基于网络视角的旅游目的地营销组织研究
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摘要
随着旅游目的地之间的竞争日趋激烈，目的地营销成为旅游目的地应对市场竞争的有效工具。但是，在实践中，组织因素成为目的地营销活动的瓶颈问题，目的地众多的营销主体之间的营销活动散乱无序，缺乏整体性；在理论上，学术界对目的地营销组织问题关注不足。在相关的地方营销、城市营销领域，面临着类似的理论与实践困境。这些领域的营销活动超出了组织边界，涉及到组织间关系的治理与协同，在将营销基础理论应用到这些领域时，要考虑其营销组织问题。本研究从网络组织视角研究目的地营销组织问题，研究这种跨组织的营销活动不同营销主体之间关系的协调机制、营销网络的形成和发展过程及其结构形式。
组织问题是目的地营销与企业营销的根本差异之处，反映了目的地营销的根本矛盾，即分散化的旅游供给与作为整体体验的需求之间的矛盾。市场、层级制及公共组织都不能解决目的地营销组织问题。网络组织作为一种市场和层级制之间的中间组织形式，是对市场的灵活性和企业的正规性进行的一种均衡，它比市场组织更稳定、比层级组织灵活，是解决目的地营销组织问题的基本思路。目的地营销组织包含众多旅游企业和非企业组织，内部关系复杂，旅游企业及其他组织之间相互依赖、经济关系和社会关系交织，实质就是一种网络组织。具体地说，目的地营销组织网络既是一种市场分工基础上的经济网络，也是一种社会文化基础上的社会网络，是交易关系和社会关系共同作用的结果，专业化分工、社会资本、集体学习和企业家精神是其基本驱动力量。目的地营销组织网络不会自动产生协同效应,而是通过包含层级制、市场机制和网络机制的多元化网络治理机制，防范“道德风险”、“搭便车”等机会主义行为。不同行为主体重复持续的交易关系，有利于目的地信任、共同规范及共同的商业文化、价值观等社会资本的形成、积累；这些社会资本进一步巩固成员之间长期的经济交易，二者之间相互作用、相互强化。目的地营销组织网络的结构不是单纯的目的地营销的利益相关者的构成，它体现为参与者网络结构、行动网络结构以及资源网络结构。参与者网络结构是是目的地营销主体及其排列方式；行动网络结构指参与者之间经济和社会交往行为所体现出的联结强度、密度和中心度；资源网络结构，表现为目的地营销网络所吸纳和利用的资源的数量、质量、类型及来源状况。目的地营销组织的网络结构影响营销网络系统的整体运作效率，参与者之间越是相互依赖，互动越频繁，经济交换和社会交往越多，相互信任度越高，则整个营销组织网络的结构化程度越高，运作越有效。
本研究具有一定的理论意义、实践意义，主要体现在：在网络组织理论与方法指导下，研究目的地营销组织网络形成与演化、目的地营销组织网络治理机制、目的地营销组织网络结构，构建起完整的目的地营销网络组织研究框架；对目的地营销组织的网络性质及其形成、演化过程与运作机制的分析，有助于目的地营销实践中发挥各营销主体的积极性，形成合作良好、关系密切、充满活力的目的地营销整体网络，有利于明确政府在目的地营销中的地位和作用。
本研究采用文献综述、跨学科研究、分析与综合相结合等研究方法。通过阅读国内外专业期刊杂志、相关书籍等大量文献，广泛了解和分析国内外的相关研究的主要脉络、成就和不足，综合社会学、经济学及管理学等多学科网络组织理论提出目的地营销网络组织概念；在该概念基础上，展开分析目的地营销网络的形成、治理及结构，经历分析、综合、再分析的辩证思维过程。最后，将相关理论应用于我国目的地营销网络发展的分析，并总结本研究的研究结论，主要包括：
1、组织问题是目的地营销研究的核心问题，反映了目的地营销与企业营销的根本差异。
2、网络组织作为一种市场和层级制之间的中间组织形式，是对市场的灵活性和企业的正规性进行的一种均衡，是解决目的地营销组织问题的基本思路
3、目的地营销组织网络既是一种市场分工基础上的经济网络，也是一种社会文化基础上的社会网络，目的地营销组织是一种网络组织。
4、市场交易关系和社会关系共同推动，并相互促进，形成目的地营销组织网络，专业化分工、社会资本、集体学习和企业家精神是其基本驱动力量。
5、目的地营销组织网络是企业、市场及网络等多种机制形式的共生运作模式，网络机制是其特有机制。
6、目的地营销的网络结构反映目的地营销网络的组织化程度，构建具有更高自组织程度的“子网络”，有利于提高整个目的地营销网络的组织化程度。
在理论研究基础上，分析了我国目的地营销组织网络的发展对策，提出了具有一定指导意义的政策建议。这些建议，主要有：将旅游定位为社会事业，完善目的地营销网络治理社会机制；挖掘社会资源，广泛调动社会参与的积极性，培养社会企业家精神；改革政府职能，加强旅游行业组织建设；促进旅游专业化分工，维护旅游市场竞争秩序。无论在理论上，还是实践上，都具有一定的创新价值。
最后，指出了本研究在研究内容和研究方法上的不足，并相对应地提出了对未来研究方向的建议。
Under the fierce market competition, destination marketing is becoming aneffective tool to deal with it. But in reality, marketing activities promoted by differentdepartments are not related; each one is doing their own ways. The research thinksthat destination marketing should emphases the management and relationship ofdifferent marketing subjects. When applying modern marketing theory into it, itshould consider the organization of marketing. From the point of view of networkorganization, it studies the organization of marketing, and how to balance theirrelationship when conducting marketing activities, and its functions and development.
The research includes the connotation of the destination marketing network, theanalysis of its characteristics, the driving force of its function and development. Itresearches the process of marketing specialization and social and cultural elementimpacting on destination marketing network, analyses the mutual function betweeneconomic and social relationship, studies how to prevent the opportunistic behavior indestination marketing network, and coordinates their benefits and relationships. It alsostudies the network structure of the destination marketing, analyses its various types,characteristics and functions of it. And based on theory study, the case study focuseson the development of the destination marketing network of China, and discuses theways and possibilities of in China.
The research is of being theoretical and practical, which reflects in three aspects.Firstly, it provides the unified theory and methods to study the destination marketingorganizations from the view of the network organization theories and gives a cleardefinition of it. Secondly, with the guidance of network organization theory andmethods, it studies the development and evolution of the destination network, itsnetwork mechanism, its network structure, and sets up integrated research frame of it.Thirdly, with the analysis of the nature, development, evolution and functions ofdestination network organization, it is helpful to bring different parts of marketinginto playing important role in destination marketing, to form well-organized, closed related and active destinations marketing network as whole, and to make sure the roleand of the government in destination marketing.
The research adopts the ways of literature summarization and interdisciplinary toanalyze the development of destination marketing network of China. It includes:
1. The organization is the key to the research of destination marketing, whichreflects the fundamental difference between the destination marketing and businessmarketing.
2. As an intermediate form of marketing and its networkintegrated structure,network organizations works as a way to balance the marketing, and to solve theproblem of it.
3. The destination marketing network is an economic network based on marketingdivision, and also a social network involved in social and cultural impacts. Thedestination marketing network is a kind of network organization.
4. The division of labor, social capital, collective learning and entrepreneurial spiritis the basic drive of the destination marketing network, promoted by marketingtransactions and social relations and helped each other forward.
5. The destination marketing network is the symbiosis operation mode of thebusiness enterprises, marketing and network. The network mechanism is its uniquemode.
6. The destination marketing network structure reflects the systemtism degree of it.Building up high level self-organized―sub-network‖is beneficial to improve itssystemtism degree.
The research puts forward some instructive policy suggestions to develop thedestination marketing network of China. It thinks that tourism should be defined associal undertaking, which implies that its social mechanism should be well-conducted.The development of the destination marketing network is dependable on socialresources, social participation, entrepreneurial spirit, government function reform,tourism organization building, division of labor and marketing order.
组织问题是目的地营销与企业营销的根本差异之处，反映了目的地营销的根本矛盾，即分散化的旅游供给与作为整体体验的需求之间的矛盾。市场、层级制及公共组织都不能解决目的地营销组织问题。网络组织作为一种市场和层级制之间的中间组织形式，是对市场的灵活性和企业的正规性进行的一种均衡，它比市场组织更稳定、比层级组织灵活，是解决目的地营销组织问题的基本思路。目的地营销组织包含众多旅游企业和非企业组织，内部关系复杂，旅游企业及其他组织之间相互依赖、经济关系和社会关系交织，实质就是一种网络组织。具体地说，目的地营销组织网络既是一种市场分工基础上的经济网络，也是一种社会文化基础上的社会网络，是交易关系和社会关系共同作用的结果，专业化分工、社会资本、集体学习和企业家精神是其基本驱动力量。目的地营销组织网络不会自动产生协同效应,而是通过包含层级制、市场机制和网络机制的多元化网络治理机制，防范“道德风险”、“搭便车”等机会主义行为。不同行为主体重复持续的交易关系，有利于目的地信任、共同规范及共同的商业文化、价值观等社会资本的形成、积累；这些社会资本进一步巩固成员之间长期的经济交易，二者之间相互作用、相互强化。目的地营销组织网络的结构不是单纯的目的地营销的利益相关者的构成，它体现为参与者网络结构、行动网络结构以及资源网络结构。参与者网络结构是是目的地营销主体及其排列方式；行动网络结构指参与者之间经济和社会交往行为所体现出的联结强度、密度和中心度；资源网络结构，表现为目的地营销网络所吸纳和利用的资源的数量、质量、类型及来源状况。目的地营销组织的网络结构影响营销网络系统的整体运作效率，参与者之间越是相互依赖，互动越频繁，经济交换和社会交往越多，相互信任度越高，则整个营销组织网络的结构化程度越高，运作越有效。
本研究具有一定的理论意义、实践意义，主要体现在：在网络组织理论与方法指导下，研究目的地营销组织网络形成与演化、目的地营销组织网络治理机制、目的地营销组织网络结构，构建起完整的目的地营销网络组织研究框架；对目的地营销组织的网络性质及其形成、演化过程与运作机制的分析，有助于目的地营销实践中发挥各营销主体的积极性，形成合作良好、关系密切、充满活力的目的地营销整体网络，有利于明确政府在目的地营销中的地位和作用。
本研究采用文献综述、跨学科研究、分析与综合相结合等研究方法。通过阅读国内外专业期刊杂志、相关书籍等大量文献，广泛了解和分析国内外的相关研究的主要脉络、成就和不足，综合社会学、经济学及管理学等多学科网络组织理论提出目的地营销网络组织概念；在该概念基础上，展开分析目的地营销网络的形成、治理及结构，经历分析、综合、再分析的辩证思维过程。最后，将相关理论应用于我国目的地营销网络发展的分析，并总结本研究的研究结论，主要包括：
1、组织问题是目的地营销研究的核心问题，反映了目的地营销与企业营销的根本差异。
2、网络组织作为一种市场和层级制之间的中间组织形式，是对市场的灵活性和企业的正规性进行的一种均衡，是解决目的地营销组织问题的基本思路
3、目的地营销组织网络既是一种市场分工基础上的经济网络，也是一种社会文化基础上的社会网络，目的地营销组织是一种网络组织。
4、市场交易关系和社会关系共同推动，并相互促进，形成目的地营销组织网络，专业化分工、社会资本、集体学习和企业家精神是其基本驱动力量。
5、目的地营销组织网络是企业、市场及网络等多种机制形式的共生运作模式，网络机制是其特有机制。
6、目的地营销的网络结构反映目的地营销网络的组织化程度，构建具有更高自组织程度的“子网络”，有利于提高整个目的地营销网络的组织化程度。
在理论研究基础上，分析了我国目的地营销组织网络的发展对策，提出了具有一定指导意义的政策建议。这些建议，主要有：将旅游定位为社会事业，完善目的地营销网络治理社会机制；挖掘社会资源，广泛调动社会参与的积极性，培养社会企业家精神；改革政府职能，加强旅游行业组织建设；促进旅游专业化分工，维护旅游市场竞争秩序。无论在理论上，还是实践上，都具有一定的创新价值。
最后，指出了本研究在研究内容和研究方法上的不足，并相对应地提出了对未来研究方向的建议。
Under the fierce market competition, destination marketing is becoming aneffective tool to deal with it. But in reality, marketing activities promoted by differentdepartments are not related; each one is doing their own ways. The research thinksthat destination marketing should emphases the management and relationship ofdifferent marketing subjects. When applying modern marketing theory into it, itshould consider the organization of marketing. From the point of view of networkorganization, it studies the organization of marketing, and how to balance theirrelationship when conducting marketing activities, and its functions and development.
The research includes the connotation of the destination marketing network, theanalysis of its characteristics, the driving force of its function and development. Itresearches the process of marketing specialization and social and cultural elementimpacting on destination marketing network, analyses the mutual function betweeneconomic and social relationship, studies how to prevent the opportunistic behavior indestination marketing network, and coordinates their benefits and relationships. It alsostudies the network structure of the destination marketing, analyses its various types,characteristics and functions of it. And based on theory study, the case study focuseson the development of the destination marketing network of China, and discuses theways and possibilities of in China.
The research is of being theoretical and practical, which reflects in three aspects.Firstly, it provides the unified theory and methods to study the destination marketingorganizations from the view of the network organization theories and gives a cleardefinition of it. Secondly, with the guidance of network organization theory andmethods, it studies the development and evolution of the destination network, itsnetwork mechanism, its network structure, and sets up integrated research frame of it.Thirdly, with the analysis of the nature, development, evolution and functions ofdestination network organization, it is helpful to bring different parts of marketinginto playing important role in destination marketing, to form well-organized, closed related and active destinations marketing network as whole, and to make sure the roleand of the government in destination marketing.
The research adopts the ways of literature summarization and interdisciplinary toanalyze the development of destination marketing network of China. It includes:
1. The organization is the key to the research of destination marketing, whichreflects the fundamental difference between the destination marketing and businessmarketing.
2. As an intermediate form of marketing and its networkintegrated structure,network organizations works as a way to balance the marketing, and to solve theproblem of it.
3. The destination marketing network is an economic network based on marketingdivision, and also a social network involved in social and cultural impacts. Thedestination marketing network is a kind of network organization.
4. The division of labor, social capital, collective learning and entrepreneurial spiritis the basic drive of the destination marketing network, promoted by marketingtransactions and social relations and helped each other forward.
5. The destination marketing network is the symbiosis operation mode of thebusiness enterprises, marketing and network. The network mechanism is its uniquemode.
6. The destination marketing network structure reflects the systemtism degree of it.Building up high level self-organized―sub-network‖is beneficial to improve itssystemtism degree.
The research puts forward some instructive policy suggestions to develop thedestination marketing network of China. It thinks that tourism should be defined associal undertaking, which implies that its social mechanism should be well-conducted.The development of the destination marketing network is dependable on socialresources, social participation, entrepreneurial spirit, government function reform,tourism organization building, division of labor and marketing order.
引文
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①马可·扬西蒂，罗伊莱温.制定战略：从商业生态系统出发.商业评论，2004，（4）：63-72。
①杨小凯、张永生，新兴古典经济学和超边际分析，中国人民出版社，2000：70.
①菲利普·科特勒等著，科特勒看中国与亚洲，海南出版社，2002年1月第1版：109。
②宋振春，日本文化遗产旅游发展的制度因素分析，经济管理出版社，2009年12月第1版：100。
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