼梦》修辞造词涉及服饰文化、礼仪文化、建筑文化、婚丧文化等多个方面。
第二节是《红楼梦》修辞造词的唯美性。从绘画美、音乐美和典雅美三个方面分析了《红楼梦》修辞造词独特的色彩意义和表达效果。
第四章总结了《红楼梦》修辞造词所体现的一般规律,即修辞造词是修辞现象在词汇系统中固化的结果。
第一节阐述了从个性鲜明、对语境有强烈依赖的修辞格,到大众普遍认同和效仿的普遍修辞文本,再到最终成为抽象的、稳固的词汇库成员,修辞造词是一个漫长的历时过程。
第二节归纳了修辞格在词汇系统中固化的两个途径。修辞格在词汇系统中固化,除了固化为新词(即我们所说的“修辞造词”),还有一条途径,就是固化为新义(即传统所称的“修辞引申”)。在作者看来,修辞格固化为新义只是一种中间状态,最终还是会固化为“新词”。只不过,后者的语音形式与前者有所不同:它不是形新、义新的。但从词是音义的结合体这个角度来看,它仍是“新词”——新的音义结合体,新的语言交际符号。因此,当然也应该被看做是词汇库中新的成员。
第三节揭示了对修辞格固化为词可能产生影响的因素。语言内部机制的自我调节、民族的审美观念、词语本身的语体风格、情感色彩等很多因素都可能对修辞格在词汇系统中的固化与否产生影响。
Voice,vocabulary and grammar is known as the three elements of language. Rhetoric is the ways and means by which people use the three elements of the language of.In the pursuit of best expression results,the people always try to choose a variety of ways and means.Therefore,the rhetoric studies the use of voice, vocabulary,grammar from the view of the xpression.The relationship between with the three elements of the language is neither parallel nor subordinate,but is complex and crossed.
The past study on the rhetorical and lexical has been more concerned on the role of the evolution of the meaning.The rhetoric is believed to be one of forces of meaning development,temporary use of the rhetoric up to the fixed meaning of words is an important way to extend meaning.In fact,the interaction between with rhetoric and vocabulary there is another way - rhetoric word-formation."Rhetoric is the ways and means of the use of language.In theword-formation activities,people also tend to use these methods and means to form new words.For example,the thing like a snail is called to be 'screws',the toy made of wood with a shape of a horse is called to be 'Trojan'.The rhetoric is used to create these new words." Rhetoric is the art of language.This art is used to create new words,and it becomes rhetorical word-formation."
At first,these structures composed of two or more morphemes equivalent to words was just a temporary rhetoric usage,such as "freckles"(sparrow feces is compared with the the small dots of face ),"smiled tiger"(the smiled tiger is compared with good look and bad-hearted people),"Jiang Hu"(with specific areas on behalf of the quartet that all parts),"snoring"(by simulating the sound of heavy breathing to express the meaning of snoring),"dying"(Said persuasively the human died f) and so on.But gradually,as these structures not only clearly express the the meaning of the concept, but more clearly express the meaning of the the color of the word.So it has been constantly accepted and imitated by increasing number of people,and eventually become a fixed combination of morphemes(that is the word).In the process of creation of these words,rhetorical always plays the role of linking the materials,so we called it rhetoric word-formation.Essentially,rhetoric word-formation is the results of rhetoric curing in the vocabulary system.
The reason why we distinguish the word-formation and the structure of words is as follows:to many words,only from the point of view of the structure of word,we could not tell the reason why words with the same structure have completely different meaning.For example,with the official compound for partial word,"spinach" is the vegetable,but "fungus" is not the "ear." There are also many words even with same materials and methods of formation,but they still have completely different meanings. For example,"green bean" means "green beans",but" bean green "means "the green colour like the beans." According to Mrs.Ge Benyi's theory,the word order is merely its representation,the key is different word-formation laws:"spinach"and "green beans" use the word-formation law of explanation,while "fungus" and "green beans" use the word-formation law of analogy.
The reason why we distinguish the general word-formation and the rhetoric word-formation is as follows:for many words,only from the point of view of the traditional word-formation,we could not tell the reason why words with the same word-formation law have completely different color meaning.For example,with same word-formation of syntax,"longan "compared to "dried longan" more vivid,"returns to the western paradise" implicitly compared to "the death","looks upon with favor" compared to "takes seriously" to have the classical flavor and so on.It is precisely to promulgate this question,Mr.Ren Xueliang establishes the system of the rhetori word-formation.He said that the word-formation of the syntax pays great attention to scientific nature,while the rhetoric the word-formation pays great attention to artistry.
In Chinese,the formation of all words cannot seperate from the voice,the grammar,the vocabulary(existing) and so on these essential factors of language.The methods of the word-formation means the utilization of these essential factor of language.But,what is used as the material of the word-formation, the form or the content,or both? Which way:is used ? The direct use or uses for to draw the analogy? Or is only uses for to take the grammatical markers? What kind of organizational relation is used?:General or rhetoric way? And so on..These relate to the rational,color and so on meaning of a word..
If the words created with general methods of word-formation conventionally utilize essential factors of language and their expressions pay attention to the rational meaning of the words,the words created with rhetoric word-formation law non-conventionally utilize essential factors of language and their expressions pay attention to additional colour meaningof the words.Like "short" and "blinks","funny" and "bursts out laughing","the black" and "very black" and so on.If the objects of study of general methods of word-formation cover all words,the objects of study of rhetoric methods of word-formation only include those members with rhetoric methods of word-formation and therefore with the unique additional significance.Such as,belong to the explanation law first to compose "the chicken breast","to carve up", "the duckbill cap" and so on.These words belong to the explanation law stated by Mrs GeBenYi,and simultaneously also belong to the analogue method to make the words. Therefore,the rhetoric word-formation cannot conflict general methods of word-formation.The two are all and the part relations,is also the intercross relations, simultaneously is two different stratification plane relations.It is nessary to have a special study on rhetoric word-formation.
When we look at the history of Chinese study,there is no lack of useful exploration on the issue of rhetorical word-formation by previous scholars.But either from the perspective of rhetoric,being confined to simple enumeration of the types of rhetorical word-formation;Or from the point of view of lexicology,attaching it to one of the types of word-formation,and summing it over.In general,there is still the lack of systematic study and theoretical contribution to the phenomenon of Chinese rhetoric word-formation.
In this paper,."A Dream of Red Mansions",the classic masterpiece,because of containing numerous examples of rhetorical word-formation,is to be the basic corpus. We will make comprehensive use of theories of lexicology,rhetoric,cognitive psychology,and linguistics,through the statistics,collation,and analysis of the overall situation of rhetoricalword-formation,in order to explore the aesthetic characteristics,psychological mechanism and ethnic characteristics of different types of rhetoricalword-formation.Through the contrast with research results of other relevant Corpus,We will outline of developing process of Chinese rhetoric word-formation since ancient times.Through the comparison and analysis of related corpus,to be true as far as possible,we will sketch the dynamic process from personalized temporary rhetorical phenomenon to the stable popular words,coagulation pathway, and influential factors etc of Chinese rhetoric word-formation,the kind of linguistic phenomenon.
In this paper,three major parts were divided into:
ChapterⅠsummary of rhetoric word-formation
SectionⅠword-formation,word-formation motivation and rhetoric word-formation
Word-formation is designed to meet the community's needs of communication.For the original word,the relationship between its name and the alleged thing is arbitrary. And later,what kind of voice is used to express the concept often contains a "motivation" in it.So there are many motivation to lead to the creation of a word from scratch.That is,for words,the types of their motivation is different.When creating a new word,rhetoric is used to be as the way and means of Combining the voice,vocabulary and other language elements,we call the way ofword-formation as rhetoricalword-formation.In fact,Rhetoric word-formation,means that that rhetoric is a motivation for the creation of anew word.
SectionⅡThe history and current situation of the development of Chinese rhetoric word-formation
From the emergence of echo words、reduplicated words in the book of Songs in the early Paleozoic,to various types of metonymy word-formation in Hanshu in the late Paleozoic,to imitationword-formation and abbreviation word-formation replacing metaphor and metonymy and becoming the most powerful manner of rhetorical word-formation in modern Chinese.The Chinese Rhetoric word-formation develops continuously.
SectionⅢThe history and current situation of the research of Chinese rhetoric word-formation
The study of rhetoric word-formation also has just started:focusing on setting out the facts of languages,lacking of dynamic research of rhetoricalword-formation,and being less deep excavation,so there are yet not a significant contribution to the theory.
SectionⅣThe necessity and significance of the study of Chinese rhetoric word-formation
The words created by the means of rhetoric,apart from lexical meaning,more importantly,its color meaning.For these words,it is far from sufficient to analyze the word-building.In theword-formation,it is also different from the generalword-formation law.Thus,it is necessary to separate the rhetoric word-formation from the traditionalword-formation law and give it a separate study.
ChapterⅡThe profile of rhetorical word-formation in the book of "Dream of Red Mansions"
ChapterⅡis the core of the entire thesis.
SectionⅠMetaphor word-formation
Metaphor is used to the creation of the word,that is,metaphorword-formation. On the basis of circumstances of appearance of the four components:the body of the metaphor、the engine of the metaphor、figurative words and figurative explanation in the surface of the word,the metaphorword-formation can be divided into three categories: the type of synecdoche、the type of metaphor,and the type of simile.In the deep psychological level,metaphorword-formation acts always in accordance with the track of perceiving things→seizing the "edge"→finding the appearance of vehicle's.The image is the most prominent aesthetic feature of analogy.This fully demonstrates the characteristics of Han ethnic group good at thinking in images.It is not only reflected from the rhetoric word-formation in the book of "Dream of Red Mansions",and more fully confirmed by the phenomenon of the vocabulary in modern Chinese.From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, metaphorword-formation is also not just a linguistic phenomenon,it is a reflection of human's cognitive psychology-metaphor.A reflection of metaphors of human experience in a particular field will be used to describe understanding of another experience in the field of the law of refraction of cognitive activity.It is a refraction of the law of cognitive activity that humans describe and understand another field in the experience of a field.
SectionⅡMetonymy word-formation
Metonymy is used to the creation of the word,that is, metonymyword-formation.According to the different angles, metonymyword-formation can have different classifications,such as by sound form, by grammatical structures......The types of semantic are the most traditional classification methods.Different from the psychological mechanism of metaphorword-formation based on "similar association",metonymy word-formation is based on "relations association".Metonymyword-formation has a variety of aesthetic features,but the image is still the most prominent one.It reflects that Han nationality's tradition of thinking in images:attaching importance to the embodiment of direct-viewing and perception.Similarly,seen from the person's cognitive perspective,metonymyword-formation is not merely a linguistic phenomenon,but one of the usual pattern of thinking and even acting.It is the reflection of metonymic cognitive mechanisms that a conceptual entity is used to help understanding another conceptual entity in a cognitive framework,in language.
SectionⅢOther rhetoric word-formation
A detailed introduction is given to the euphemism word-formation, onomatopoeia word-formation and other types of rhetorical word-formation in the book of"A Dream of Red Mansions".
SectionⅣThe overlapping phenomenon of different rhetoric word-formation
ChapterⅢthe features of rhetoriealword-formation in the book of "Dream of Red Mansions"
SectionⅠthe richness of rhetoric word-formation in the book of " A Dream of Red Mansions.In style,rhetoric word-formation in the book of "A Dream of Red Mansions" includes mandarin,spoken language,classical styles and dialects. In content,rhetoricalword-formation in the book of "A Dream of Red Mansions" contains costumes culture,etiquette cultural,architectural culture,and weddings and funeral culture.
SectionⅡthe aesthetic of rhetoric word-formation in the book of "A Dream of Red Mansions".from three aspects of painting,music,and elegant,we analysize the aesthetic in the book of"A Dream of Red Mansions"
ChapterⅣThe general laws of rhetorical word-formation embodied in the book of "Dream of Red Mansions"
SectionⅠThe solidification of rhetoric phenomenon in the vocabulary system is a process.
From the rhetoric with distinctive personality and a strong dependence on the context,to follow the text of the rhetoric generally agreed and followed by the public,to eventually abstract and solid member of the vocabulary base,rhetoric word-formation is a long lasting process.
SectionⅡThe ways of the solidification of rhetoric in the vocabulary system
The solidification of rhetoric in the vocabulary system has two ways:in addition to creating new words(That is what we call "rhetorical word-formation"),the other way is to create the new meanings.In fact,the creation of the new meaning is only a middle state,and ultimately it is still to be "new words".However,the latter new word is different from the former:its shape and meaning are not all new. But the word is a combination of sound and meaning,from this perspective,it is still a "new word" new combination of sound and meaning and new language communicative symbols.Of course,it should also be seen as a new member of vocabulary base.
SectionⅢThe factors that influence the solidification of rhetoric to be a word
Internal mechanisms of the language,the nation's aesthetic concepts,the style and emotional color of the word itself,and many other factors are likely to have an impact on the solidification of rhetoric in the vocabulary system.
以往关于修辞与词汇的研究中,人们一直比较关注修辞对词义演变的作用。认为修辞是词义发展的动因之一,临时的修辞用法上升为词语的固定义项是词义引申的重要方式。其实,修辞与词汇相互作用还有另外一种表现方式——修辞造词。“修辞是人们运用语言的方法和手段。在造词活动中,人们也往往运用这些方法和手段进行造词,如把某种像螺蛳的事物称为‘螺丝',把木头做的一种马形的玩具称做‘木马',就是运用修辞的手法进行造词的。”“修辞是语言的艺术,把这种艺术方法用来创造新词,就成了修辞学造词法”。
最初的时候,这些由两个或两个以上的语素组成的相当于词的结构只是临时的修辞用法,如“雀斑”(用麻雀屎比喻脸上的小斑点)、“笑面虎”(用笑着的虎比喻装得善良而心地凶狠的人)、“呼噜”(通过模拟粗重的呼吸声来表示打鼾的意思)、“作古”(用作了古人婉称人死)等。但逐渐地,由于这些结构在清晰表达概念意义的同时,更鲜明地表达出了色彩意义,因此不断地被越来越多的人认同、接受和袭用(有的被减缩),最终上升为固定的词素组合(即词)。因为在这些词的创制过程中修辞方式始终起着链接造词材料的作用,因此我们称其为修辞造词。从本质上说,修辞造词其实是修辞方式在词汇系统中最终固化的结果。
学者们提出修辞造词理论,是建立在两个认识的基础之上的。首先是区分造词与构词的不同。这是因为:很多的词,仅从构词的角度,无法说明构词方法相同,表义却完全不同的原因所在。例如,同为偏正式复合词,“菠菜”是菜,“木耳”却不是“耳”。还有一些词,造词材料和构词方法完全相同,但表义仍然大相径庭。例如,“绿豆”是“绿色的豆”,“豆绿”却是“像(青)豆子一样的绿”。按照葛本仪先生的造词法理论,词序的不同仅仅是其表象,关键在于它们使用的造词法不同:“菠菜”、“绿豆”使用了说明造词法,而“木耳“、“豆绿”使用了比拟造词法。
其次是区分一般造词法和修辞造词法的不同。这是因为:很多词,仅从传统造词法的角度,无法解释造词方法相同,为什么词的色彩意义却大不相同。例如,同为句法学造词法,“龙眼“比“桂圆”更形象生动,“归西”比“死亡”更含蓄委婉,“垂青”比“重视”更有古典韵味等。正是为了揭示该问题,任学良先生建立了修辞学造词法体系。他说“句法学造词法都是注重科学性的造词法,修辞学造词法则是注重艺术性的造词法”。
汉语中一切词语的创制都离不开语音、语法、词汇(已有的)等语言的要素。造词方法就是对这些语言要素的运用。但是,造词的素材被使用的是形式还是内容,抑或形式与内容并重?是在什么方式下被使用,是直接使用还是用来打比方,或者只是用来作为语法标记?依靠何种组织关系使用,是一般的意合还是修辞的方式?等等。这些都关系着一个词产生之后的概念义、色彩义等的不同。如果说,用一般造词法创制出的词语是对语言要素的常规运用,侧重表达的是词的理性义的话,用修辞造词法造出的词语则是变异运用语言要素的结果,侧重表达的是词的附加义。如“短暂”和“眨眼”、“好笑”和“喷饭”、“黑色”和“黑魃魃”等。如果说,一般造词法的研究对象涵盖了汉语中所有词,修辞造词法的研究对象则只是汉语词汇中那些造词时借助了修辞方式因而有独特附加意义的成员。如葛本仪先生造词法体系中属于说明法造出的“鸡胸”、“瓜分”、“鸭舌帽”等同时也属于比拟法造词。因此,修辞造词法与一般造词法理论并不冲突或对立。二者是全体和部分的关系,也是相互交叉的关系,同时还是两个不同层面的关系。对其进行专门研究非常有必要。
但综观汉语研究史,虽然不乏学者曾经对其进行过有益的探索(如前面提到的孙常叙、任学良、葛本仪等先生),但目前更多的研究或局限于修辞学的角度,满足于对修辞造词类型的简单列举;或从词汇学的角度,将其附属于造词类型之一而简单带过。总的来说,还缺乏对汉语修辞造词现象的系统研究和相关理论建树。
本文在前辈学者研究成果的基础上,以修辞造词类型、数量丰富的经典巨著《红楼梦》为基本语料,综合运用词汇学、修辞学、认知语言学和心理学的相关理论,通过对《红楼梦》中修辞造词概貌的整理、统计、分析,描写出不同类型修辞造词的静态分布(包括定义、类型、审美特征、与民族传统思维方式的关系、形成的心理过程以及认知机制等);通过结合具体的上下文,分析出《红楼梦》修辞造词的特色——丰富性和唯美性——与整部小说语言艺术风格形成的不可分割的关系。通过对不同性质语料的收集、对比、分析,尽可能真实地构拟出汉语修辞造词这一语言现象,从个性化的临时修辞格固化为大众化的稳定词语的动态过程、固化途径、影响其固化的因素等等。
本论文共分为四大部分。
第一章是修辞造词概说。分别从以下四个方面进行了综述:
第一节是对“造词”、“造词理据”和“修辞造词”这三个相关概念相互关系的阐述。造词的目的是为了满足交际需要。最初的词,名称和所指称事物之间的关系是任意的,而到后来,用什么样的语音表达什么样的概念往往是有“理据”可说的,即词“有理据性”。促使一个词从无到有地被创造出来的动因有很多,也就是词有很多不同的理据。以修辞方式作为方法和手段,把语音、词汇等语言要素结合起来,创制出新词,通俗地称作修辞造词,其实质就是以修辞方式作为造词理据的造词方法。
第二节粗线条梳理了汉语修辞造词发展的历史和现状。从上古早期的《诗经》中摹声、重言词的出现,到上古末期《汉书》中借代造词类型的异彩纷呈,再到现代汉语中仿拟和缩略替代比喻、借代成为最强势的修辞造词方式,汉语修辞造词在不断发展。
第三节分析了汉语修辞造词研究的历史和现状。对修辞造词的研究还刚刚起步,集中于语言事实的罗列,缺乏对修辞造词过程的动态研究,深度挖掘不足,还未有重大理论的建树。
第四节阐述了汉语修辞造词研究的必要性和意义。以修辞方式创制的词除了表达词汇义之外,更重要的是它的色彩义。对这些词来说,仅仅从构词上来分析是远远不够的。而从造词的角度分析,它也区别于一般造词法造出的词。因此,把修辞造词从传统的构词法中分离出来、从传统的造词法中突显出来专门研究非常有必要。
第二章是《红楼梦》修辞造词概貌的描述。也是整篇论文的核心部分。
第一节是比喻造词。将比喻辞格应用于词的创制,即比喻造词。依据比喻四成分:本体、喻体、喻词和喻解在词语表层的出现情况,把比喻造词分为三类:借喻式、暗喻式和明喻式。在深层心理层面,比喻造词总是按照感知本体一捕捉“边”一发散联想一找寻喻体表象的轨迹进行的。比喻最突出的美质是具象美。这充分体现了汉民族长于形象思维的特征。从认知语言学的角度来看,比喻造词还不仅仅是一种语言现象,更是作为人的一种心理认知机制——隐喻的反映,是人类将某一领域的经验用来说明理解另一领域经验的认知活动规律的折射。
第二节是借代造词。将借代辞格应用于词的创制,即借代造词。根据角度和标准的不同,借代造词可以分出不同的类型。根据语义划分则是最传统的分类方法。与比喻造词基于“相似联想”的心理机制不同,借代造词基于“关系联想”。借代造词有多种美质,但最突出的仍是具象美。反映出汉民族重直观、感性的具象思维传统。与比喻造词一样,从人的认知角度来分析,借代造词也不仅仅是一种语言现象,还是我们说话、思维甚至行为的一种惯常模式之一。是在一个认知框架内,用一个概念实体去帮助理解另一个概念实体的转喻认知机制在语言上的反映。
第三节对委婉造词、摹绘造词等其他修辞造词类型作了相对粗略的介绍。委婉造词是汉族人崇尚含蓄委婉的文化传统的重要体现,夸张造词则是汉族人重于写意、轻于写实的内在思维特征的语言外化,本论文对这两种修辞造词类型也作了较为细致的考察。此外,本节的研究还涉及用典、摹绘等修辞造词的类型。
第三章从丰富性和唯美性两个方面归纳概括了《红楼梦》修辞造词的显著特色。
第一节是《红楼梦》修辞造词的丰富性。在语体上,《红楼梦》修辞造词包含了官话、口语、文言和方言多种风格。在内容上,《红楼梦》修辞造词涉及服饰文化、礼仪文化、建筑文化、婚丧文化等多个方面。
第二节是《红楼梦》修辞造词的唯美性。从绘画美、音乐美和典雅美三个方面分析了《红楼梦》修辞造词独特的色彩意义和表达效果。
第四章总结了《红楼梦》修辞造词所体现的一般规律,即修辞造词是修辞现象在词汇系统中固化的结果。
第一节阐述了从个性鲜明、对语境有强烈依赖的修辞格,到大众普遍认同和效仿的普遍修辞文本,再到最终成为抽象的、稳固的词汇库成员,修辞造词是一个漫长的历时过程。
第二节归纳了修辞格在词汇系统中固化的两个途径。修辞格在词汇系统中固化,除了固化为新词(即我们所说的“修辞造词”),还有一条途径,就是固化为新义(即传统所称的“修辞引申”)。在作者看来,修辞格固化为新义只是一种中间状态,最终还是会固化为“新词”。只不过,后者的语音形式与前者有所不同:它不是形新、义新的。但从词是音义的结合体这个角度来看,它仍是“新词”——新的音义结合体,新的语言交际符号。因此,当然也应该被看做是词汇库中新的成员。
第三节揭示了对修辞格固化为词可能产生影响的因素。语言内部机制的自我调节、民族的审美观念、词语本身的语体风格、情感色彩等很多因素都可能对修辞格在词汇系统中的固化与否产生影响。
Voice,vocabulary and grammar is known as the three elements of language. Rhetoric is the ways and means by which people use the three elements of the language of.In the pursuit of best expression results,the people always try to choose a variety of ways and means.Therefore,the rhetoric studies the use of voice, vocabulary,grammar from the view of the xpression.The relationship between with the three elements of the language is neither parallel nor subordinate,but is complex and crossed.
The past study on the rhetorical and lexical has been more concerned on the role of the evolution of the meaning.The rhetoric is believed to be one of forces of meaning development,temporary use of the rhetoric up to the fixed meaning of words is an important way to extend meaning.In fact,the interaction between with rhetoric and vocabulary there is another way - rhetoric word-formation."Rhetoric is the ways and means of the use of language.In theword-formation activities,people also tend to use these methods and means to form new words.For example,the thing like a snail is called to be 'screws',the toy made of wood with a shape of a horse is called to be 'Trojan'.The rhetoric is used to create these new words." Rhetoric is the art of language.This art is used to create new words,and it becomes rhetorical word-formation."
At first,these structures composed of two or more morphemes equivalent to words was just a temporary rhetoric usage,such as "freckles"(sparrow feces is compared with the the small dots of face ),"smiled tiger"(the smiled tiger is compared with good look and bad-hearted people),"Jiang Hu"(with specific areas on behalf of the quartet that all parts),"snoring"(by simulating the sound of heavy breathing to express the meaning of snoring),"dying"(Said persuasively the human died f) and so on.But gradually,as these structures not only clearly express the the meaning of the concept, but more clearly express the meaning of the the color of the word.So it has been constantly accepted and imitated by increasing number of people,and eventually become a fixed combination of morphemes(that is the word).In the process of creation of these words,rhetorical always plays the role of linking the materials,so we called it rhetoric word-formation.Essentially,rhetoric word-formation is the results of rhetoric curing in the vocabulary system.
The reason why we distinguish the word-formation and the structure of words is as follows:to many words,only from the point of view of the structure of word,we could not tell the reason why words with the same structure have completely different meaning.For example,with the official compound for partial word,"spinach" is the vegetable,but "fungus" is not the "ear." There are also many words even with same materials and methods of formation,but they still have completely different meanings. For example,"green bean" means "green beans",but" bean green "means "the green colour like the beans." According to Mrs.Ge Benyi's theory,the word order is merely its representation,the key is different word-formation laws:"spinach"and "green beans" use the word-formation law of explanation,while "fungus" and "green beans" use the word-formation law of analogy.
The reason why we distinguish the general word-formation and the rhetoric word-formation is as follows:for many words,only from the point of view of the traditional word-formation,we could not tell the reason why words with the same word-formation law have completely different color meaning.For example,with same word-formation of syntax,"longan "compared to "dried longan" more vivid,"returns to the western paradise" implicitly compared to "the death","looks upon with favor" compared to "takes seriously" to have the classical flavor and so on.It is precisely to promulgate this question,Mr.Ren Xueliang establishes the system of the rhetori word-formation.He said that the word-formation of the syntax pays great attention to scientific nature,while the rhetoric the word-formation pays great attention to artistry.
In Chinese,the formation of all words cannot seperate from the voice,the grammar,the vocabulary(existing) and so on these essential factors of language.The methods of the word-formation means the utilization of these essential factor of language.But,what is used as the material of the word-formation, the form or the content,or both? Which way:is used ? The direct use or uses for to draw the analogy? Or is only uses for to take the grammatical markers? What kind of organizational relation is used?:General or rhetoric way? And so on..These relate to the rational,color and so on meaning of a word..
If the words created with general methods of word-formation conventionally utilize essential factors of language and their expressions pay attention to the rational meaning of the words,the words created with rhetoric word-formation law non-conventionally utilize essential factors of language and their expressions pay attention to additional colour meaningof the words.Like "short" and "blinks","funny" and "bursts out laughing","the black" and "very black" and so on.If the objects of study of general methods of word-formation cover all words,the objects of study of rhetoric methods of word-formation only include those members with rhetoric methods of word-formation and therefore with the unique additional significance.Such as,belong to the explanation law first to compose "the chicken breast","to carve up", "the duckbill cap" and so on.These words belong to the explanation law stated by Mrs GeBenYi,and simultaneously also belong to the analogue method to make the words. Therefore,the rhetoric word-formation cannot conflict general methods of word-formation.The two are all and the part relations,is also the intercross relations, simultaneously is two different stratification plane relations.It is nessary to have a special study on rhetoric word-formation.
When we look at the history of Chinese study,there is no lack of useful exploration on the issue of rhetorical word-formation by previous scholars.But either from the perspective of rhetoric,being confined to simple enumeration of the types of rhetorical word-formation;Or from the point of view of lexicology,attaching it to one of the types of word-formation,and summing it over.In general,there is still the lack of systematic study and theoretical contribution to the phenomenon of Chinese rhetoric word-formation.
In this paper,."A Dream of Red Mansions",the classic masterpiece,because of containing numerous examples of rhetorical word-formation,is to be the basic corpus. We will make comprehensive use of theories of lexicology,rhetoric,cognitive psychology,and linguistics,through the statistics,collation,and analysis of the overall situation of rhetoricalword-formation,in order to explore the aesthetic characteristics,psychological mechanism and ethnic characteristics of different types of rhetoricalword-formation.Through the contrast with research results of other relevant Corpus,We will outline of developing process of Chinese rhetoric word-formation since ancient times.Through the comparison and analysis of related corpus,to be true as far as possible,we will sketch the dynamic process from personalized temporary rhetorical phenomenon to the stable popular words,coagulation pathway, and influential factors etc of Chinese rhetoric word-formation,the kind of linguistic phenomenon.
In this paper,three major parts were divided into:
ChapterⅠsummary of rhetoric word-formation
SectionⅠword-formation,word-formation motivation and rhetoric word-formation
Word-formation is designed to meet the community's needs of communication.For the original word,the relationship between its name and the alleged thing is arbitrary. And later,what kind of voice is used to express the concept often contains a "motivation" in it.So there are many motivation to lead to the creation of a word from scratch.That is,for words,the types of their motivation is different.When creating a new word,rhetoric is used to be as the way and means of Combining the voice,vocabulary and other language elements,we call the way ofword-formation as rhetoricalword-formation.In fact,Rhetoric word-formation,means that that rhetoric is a motivation for the creation of anew word.
SectionⅡThe history and current situation of the development of Chinese rhetoric word-formation
From the emergence of echo words、reduplicated words in the book of Songs in the early Paleozoic,to various types of metonymy word-formation in Hanshu in the late Paleozoic,to imitationword-formation and abbreviation word-formation replacing metaphor and metonymy and becoming the most powerful manner of rhetorical word-formation in modern Chinese.The Chinese Rhetoric word-formation develops continuously.
SectionⅢThe history and current situation of the research of Chinese rhetoric word-formation
The study of rhetoric word-formation also has just started:focusing on setting out the facts of languages,lacking of dynamic research of rhetoricalword-formation,and being less deep excavation,so there are yet not a significant contribution to the theory.
SectionⅣThe necessity and significance of the study of Chinese rhetoric word-formation
The words created by the means of rhetoric,apart from lexical meaning,more importantly,its color meaning.For these words,it is far from sufficient to analyze the word-building.In theword-formation,it is also different from the generalword-formation law.Thus,it is necessary to separate the rhetoric word-formation from the traditionalword-formation law and give it a separate study.
ChapterⅡThe profile of rhetorical word-formation in the book of "Dream of Red Mansions"
ChapterⅡis the core of the entire thesis.
SectionⅠMetaphor word-formation
Metaphor is used to the creation of the word,that is,metaphorword-formation. On the basis of circumstances of appearance of the four components:the body of the metaphor、the engine of the metaphor、figurative words and figurative explanation in the surface of the word,the metaphorword-formation can be divided into three categories: the type of synecdoche、the type of metaphor,and the type of simile.In the deep psychological level,metaphorword-formation acts always in accordance with the track of perceiving things→seizing the "edge"→finding the appearance of vehicle's.The image is the most prominent aesthetic feature of analogy.This fully demonstrates the characteristics of Han ethnic group good at thinking in images.It is not only reflected from the rhetoric word-formation in the book of "Dream of Red Mansions",and more fully confirmed by the phenomenon of the vocabulary in modern Chinese.From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, metaphorword-formation is also not just a linguistic phenomenon,it is a reflection of human's cognitive psychology-metaphor.A reflection of metaphors of human experience in a particular field will be used to describe understanding of another experience in the field of the law of refraction of cognitive activity.It is a refraction of the law of cognitive activity that humans describe and understand another field in the experience of a field.
SectionⅡMetonymy word-formation
Metonymy is used to the creation of the word,that is, metonymyword-formation.According to the different angles, metonymyword-formation can have different classifications,such as by sound form, by grammatical structures......The types of semantic are the most traditional classification methods.Different from the psychological mechanism of metaphorword-formation based on "similar association",metonymy word-formation is based on "relations association".Metonymyword-formation has a variety of aesthetic features,but the image is still the most prominent one.It reflects that Han nationality's tradition of thinking in images:attaching importance to the embodiment of direct-viewing and perception.Similarly,seen from the person's cognitive perspective,metonymyword-formation is not merely a linguistic phenomenon,but one of the usual pattern of thinking and even acting.It is the reflection of metonymic cognitive mechanisms that a conceptual entity is used to help understanding another conceptual entity in a cognitive framework,in language.
SectionⅢOther rhetoric word-formation
A detailed introduction is given to the euphemism word-formation, onomatopoeia word-formation and other types of rhetorical word-formation in the book of"A Dream of Red Mansions".
SectionⅣThe overlapping phenomenon of different rhetoric word-formation
ChapterⅢthe features of rhetoriealword-formation in the book of "Dream of Red Mansions"
SectionⅠthe richness of rhetoric word-formation in the book of " A Dream of Red Mansions.In style,rhetoric word-formation in the book of "A Dream of Red Mansions" includes mandarin,spoken language,classical styles and dialects. In content,rhetoricalword-formation in the book of "A Dream of Red Mansions" contains costumes culture,etiquette cultural,architectural culture,and weddings and funeral culture.
SectionⅡthe aesthetic of rhetoric word-formation in the book of "A Dream of Red Mansions".from three aspects of painting,music,and elegant,we analysize the aesthetic in the book of"A Dream of Red Mansions"
ChapterⅣThe general laws of rhetorical word-formation embodied in the book of "Dream of Red Mansions"
SectionⅠThe solidification of rhetoric phenomenon in the vocabulary system is a process.
From the rhetoric with distinctive personality and a strong dependence on the context,to follow the text of the rhetoric generally agreed and followed by the public,to eventually abstract and solid member of the vocabulary base,rhetoric word-formation is a long lasting process.
SectionⅡThe ways of the solidification of rhetoric in the vocabulary system
The solidification of rhetoric in the vocabulary system has two ways:in addition to creating new words(That is what we call "rhetorical word-formation"),the other way is to create the new meanings.In fact,the creation of the new meaning is only a middle state,and ultimately it is still to be "new words".However,the latter new word is different from the former:its shape and meaning are not all new. But the word is a combination of sound and meaning,from this perspective,it is still a "new word" new combination of sound and meaning and new language communicative symbols.Of course,it should also be seen as a new member of vocabulary base.
SectionⅢThe factors that influence the solidification of rhetoric to be a word
Internal mechanisms of the language,the nation's aesthetic concepts,the style and emotional color of the word itself,and many other factors are likely to have an impact on the solidification of rhetoric in the vocabulary system.
引文
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[1]荀况《荀子》,廖名春 邹新明校点,辽宁教育出版社,1997年。
[1]索绪尔《普通语言学教程》,商务印书馆,1996年。
[1]董作宾《研究婴孩发音的提词》,载《歌谣》(周刊第50号),1924年。
[1]陈望道《修辞学发凡》,上海教育出版社,1976年。
[2]钱钟书《官锥编》,中华书局,1979年。
[1]吴礼权《比喻造词与中国人的思维特点》,载复旦学报(社会科学版),2008年第2期。
[1]李勇华 李春华《认知语境与概念隐喻》,载《外语与外语教学》,2001年第6期。
[1]胡壮麟《认知隐喻学》,北京大学出版社2004年。
[2]赵艳芳《认知语言学概论》,上海外语教育出版社,2005年。
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[1]陈望道《修辞学发凡》,上海教育出版社,1976年。
[1]陈望道《修辞学发凡》,上海教育出版社,1979年。
[1]沈家煊《转指和转喻》,当代语言学,1999年第1期。
[1]沈家煊《转指和转喻》,载《当代语言学》第1卷,1999年第1期。
[1]罗伯特·L·索尔索《认知心理学》,黄希庭等译,高等教育出版社,1990年。
[2]沈家煊《转指和转喻》,载《当代语言学》第1卷,1999年第1期。
[1]陈垣《史讳例举》,上海书店出版社,1997年。
[1]李国南《委婉语与宗教》,载《福建外语》,2000年第3期。
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[1]陈望道《修辞学发凡》,上海教育出版社,1976年。
[1]满数、歉数的说法出自王力 《中国语法理论》,山东教育出版社,1984年。
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[1]李红印《汉语色彩范畴的表达方式》,载《语言教学与研究》2004年第6期。
[1]陈望道《修辞学发凡》,上海教育出版社,1976年。
[1]朱德熙《语法讲义》,商务印书馆,2003年。
[2]李宇明《双音性质形容词的ABAB式重叠》,载《汉语学习》,1996年第4期。
[3]陈望道《修辞学发凡》,上海教育出版社,1976年。
[4]任学良 《汉语造词法》,中国社会科学出版社,1981年。
[1]成伟钧等主编《修辞通鉴》,中国青年出版社,1991年。
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[1]王德春《修辞学探索》,北京出版社,1983年。
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71杨冰郁《近代汉语修辞词语的特征、类型和意义》(硕士论文)。
[1]荀况《荀子》,廖名春 邹新明校点,辽宁教育出版社,1997年。
[1]索绪尔《普通语言学教程》,商务印书馆,1996年。
[1]董作宾《研究婴孩发音的提词》,载《歌谣》(周刊第50号),1924年。
[1]陈望道《修辞学发凡》,上海教育出版社,1976年。
[2]钱钟书《官锥编》,中华书局,1979年。
[1]吴礼权《比喻造词与中国人的思维特点》,载复旦学报(社会科学版),2008年第2期。
[1]李勇华 李春华《认知语境与概念隐喻》,载《外语与外语教学》,2001年第6期。
[1]胡壮麟《认知隐喻学》,北京大学出版社2004年。
[2]赵艳芳《认知语言学概论》,上海外语教育出版社,2005年。
[1]唐松波、黄建霖主编《汉语修辞格大辞典》,中国国际广播出版社,1989年。
[1]陈望道《修辞学发凡》,上海教育出版社,1976年。
[1]陈望道《修辞学发凡》,上海教育出版社,1979年。
[1]沈家煊《转指和转喻》,当代语言学,1999年第1期。
[1]沈家煊《转指和转喻》,载《当代语言学》第1卷,1999年第1期。
[1]罗伯特·L·索尔索《认知心理学》,黄希庭等译,高等教育出版社,1990年。
[2]沈家煊《转指和转喻》,载《当代语言学》第1卷,1999年第1期。
[1]陈垣《史讳例举》,上海书店出版社,1997年。
[1]李国南《委婉语与宗教》,载《福建外语》,2000年第3期。
[1]方伟琴等《从文化差异看英汉委婉语的异同》,载《华东船舶工业学院学报》(社会科学版),2002年第9期。
[1]王希杰《汉语修辞学》(修订本),商务印书馆,2005年。
[1]陆侃如、牟世金《文心雕龙译注》,齐鲁书社,1988年。
[1]陈望道《修辞学发凡》,上海教育出版社,1976年。
[1]满数、歉数的说法出自王力 《中国语法理论》,山东教育出版社,1984年。
[1]北京大学哲学系美学教研室编 《西方美学家论美和美感》,商务印书馆,1980年。
[1]李红印《汉语色彩范畴的表达方式》,载《语言教学与研究》2004年第6期。
[1]陈望道《修辞学发凡》,上海教育出版社,1976年。
[1]朱德熙《语法讲义》,商务印书馆,2003年。
[2]李宇明《双音性质形容词的ABAB式重叠》,载《汉语学习》,1996年第4期。
[3]陈望道《修辞学发凡》,上海教育出版社,1976年。
[4]任学良 《汉语造词法》,中国社会科学出版社,1981年。
[1]成伟钧等主编《修辞通鉴》,中国青年出版社,1991年。
[1]刘叔新《刘叔新自选集》,河南教育出版社,1993年。
[1]一粟编《红楼梦资料汇编》,中华书局,1964年。
[2]一粟编《红楼梦资料汇编》,中华书局,1964年。
[1]一粟编《红楼梦资料汇编》,中华书局,1964年。
[1]一粟编《红楼梦资料汇编》,中华书局,1964年。
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[2]吴士文《修辞格论析》,上海教育出版社,1986年。
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